CHAPTER 3

DIFFERENTIATION

INTRODUCTION
The derivative of a function is one of the most powerful tools in mathematics and applied sciences; it is the
principle tool that we use to solve problems in differential calculus. In this chapter, we define the derivative
and discuss many properties associated with this important concept.
In Section 3.1, we define the tangent line to the graph of a function at a given point and find its slope.
Also, we introduce equivalent definitions of the derivative, given in terms of limits, which we can apply
to any function. Moreover, we find the velocity of an object moving along a straight line. In Section 3.2,
we develop several rules that allow us to differentiate constant functions, power functions, polynomials,
rational functions, and certain combinations of them, directly, without having to take limits each time. In
Section 3.3, we obtain formulas for the derivatives of trigonometric functions. In Section 3.4, we derive a
formula that expresses the derivative of composition function f g in terms of f and g. This formula will
enable us to differentiate complicated functions using known derivatives of simpler functions. Sometimes,
functions are not given in the form y = f(x) but in a more complicated form in which it is difficult or
impossible to express y explicitly in terms of x. Such functions are called implicit functions. In Section
3.5, we explain how these functions can be differentiated using implicit differentiation. In Section 3.6, we
introduce higher derivatives and their notations. In Section 3.7, we obtain derivatives of inverse functions
and inverse trigonometric functions.

SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND THE TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES
SECTION 3.3 DERIVATIVE OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION
SECTION 3.4 THE CHAIN RULE
SECTION 3.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
SECTION 3.6 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES
SECTION 3.7 THE DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS
 SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

Section 3.1
THE DERIVATIVE AND
TANGENT LINE PROBLEM
f (a + h)
y
y = f (x)
Q (a +h, f(a+h))
y
y = f (x)

P (a, f(a))
f (a) on an open interval and a point a in the interval, how we define
Given a function f defined f (a)
the tangent line at the point P (a, f (a ) ) on the graph of f ?

The problem of finding the tangent line

a to a curve arises
a + h in geometry.
x For instance, the tangent
a a+ h x
to a circle is defined as a line that intersects the circle in exactly one point P , see Figure 3.1.1.

P
(2, 4)

x
y = 4x−4

Figure 3.1.1 y
y

2 2
This definition suffices for a circle, but
3 (x −a 2)
for a more general curve it is not +y =9
satisfactory y1  9  (x

definition, since a line may touch the graph

2 ofy3f+at
yx2some 3y2 =P0 and then intersect it again
+ x2−point
at another point, as illustrated in Figure 3.1.2 -1 2 5 6 x
1
x y2   9 
y –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
P
L
ngent line

y Slope m PQ
Secant line
f (a + h) x Q Slope m PQ1

M Figure 3.1.2 Secant lines Q1 Slope m PQ2

M is not a tangent line.

L Q2 Slope m PQ3
P
Suppose we have a function f f(a
and we want toQ(a
+ h) find a tangent to the function f at P (a, f (a ) )
+ h, f(a + h))
f(a + h) – f(a) L
. To do this, we define the slope of the tangent line at P , then
Slopeif=Q3the slopeTangent
h is known,
line we can
find an equation for the tangent line byf (a)
using Slope m for lines.
P(a, f(a))the point-slope
P form of the equation

f(a)
x
142 x
a a+ h
a a+h
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

To define the slope of the tangent line L at P (a, f (a ) ) on the graph of f , we choose another
point Q (a + h, f (a + h ) ) , see Figure 3.1.3. f(x)
y

Q Secant line

f(x)
P
Tangent line

x
a a+h
y
Figure 3.1.3 s(t)
s a h

The line containing P and Q is a secant line. Using the standard calculation for the slope of
a line, we determine the slope of the secant line to be:
s a

f (a + h ) - f (a ) f (a + h ) - f (a )
mPQ = =
a + h -a a h a+h
x

Let Q approaches P (Q ¹ P ) . If Q approaches P from the right, we have the situation in

Figure 3.1.4 (a) and if Q approaches P from the left, we have the situation in Figure 3.1.4
(b). If mPQ gets closer to some number as Q approaches P , then that number is the slope
m of the tangent line L

y y
Slope m PQ Slope m PQ f(x)
Q
f(x)
Q

P P
L L
Slope m Slope m

x x
a a+h a+h a

Figure 3.1.4

y
Q (line
If f is continuous at a , we can makeSecant a + h, f (a + h ) ) approaches P (a, f (a ) ) by letting
Q
a + h approaches a . That is, h approaches 0 . Thus, we have the following definition for the
slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function f at P (a, f (a ) ) .
f(x)
P
Tangent line

143
x
a a+h
 SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

DEFINITION 3.1.1
The slope m of the tangent line to the graph of a function f at P (a, f (a )) is
f (a + h ) - f (a )
m = lim
h ®0 h
provided that the limit exists

The tangent line is then the line passing through the point (a, f (a ) ) with slope m . Thus the
point-slope form of the equation of the tangent line is
y = m(x - a ) + f (a )

EXAMPLE 3.1.1 Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x ) = x 2 at x = 2 .

Solution Using Definition 3.1.1, we obtain

f (2 + h ) - f (2) (2 + h )2 - 4
m = lim = lim
h ®0 h h ®0 h
y
y
y = f (x)
) 4 + 4h + h 2 - 4 h(4 + h )
Q (a +h, f(a+h)) =y =
limf (x) = lim = lim(4 + h ) = 4
h ®0 h h ®0 h h ®0
P (a, f(a))
)
f (a)
Note that the point corresponding to x = 2 is ( 2, 4 ) . The equation of the tangent line with
slope 4 through the point ( 2, 4 ) is:
y = m(x - a ) + f (a )
a a +h x a+ h
a x
y = 4(x - 2) + 4
y = 4x - 4

P
(2, 4)

x
y = 4x−4

Figure 3.1.5
y
y

3 Related Problem 1 Find the

(x − 2)2+ y2 =
equation of 9the tangent line
y1  9to
 (xthe 2 2
 2) graph of f (x ) = 2x + 1 at

x = 1.
2 y3 + yx2 + x2− 3y2 = 0
Answer y = 4x - 1 -1 2 5 6 x
1
x y2   9  (x  2)2
3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

144
y Slope m PQ

f (a + h) Q Slope m PQ1
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

The formal definition of the derivative of a function at a point x = a can now be given. We
will designate the derivative at a as f ¢(a ) , rather than m .

Definition 3.1.2
Let f be a function that is defined on an open interval containing a . The derivative
of f at a , written f ¢(a ) , is given by
f (a + h ) - f (a )
f ¢(a ) = lim
h ®0 h
provided the limit exists

The notation f ¢(a ) is read “ f prime of a ”. If f ¢(a ) exists, we say that f is differentiable at
a . If f is differentiable at a , then by Definition 3.1.2, f ¢(a ) is the slope of the tangent line
to the graph of f at the point (a, f (a ) ) .

EXAMPLE 3.1.2 Let f (x ) = x 3 . Find f ¢(1)

Solution Using Definition 3.1.2, we obtain

f (1 + h ) - f (1) (1 + h )3 - 1 1 + 3h + 3h 2 + h 3 - 1
f ¢(1) = lim = lim = lim
h ®0 h h ®0 h h ®0 h

3h + 3h 2 + h 3 h(3 + 3h + h 2 )
= lim = lim = lim(3 + 3h + h 2 ) = 3
h ®0 h h ®0 h h ®0

RELATED PROBLEM 2
Let f (x ) = 1 - x 2 . Find f ¢(-3) .

Answer 6

Suppose that in Example 3.1.2 we had also need to find f ¢(2) and f ¢(3) . Must we repeat
the same long limit calculations to find each of f ¢(2) and f ¢(3) ? Instead, we compute the
derivative without specifying a value for x , leaving us with a function from which we can
calculate f ¢(a ) for any a , simply by substituting a for x .

EXAMPLE 3.1.3 Let f (x ) = x 3 .

a. Find f ¢(x ) , where x is any real number.
b. Find f ¢(1), f ¢(2), f ¢(3) .

Solution Replacing a with x in Definition 3.1.2, we have

145
SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

f (x + h ) - f (x )
f ¢(x ) = lim
h ®0 h
(x + h )3 - x 3 x 3 + 3x 2h + 3xh 2 + h 3 - x 3
= lim = lim
h ®0 h h ®0 h
3x 2h + 3xh 2 + h 3 h(3x 2 + 3xh + h 2 )
= lim = lim
h ®0 h h ®0 h
= lim(3x 2 + 3xh + h 2 ) = 3x 2
h ®0

Notice that in this case, we have derived a new function, f ¢(x ) = 3x 2 . Substituting for x , we
obtain
f ¢(1) = 3(1)2 = 3
f ¢(2) = 3(2)2 = 12
f ¢(3) = 3(3)2 = 27

RELATED PROBLEM 3 Let f (x ) = x 3 + 2x .

a. Find f ¢(x ) , where x is any real number.
b. Find f ¢(-1), f ¢(0), f ¢(4)

Answer a. 3x 2 + 2 b. 5, 2, 50

Example 3.1.3 leads to the following definition

DEFINITION 3.1.3
The derivative of a function f is the function f ¢ which value at any number x is

f (x + h ) - f (x )
f ¢(x ) = lim
h ®0 h
provided the limit exists

The process of calculating a derivative is called differentiation. We will use the notations
dy df d
y¢ = = Dx y = f ¢(x ) = = f (x ) = Dx f (x )
dx dx dx

as different ways to denote the derivative f ¢(x ) . To indicate the value of a derivative at a
specified number x = a , we use the notation

dy df d
f ¢(a ) = = = f (x )
dx x =a dx x =a dx x =a

146
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

EXAMPLE 3.1.4 Let f (x ) = 2x 2 + 1 . Find

a. f ¢(x )
b. f ¢(2), f ¢(-3)
c. The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at x = 2
d. The equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at x = 2

Solution
a. We have
f ¢(x ) = lim
f (x + h ) - f (x )
= lim
(2(x + h ) 2
)
+ 1 - ( 2x 2 + 1 )
h ®0 h h ®0 h
2 ( x 2 + 2xh + h 2 ) + 1 - 2x 2 - 1 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 - 2x 2
= lim = lim
h ®0 h h ®0 h
2h ( 2x + h )
= lim = lim 2 ( 2x + h ) = 4x
h ®0 h h ®0

b. Using the fact that f ¢(x ) = 4x , it follows that

f ¢(2) = 4(2) = 8 and f ¢(-3) = 4(-3) = -12

c. At x = 2 , the tangent line has slope

m = f ¢(2) = 8

d. Note that the point corresponding to x = 2 is ( 2, 9 ) . The equation of the tangent line
with slope 8 through the point ( 2, 9 ) is
y = m(x - a ) + f (a )
y = 8(x - 2) + 9
y = 8x - 7

RELATED PROBLEM 4 Let f (x ) = 3x 2 - 5x + 1 . Find

a. f ¢(x )
b. f ¢(-1), f ¢(1)
c. The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at x = -1
d. The equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at x = -1
Answer

a. f ¢(x ) = 6x - 5 b. -11,1 c. -11 d. y = -11x - 2

It is usually easier to find f ¢(a ) by using another form. We derive this alternate formula as
follows:

147
SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

From Definition 3.1.2, the derivative of f at a is

f (a + h ) - f (a )
f ¢(a ) = lim
h ®0 h
Let x = a + h . Then h = x - a . As h ® 0 , we see that x ® a and
f (a + h ) - f (a ) f (x ) - f (a )
f ¢(a ) = lim = lim
h ®0 h x ®a x -a
Thus,
f (x ) - f (a )
f ¢(a ) = lim
x ®a x -a

EXAMPLE 3.1.5 If f (x ) = x , x ³ 0 . Find f ¢(4)

Solution Using the alternative formula for the derivative, we have

f (x ) - f (4) x - 4
f ¢(4) = lim = lim
x ®4 x -4 x ®4 x - 4

Rationalizing the numerator, we have

x -2 x +2 x -4
f ¢(4) = lim . = lim
x ®4 x -4 x +2 x ®4 ( x - 4 ) x +2 ( )
1 1 1
= lim = =
x ®4 x +2 4 +2 4

RELATED PROBLEM 5 If f (x ) = x + 1 , x ³ -1 . Find f ¢(8)

1
Answer .
6

2
EXAMPLE 3.1.6 Let y = , x ¹ -1 . Find
x +1
dy dy dy
a. b. ,
dx dx x =-3 dx x =0

Solution
a. Using the limit definition of derivative, we have
2 2
-
dy f (x + h ) - f (x ) x + h + 1 x + 1
= lim = lim
dx h ®0 h h ®0 h

2(x + 1) - 2(x + h + 1) 2x + 2 - 2x - 2h - 2
= lim = lim
h ® 0 h(x + h + 1)(x + 1) h ® 0 h(x + h + 1)(x + 1)

-2h -2 -2
= lim = lim =
h ® 0 h (x + h + 1)(x + 1) h ® 0 (x + h + 1)(x + 1) (x + 1)2

148
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

dy 2
Thus, =- , x ¹ -1 .
dx (x + 1)2

b. When x = -3 , we have
dy 2 1
=- =-
dx x =-3 (-3 + 1)2 2
while when x = 0
dy 2
=- = -2
dx x =0 (0 + 1)2

2
RELATED PROBLEM 6 Let y = - . Find
x
dy dy
a. b.
dx dx x=
1
2

dy
Answer a. dy = 2 b. =8
dx x2 dx x=
1
2

We say that a function is differentiable on an open interval (a, b) if it is differentiable at every

number x in (a, b) . Likewise, we refer to functions those are differentiable on intervals of the
form (a, ¥),(-¥, a ),(-¥, ¥) . For closed intervals we use the following definition.

DEFINITION 3.1.4

A function f is differentiable on a closed interval [a, b ] when f is differentiable on

the open interval (a, b) , and
f (a + h ) - f (a )
f+¢ (a ) = lim Right hand derivative
h ® 0+ h

f (b + h ) - f (b)
f-¢ (b) = lim Left hand derivative
h ®0-
h
both exist.

Figure 3.1.6 illustrates Definition 3.1.4.

149
 0 x
_1

SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

(b) y=f ª(x)

y
y

0 a x
0 a

Figure 3.1.6

Differentiability on an interval of the form éë a, b ) , éë a, ¥ ) , (a, b ùû , ( -¥, b ùû is defined using one

sided limit at the endpoint.

EXAMPLE 3.1.7 Let f (x ) = x - 2 . Find

a. f ¢(x ) b. Df ¢ c. f ¢(6)

Solution
a. It is clear that Df = éë 2, ¥ ) . We shall examine the cases x > 2 and x = 2 separately.
If x > 2 , then using the limit definition of the derivative, we have

f (x + h ) - f (x )
f ¢(x ) = lim
h ®0 h
x +h -2 - x -2
= lim
h ®0 h
x +h -2 - x -2 x +h -2 + x -2
= lim
h ®0 h x +h -2 + x -2
x + h - 2 - (x - 2)
= lim
h ®0 h
( x +h -2 + x -2 )
x +h -2-x +2
= lim
h ®0 h
( x +h -2 + x -2 )
h 1
= lim =
h ®0 h
( x +h -2 + x -2 ) 2 x -2

Since x = 2 is an endpoint of Df , we must use a one sided limit to determine whether

f ¢(2) exists

2+h -2 - 0 h 1
f+¢ (2) = lim = lim = lim
h ®0 h
+
h ®0 h
+
h ®0+
h
Since this limit does not exist, then f+¢ (2) does not exist.

b. Df ¢ = ( 2, ¥ ) .

150
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

c. From (a), we have

1
f ¢(x ) =
2 x -2
Thus,

1 1
f ¢(6) = =
2 6-2 4

RELATED PROBLEM 7 Let f (x ) = 1 - 3x . Find

a. f ¢(x ) b. Df ¢ c. f ¢(0)

-3 æ 1ö 3
Answer a. b. çç -¥, ÷÷ c. -
2 1 - 3x çè 3 ÷ø 2

DIFFERENTIABILITY AND CONTINUITY

Both continuity and differentiability are desirable properties for a function to have. The
following theorem shows how these properties are related.

THEOREM 3.1.1
If a function f is differentiable at a , then f is continuous at a .

PROOF
If x Î Df and x ¹ a , then f (x ) may be written as follows:
f (x ) - f (a )
f (x ) = f (a ) + (x - a )
x -a
Using limit theorems and the alternative definition of the derivative, we have
f (x ) - f (a )
lim f (x ) = lim f (a ) + lim . lim ( x - a )
x ®a x ®a x ®a x -a x ®a

= f (a ) + f ¢(a ).0 = f (a )

Thus by definition of continuity at a point, f is continuous at a .

¢

The converse of Theorem 3.1.1 is not true; that is, there are functions, which are continuous
but not differentiable as we can see in the following example.

EXAMPLE 3.1.8 Given the function f (x ) = x

a. Show that f is continuous at x = 0.
b. Show that f is not differentiable at x = 0.

151
 SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

Solution
a. f is continuous at x = 0 (Verify). y

P
b. From the limit definition of the derivative, we have L
Tangent line
f (0 + h ) - f (0) h -0 h
f ¢(0) = lim = lim = lim
h ®0 hSecant line h ®0 h h ®0 h

h x
We need to evaluate
y
both the left hand and the right hand limits of
M h
y The left hand derivative at x = 0 is: M is not a tangenty line.
L
P Q(a + h, f(a + h))
P h -h f(a + h) P
f-¢ (0) = lim = lim = lim (-1) = -1 f(a + h
L h ® 0- h h ®0 h
-
h ® 0- L Slope = h

The right Tangent line

hand derivative at x = 0 is: P(a, f(a))

h h f(a)
f+¢ (0)
Secant line
= lim = lim = lim 1 = 1
xh ® 0
+
h h ®0 +
h h ® 0+ x x
a a+h
y hand derivative is not equal to the right hand derivative, then f is not
Since the left
M M
differentiable at x = 0 , see Figure 3.1.7
M is not a tangent line. M is not a tangent line.
L yP L
Q(a + h, f(a + h)) Q(a + h, f(a + h))
f(a + h) f(a + h)
f(a + h) – f(a) f(a + h) – f(
Slope = Slope =
h h
f(x) = |x|
P(a, f(a)) P(a, f(a))

f(a) f(a)

x x
a a+h (0, 0) x a a+h
Figure 3.1.7
y y y

y
RELATED PROBLEM 8 y Given the function f (x ) = x - 1
f(x) = |x| a. Show that f is continuous at x = 1. f(x) = |x|

b. Show that f is not differentiable at x = 1. a x a x a1

In general, if a function has a corner or a cusp it will not have a derivative at that point. The
x Vertical tangent x
(0, 0)
graphs in Figure 3.1.8 shows examples of corners and cusps.
a x
y y y y y y
Corners Cusp

y
Corner

a x a x a1 a2 x a x a x a1

Figure 3.1.8
al tangent Vertical tangent

x a x
152
 y

f(x) = |x|

CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

(0, 0) x
A function will also fail to be differentiable at a point if it has a vertical tangent at that point.
y at a point a . Recall
For example, the function shown in Figure 3.1.9 has a vertical tangent y y
that since the slope of a vertical line is undefined, there is no derivative at such point.
y

a x a x

Vertical tangent

a x

Figure 3.1.9

REMARK
Theorem 3.1.1 is often written as its contrapositive:

If a function f is discontinuous at a , then f is not differentiable at a .

Thus, we see that all differentiable functions on  are continuous on  . Nevertheless there
are continuous functions on  that are not differentiable on  .

ì
ïx + 1 x < 0
EXAMPLE 3.1.9 Show that f (x ) = ï
í is not differentiable at x = 0.
ï
ï 2x x ³0
î
Solution To show that f is not differentiable at x = 0 . The above remark tells us that it is
enough to show that f is discontinuous at x = 0 . Notice that

lim f (x ) = lim ( x + 1 ) = 1 , while lim f (x ) = lim ( 2x ) = 0

x ® 0- x ® 0- x ® 0+ x ® 0+

Thus, lim f (x ) does not exist. So f (x ) is discontinuous at x = 0 .

x ®0

Using the above remark, f is not differentiable at x = 0 .

ì
ï 2x + 1 x < 1
RELATED PROBLEM 9 Show that f (x ) = ïí is not differentiable at x = 1.
ï
ï 3x + 1 x ³ 1
î

SUMMARY
A function f fails to have a derivative at x = a if:
• The function f is discontinuous at x = a .
• The graph of f has a corner at (a, f (a ) ) .
• The graph of f has a vertical tangent at x = a .

153
 f
SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

ILLUSTRATION
x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
Below is the graph of the function f . List the points on the graph at which the function f
is not differentiable.

x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
y
Figure 3.1.10
y
f(x)
The function in not differentiable at x = x 5 since the function is discontinuous at this point;
it is not differentiable at x = x1 , x = x 2 , f(x)
x = 3 x = x 4 and x = x 6 since there are corners
= cx , f(x + h) = c

at these points.
P

x x+h x

AVERAGE VELOCITY AND INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY a

The function that describes the motion of an object is called the position function of that
object. Suppose that the position of an object that moves along a curve at time t is given by
the function s(t ) . Consider the function s which graph is shown in Figure 3.1.11.
y
y
s(t)
s a h

s a P

a x
a+h a
Figure 3.1.11

We can see that t changes from a to a + h , s(t ) changes from s(a ) to s(a + h ) . The ratio
of the change in s(t ) to the change in t measures the average velocity over the interval
é a, a + h ù . That is, the average velocity of a function s over the interval é a, a + h ù is
ë û ë û
s(a + h ) - s(a )
vav = y
h
Slope m PQ f(x)
Thus, the average velocity of a function s over the interval éë a, a + h ùû has the same value as
Q
the slope of the secant line passing through the points (a, s(a ) ) and ( a + h, s(a + h ) ) . Now,

P
154 L
Slope m

x
a+h a
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

by letting h approach zero, we obtain the instantaneous velocity (or simply the velocity) of
the object when t = a .

DEFINITION 3.1.5 (Instantaneous Velocity)

If s(t ) represents the position of an object that moves along the graph of s(t ) at time
t , then the instantaneous velocity at time t = a is given by

s(a + h ) - s(a )
v(a ) = lim = s ¢(a )
h ®0 h

In general, if s(t ) is the position function for an object moving along the graph of s(t ) , the
velocity of the object at time t is
v(t ) = s ¢(t )

That is, the velocity function is the derivative of the position function.

EXAMPLE 3.1.10 The position of a moving object at time t is given by the function
2
s(t ) = t + t , where s is measured in feet and t is measured in seconds.

a. Find the average velocity of the object over the interval éë 1,1.1 ùû .
b. Find the instantaneous velocity of the object at t = 1 and at t = 3 .
c. How much time it take for the object to reach instantaneous velocity of 99 ft sec .
Solution
a. To find the average velocity over the interval éë 1,1.1 ùû notice that,
a = 1 , h = 0.1
Thus the average velocity is
s(a + h ) - s(a ) s(1 + 0.1) - s(1)
vav = =
h 0.1

=
((1.1)2 + 1.1 ) - ((1)2 + 1 ) = 2.31 - 2 = 0.31 = 3.1 ft sec
0.1 0.1 0.1

b. We calculate the instantaneous velocity at t seconds.

¢
v(t ) = s (t ) = lim
s(t + h ) - s(t )
= lim
( (t + h )2 + (t + h ) ) - ( t 2 + t )
h ®0 h h ®0 h
t 2 + 2th + h 2 + t + h - t 2 - t 2th + h 2 + h
= lim = lim
h ®0 h h ®0 h
h(2t + h + 1)
= lim = lim(2t + h + 1) = 2t + 1
h ®0 h h ®0

155
SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

Thus the instantaneous velocity at t = 1 is v(1) = 2(1) + 1 = 3 ft sec ; at t = 3 , it is

v(3) = 2(3) + 1 = 7 ft sec .

c. The instantaneous velocity after t seconds is 2t + 1 . Thus, we must solve the equation
2t + 1 = 99
98
The solution is t = = 49 sec .
2

RELATED PROBLEM 10 The position of a moving object at time t is given by the function
s(t ) = t 2 + 1 , where s is measured in feet and t is measured in seconds.
a. Find the average velocity of the object over the interval éë 2, 2.2 ùû
b. Find the instantaneous velocity of the object at t = 2 and at t = 5 .
c. How much time it take for the object to reach instantaneous velocity of 120 ft sec .
Answer a. 4.2 ft sec b. 4 ft sec,10 ft sec c. 60 sec

156
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

EXERCISES 3.1
In Exercises 1-9, find the derivative of the given function using the limit definition of the
derivative.

1. f (x ) = 2x + 1 2. f (x ) = x 2 - 3 3. f (x ) = x 2 + 2x

2
4. f (x ) = ( x - 2 ) 5. f (x ) = 1 x 6. f (t ) = 1-t

t 1
7. f (x ) = 2 - x 8. f (t ) = 9. f (x ) = 1 -
t +2 x -1

In Exercises 10-15, find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of y = f (x ) at the point
x =a.

10. f (x ) = x 2 - 1, a = 1 11. f (x ) = 2x 3 + 1, a = -1

8
12. f (x ) = 7x - x 2 , a = 2 13. f (x ) = , a = -2
x +4
ìï 4x + 1 x < 2
14. f (x ) = 1 x 2 , a = 3 15. f (x ) = ïí 2 ,a = 2
ïï x + 5 x ³ 2
î
In Exercises 16-19, the given limit is derivative, find the function and the point
3
2
3(2 + h ) - 3(2)
2
(3 + h ) + 2 ( 3 + h ) - 33
16. lim 17. lim
h ®0 h h ®0 h

1 æç 1 1 ö÷
x -83 çç - ÷÷
18. lim 19. lim 2 è x 2 ø
x ®2 x - 2 x ®2 x -2

20. Let f (x ) = x 2 - 7x . Find

a. f ¢(x )
b. The equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at x = 4
¢
c. f (5)

21. Let f (x ) = x 3 - 7 . Find

a. f ¢(x )
b. The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at x = 1
c. f ¢(2)

22. Let f (x ) = x - 1 . Find

a. f ¢(x )
b. Df ¢
c. f ¢(3)

157
SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

23. Let f (x ) = x + 2 . Find

a. f ¢(x )
b. Df ¢
c. f ¢(2)

ì
ï 2x + 1 x £ 3
24. Given the function f (x ) = ïí . Show that
ï
ï 4+x x > 3
î
a. f is continuous at x = 3
b. f is not differentiable at x = 3

25. Given the function f (x ) = x - 5 . Show

f
that
a. f is continuous at x = 5
b. f is not differentiable at x = 5

In Exercises 26-29, Find allx point(s)

x x x onx the
x graph
x x x of
x the
x xfunction
x f (x ) where the slope m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
of the tangent line has the indicated value.
26. f (x ) = 2x 2 - 4x , m = 0 27. f (x ) = x 2 - 6x , m = 0
28. f (x ) = 2x 2 + 2x , m = 6 29. f f (x ) = 2x 2 - 4x , m = 4

Each figure in Exercises 30-31 shows the graph of a function f . List the points on the graph
at which the function f is not differentiable
x 0 x1 x2 x 3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
30.

f
f

x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

x 0 x1 x 2 x 3 x4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 x 9 x10 x11 x12

31.

f f

x x x x x x5 x
x 0 0 x1 1 x 2 2 x 3 3x 4 4 x5 6 x6 x7 x8

y
158
f(x) = c f(xf + h) = c
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

32. A particle moves along the graph of the function s(t ) = t 2 + 3t , where s is measured in
meters and t in seconds. Find the instantaneous velocity of the particle when t = 1

33. A particle moves along the graph of the function s(t ) = 2t 3 + t + 1 , where s is measured
in meters and t in seconds. Find the instantaneous velocity of the particle when t = 2 .

34. An object moves along a coordinate line so that its directed distance from the origin after
t seconds is t 2 + 1 feet.
a. Find its instantaneous velocity at t = a, a > 0 .

b. When will it reach a velocity of 6 ft sec .

35. An object moves along a coordinate line so that its directed distance from the origin after
t seconds is 2t + 1 feet.
a. Find its instantaneous velocity of the object at t = a, a > 0 .
1
b. When will it reach a velocity of ft sec ?
3

159
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

Section 3.2
DIFFERENTIATION RULES

In the previous section, we define the derivative f ¢ of a function f using the limit definition
of the derivative

f (x + h ) - f (x )
f ¢(x ) = lim
h ®0 h

Deriving the derivative of a function using the limit definition is tedious, lengthy and time
consuming when one wants to differentiate a complicated function. Fortunately, we can
summarize some general rules that have been derived from the limit definition of the derivative
to allow us to simplify the task of finding derivatives. We start with the derivative of a linear
function.

THEOREM 3.2.1
If f (x ) = mx + c where m and c are real numbers, then
f ¢(x ) = m

PROOF
From the derivative definition, we have

f (x + h ) - f (x ) ( m(x + h ) + c ) - ( mx + c )
f ¢(x ) = lim = lim
h ®0 h h ®0 h
mx + mh + c - mx - c mh
= lim = lim = lim m = m
h ®0 h h ®0 h h ®0
¢

As a result of this theorem we have the following two corollaries

COROLLARY 3.2.1 (Constant Function Rule)

If m = 0 , then

d
(c ) = 0
dx

160
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

COROLLARY 3.2.2 (Identity Function Rule)

If m = 1 and c = 0 , then
d
(x ) = 1
dx

ILLUSTRATION

d d d æç 1 ö 1
a. (3x ) = 3 b. (2x - 5) = 2 c. çç - x + 3 ÷÷÷ = -
dx dx dx è 2 ø 2

d d d
d.
dx
(4) = 0 e.
dx
(p) = 0 f.
dx
( cos ( p 3 ) ) = 0

Consider the power function f (x ) = x r , where r is a rational number. In Section 3.1.1, we

showed that
d 2 d 3
(x ) = 2x and (x ) = 3x 2
dx dx
In a similar way we have found the derivative of the two functions, we have the following
theorem.

THEOREM 3.2.2 (The Power Rule)

If f (x ) = x r , where r is any rational number, then f ¢(x ) = rx r -1 , provided that
x ¹ 0 when r < 1 .

ILLUSTRATION

a. d 5 d
(x ) = 5x 5-1 = 5x 4 b. (x ) = (1)x 1-1 = x 0 = 1
dx dx
d -6 d æç 1 ö÷ d
c.
dx
(x ) = -6x -6-1 = -6x -7 d. çç ÷÷ =
dx è x ø dx
( x -1 ) = ( -1) x -1-1 = ( -1) x -2

d æçç 2 ö÷÷ 1 -2
1 1
d 1 1
e. ( x) = x
çç ÷ ÷ = x = =
dx dx çè ÷ø 2 1
2 x
2x 2
We should keep in mind that a derivative is a limit; the differentiation rules in Theorem 3.2.3
follow immediately from the corresponding rules for limits.

THEOREM 3.2.3
If f and g are differentiable functions and c is any real number, then
a. ( cf )¢ (x ) = cf ¢(x ) ; Constant Multiple Rule

161
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

b. (f + g )¢ (x ) = f ¢(x ) + g ¢(x ) ; Sum Rule

c. (f - g )¢ (x ) = f ¢(x ) - g ¢(x ) ; Difference Rule

PROOF
We prove only parts (a) and (b). The proof of part (c) is left as an exercise.

a. Let H (x ) = cf (x ) . We want to show that H ¢(x ) = cf ¢(x ) .

From the limit definition of the derivative, we have
cf (x + h ) - cf (x ) f (x + h ) - f (x )
H ¢(x ) = lim = lim c
h ®0 h h ®0 h
f (x + h ) - f (x )
= c lim = cf ¢(x )
h ®0 h

b. Let H (x ) = f (x ) + g(x ) . We want to show that H ¢(x ) = f ¢(x ) + g ¢(x ) .

From the derivative definition, we have
é f (x + h ) + g(x + h ) ù - é f (x ) + g(x ) ù
H ¢(x ) = lim ë û ë û
h ®0 h

f (x + h ) + g(x + h ) - f (x ) - g(x )
= lim
h ®0 h
Grouping f terms together and g terms together, we have
f (x + h ) - f (x ) + g(x + h ) - g(x )
H ¢(x ) = lim
h ®0 h

æ f (x + h ) - f (x ) g(x + h ) - g(x ) ö÷
= lim çç + ÷
h ®0 ç
è h h ÷ø

Using limits laws in Theorem 2.2.2, we have

f (x + h ) - f (x ) g(x + h ) - g(x )
H ¢(x ) = lim + lim
h ®0 h h ®0 h

= f ¢(x ) + g ¢(x )
¢

REMARK
Sum Rule can be extended to finite number of functions as follows:
If f1, f2 ,......., fn are differentiable functions, then

( f1 + f2 + ...... + fn )¢ (x ) = f1¢ (x ) + f2¢ (x ) + ...... + fn ¢ (x )

162
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

EXAMPLE 3.2.1 Find the derivative of each function

a. f (x ) = 5x 3 b. g(x ) = 5 x 2
3 2
c. f (x ) = 3x 5 +
x2
2
4x - x + 3
d. g(x ) =
x
Solution
a. Apply Theorem 3.2.3 (a) and the power rule, we have
d
f ¢(x ) =
dx
( 5x 3 ) = 5 dxd ( x 3 ) = 5 ( 3x 2 ) = 15x 2
b. Apply Theorem 3.2.3 (a) and the power rule, we have
æ2ö
g ¢(x ) =
d
dx
3
(
5 x2 = 5
d
dx
) ( 3
)
x2 = 5
d
dx
( x 2/3 ) = 5 çç ÷÷ ( x -1/3 ) =
çè 3 ÷ø
10
1
=
10
33 x
3x 3

c. Firstly, we write f as powers of x . So, we have

f (x ) = 3x 5 + 2x -2
Apply Theorem 3.2.3 (b), we have
d
f ¢(x ) =
dx
( 3x 5 + 2x -2 )
d
=
dx
( 3x 5 ) + dxd ( 2x -2 )
Apply Theorem 3.2.3 (a) and the power rule, we have
d d
f ¢(x ) = 3
dx
( x 5 ) + 2 ( x -2 )
dx

= 3 ( 5x 4 ) + 2 ( -2x -3 )
= 15x 4 - 4x -3
d. Note that we do not have a rule for computing the derivative of quotient function. So,
we need to rewrite g(x ) by dividing out x in the denominator. We have
3 1 1
4x 2 - x + 3 4x 2 x 3 -
g(x ) = = - + = 4x 2 - x 2 + 3x 2
x x x x
From Theorem 3.2.3 and the power rule, we obtain
d æçç 2 - ö d æçç 2 ö÷÷ d æçç 2 ö÷÷ d æçç -2 ö÷÷
3 1 1 3 1 1
÷
2 + 3x 2 ÷
g ¢(x ) = ç 4x - x ÷÷ = ç 4x ÷÷ - x
ç ÷÷ + ç 3x ÷÷
dx çèç ø÷ dx çèç ø÷ dx èçç ø÷ dx çèç ø÷

d æçç 2 ö÷÷ d æçç 2 ö÷÷ d æçç -2 ö÷÷ æ 3 1 ö÷ æ 1 - 1 ö÷ æ 1 - 3 ö÷

3 1 1
çç 2 ÷ çç ç
= 4 ç x ÷÷ - ç x ÷÷ + 3 ç x ÷÷ = 4 ç x ÷÷ - ç x ÷÷ + 3 çç - x 2 ÷÷÷
2 ÷
dx ççè ÷ø dx èçç ø÷ dx èçç ø÷ èçç 2 ø÷ èçç 2 ø÷ èçç 2 ø÷
1
1 3 1 3
= 6x 2 - - =6 x - -
1 3
2 x 2 x3
2x 2 2x 2

163
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

RELATED PROBLEM 1 Find the derivative of each function

a. f (x ) = -3x 4 b. g(x ) = 3 x 4
3 10
c. f (x ) = - 2x
x
(
d. g(x ) = x 3x 2 - x )
Answer

a. -12x 3 b. 4 3 x -
3
c. -5x 2 -2
3
d. 9x 2 - x
2

Till now, we have developed rules for computing the derivatives of a variety of functions
including the derivatives of sum and difference of two of functions. We may wonder whether
the derivative of a product of two functions is the same as the product of their derivatives. We
test this with the following simple example.
d
Consider
dx
( x 3x 5 ) . We can compute this derivative by first combining the two terms:
d d
dx
( x 3x 5 ) =
dx
( x 8 ) = 8x 7
Is this derivative the same as the product of the two individual derivatives? Notice that
d d
dx
( x 3 ) ( x 5 ) = ( 3x 2 )( 5x 4 )
dx d
= 15x 6 ¹ 8x 7 =
dx
( x 3x 5 )
Thus, the derivative of f (x )g(x ) is not as simple as f ¢(x )g ¢(x ) . Theorem 3.2.4 provides us with
a general rule for computing the derivative of a product of two differentiable functions.

THEOREM 3.2.4 (The Product Rule)

If f and g are differentiable functions, then

( fg )¢ (x ) = f (x )g ¢(x ) + g(x )f ¢(x )

PROOF
Let H (x ) = f (x )g(x ) . We want to show that
H ¢(x ) = f (x )g ¢(x ) + g(x )f ¢(x )
From the limit definition of the derivative, we have
f (x + h )g(x + h ) - f (x )g(x )
H ¢(x ) = lim
h ®0 h
Subtract and add f (x + h )g(x ) , we have
f (x + h )g(x + h ) - f (x + h )g(x ) + f (x + h )g(x ) - f (x )g(x )
H ¢(x ) = lim
h ®0 h

164
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

f (x + h )g(x + h ) - f (x + h )g(x ) f (x + h )g(x ) - f (x )g(x )

= lim + lim
h ®0 h h ® 0 h
f (x + h ) ëé g(x + h ) - g(x ) ûù g(x ) ëé f (x + h ) - f (x ) ûù
= lim + lim
h ®0 h h ®0 h
g(x + h ) - g(x ) f (x + h ) - f (x )
= lim f (x + h ) lim + lim g(x ) lim
h ®0 h ®0 h h ®0 h ®0 h

Recognize the derivative of f and the derivative of g , we have

H ¢(x ) = f (x )g ¢(x ) + g(x )f ¢(x )
¢

In the following example, we notice that the product rule saves us from multiplying out a
tedious product

EXAMPLE 3.2.2 Find the derivative of each of the following functions

a. f (x ) = x 3 (x 4 - 5x 2 + 10)
æ ö
b. f (x ) = ( x 2 + 1 ) çç x 2 - x + 2 ÷÷
èç x ÷ø
c. f (x ) = x (x -2 + 5x ) ( x - 3x 2 )

Solution
a.
d d
f ¢(x ) = x 3
dx
( x 4 - 5x 2 + 10 ) + ( x 4 - 5x 2 + 10 ) ( x 3 )
dx
= x 3 ( 4x 3 - 10x ) + ( x 4 - 5x 2 + 10 ) (3x 2 )
= 4x 6 - 10x 4 + 3x 6 - 15x 4 + 30x 2
= 7x 6 - 25x 4 + 30x 2
b.
d æç 2 2ö æ 2 2ö d
f ¢(x ) = ( x 2 + 1 ) çç x - x + ÷÷÷ + ççç x - x + ÷÷÷ ( x + 1 )
2
dx è xø è x ø dx
æ 1 2 ö æ 2ö
= ( x 2 + 1 ) çç 2x - - ÷÷ + çç x 2 - x + ÷÷ ( 2x )
çè 2 x x 2 ÷ø çè x ÷ø
3/2
5x 2 1
=- + 4x 3 - + 2x - +2
2 x2 2 x
c. First, we write f as a product of two functions
f (x ) = (x -1 + 5x 2 ) ( x - 3x 2 )
Thus,
d d
f ¢(x ) = ( x -1 + 5x 2 ) ( x - 3x 2 ) + ( x - 3x 2 ) (x -1 + 5x 2 )
dx dx
= (x -1 + 5x 2 ) ( 1 - 6x ) + ( x - 3x 2 )( -x -2 + 10x )
= -3(20x 3 - 5x 2 + 1)

165
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Find the derivative of each of the following functions

a. f (x ) = (x 2 + 1)(x 3 + 1) b. f (x ) = x (x -3 + 5x ) ( x - 2 )

æ 3ö
c. f (x ) = ( )
x + 3x çç 5x 2 - ÷÷÷
èç xø

Answer

a. 5x 4 + 3x 2 + 2x b. 15x 2 + 4x -3 - x -2 - 20x

c. 90x 7/2 + 25x 3 + 3

2x 3/2

REMARK
The product rule is valid for any finite number of functions. The following example
will be written for three functions just for simplicity:

Suppose that f , g, and h are differentiable functions. We can develop a rule for
( fgh )¢(x ) as follows:

( fgh )¢(x ) = ( ( fg )h ) ¢(x )

= (fg )(x )h ¢(x ) + h(x )(fg )¢ (x )
= f (x )g(x )h ¢(x ) + h(x ) ( f (x )g ¢(x ) + g(x )f ¢(x ) )
= f (x )g(x )h ¢(x ) + h(x )f (x )g ¢(x ) + h(x )g(x )f ¢(x )
= f ¢(x )g(x )h(x ) + f (x )g ¢(x )h(x ) + f (x )g(x )h ¢(x )

Theorem 3.2.5 provides us with a general rule for computing the derivative of a quotient of
two differentiable functions

THEOREM 3.2.5 (The Quotient Rule)

If f and g are differentiable functions at x and g(x ) ¹ 0 , then
æ f ö÷¢
çç ÷ (x ) = g(x )f ¢(x ) - f (x )g ¢(x )
çè g ÷ø 2
( g(x ) )
PROOF
f (x )
Let H (x ) = . We want to show that
g(x )
g(x )f ¢(x ) - f (x )g ¢(x )
H ¢(x ) =
2
( g(x ) )
From the derivative definition, we have
f (x + h ) f (x )
-
H (x + h ) - H (x ) g(x + h ) g(x ) g(x )f (x + h ) - f (x )g(x + h )
¢
H (x ) = lim = lim = lim
h ®0 h h ®0 h h ®0 hg(x + h )g(x )

166
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Subtracting and adding g(x )f (x ) in the numerator of the last quotient, we obtain
g(x )f (x + h ) - g(x )f (x ) + g (x )f (x ) - f (x )g (x + h )
H ¢(x ) = lim ,
h ®0 hg(x + h )g(x )

Or equivalently,

æ f (x + h ) - f (x ) ö÷ æ g(x + h ) - g(x ) ÷ö
g(x ) çç ÷÷ - f (x ) çç ÷÷
èç h ø çè h ø
H ¢(x ) = lim
h ®0 g(x + h )g(x )

Taking the limit of the numerator and denominator, we have

é æ f (x + h ) - f (x ) ÷ö æ g(x + h ) - g(x ) ÷öù
lim ê g(x ) çç ÷÷ - f (x ) çç ÷÷ ú
h ® 0 êë çè h ø çè h ø úû
H ¢(x ) =
lim éë g(x + h )g(x ) ùû
h ®0

f (x + h ) - f (x ) g(x + h ) - g(x )
g(x ) lim - f (x ) lim
= h ®0 h h ®0 h
lim éë g(x + h )g(x ) ùû
h ®0

g(x )f ¢(x ) - f (x )g ¢(x )

=
2
( g(x ) ) ¢

EXAMPLE 3.2.3 Find the derivative of each of the following functions

5 x2 + 1
a. f (x ) = b. f (x ) =
2x 2 + 6x - 3 x3 - 1
Solution
a. Apply the quotient rule, we have
d d
ö÷ ( 2x + 6x - 3 ) dx ( 5 ) - ( 5 ) dx ( 2x + 6x - 3 )
2 2
d æç 5
f ¢(x ) = ç ÷=
dx çè 2x 2 + 6x - 3 ÷ø 2
2x 2 + 6x - 3 ( )
=
( 2x 2
+ 6x - 3 ) ( 0 ) - ( 5 )( 4x + 6 )
=
-20x - 30
2 2
( 2x 2 + 6x - 3 ) ( 2x 2 + 6x - 3 )
b. Apply the quotient rule, we have
d d
d æç x 2 + 1 ö÷ (
x 3 - 1) ( x 2 + 1) - ( x 2 + 1) ( x 3 - 1)
f ¢(x ) = ç ÷÷ = dx dx
dx ççè x 3 - 1 ø÷ 2
( x - 1)
3

(x 3 - 1)(2x ) - (x 2 + 1)(3x 2 )
=
2
(x 3 - 1)
2x 4 - 2x - 3x 4 - 3x 2 -x 4 - 3x 2 - 2x
= =
2 2
( x 3 - 1) ( x 3 - 1)

167
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

RELATED PROBLEM 3 Find the derivative of each of the following functions

-4 1-x (x + 1)(x + 2)
a. f (x ) = b. f (x ) = c. f (x ) =
x -3 1+x 2 (x - 1)(x - 2)
Answer

a. 2 x 2 - 2x - 1 12 - 6x 2
b. c.
2
(x 2 - 3x + 2)2
x ( x -3 ) (1 + x 2 )2

EXAMPLE 3.2.4 Suppose f and g are differentiable functions at x = 2 and that

f (2) = 3, f ¢(2) = -4, g(2) = 1 and g ¢(2) = 2 .
Find

d d æç x + f (x ) ö÷
a.
dx
( 2f (x ) - 3g(x ) + 4x 2 ) x =2 b. ç ÷
dx çè x - g(x ) ø÷ x =2
d
c. ( f (x )g(x ) ) x =2
dx
Solution
a. Using Theorem 3.2.3, we have
d
dx
( 2f (x ) - 3g(x ) + 4x 2 ) = 2 f ¢(x ) - 3g ¢(x ) + 8x .

Thus,

d
dx
( 2f (x ) - 3g(x ) + 4x 2 ) x =2 = 2 f ¢(2) - 3g ¢(2) + 8(2) = 2(-4) - 3(2) + 16 = 2 .

b. Using the quotient rule, we have

d æç x + f (x ) ö÷ ( x - g(x ) )( 1 + f ¢(x ) ) - ( x + f (x ) )( 1 - g ¢(x ) )
ç ÷=
dx çè x - g(x ) ø÷ ( x - g(x ) )
2

Thus,
d æç x + f (x ) ö÷ ( 2 - g(2) )( 1 + f ¢(2) ) - ( 2 + f (2) )( 1 - g ¢(2) )
çç ÷ =
dx è x - g(x ) ø÷ x =2 ( 2 - g(2) )
2

(2 - 1)(1 - 4) - (2 + 3)(1 - 2)
= =2
(2 - 1)2

c. Apply the product rule, we have

d
( f (x )g(x ) ) = f (x )g ¢(x ) + g(x )f ¢(x )
dx

168
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Thus,
d
( f (x )g(x ) ) x =2 = f (2)g ¢(2) + g(2)f ¢(2) = (3)(2) + (1)(-4) = 2
dx

RELATED PROBLEM 4
Suppose f and g are differentiable functions at x = 1 and that
f (1) = -2, f ¢(1) = 3, g(1) = -1 and g ¢(1) = -4 .
Find

d d çæ x 2 - f (x ) ÷ö
a.
dx
( 3f (x ) - 2g(x ) - 4x 3 ) x =1 b. ç ÷÷
dx çèç x - g(x ) ø÷ x =1
c. d ( f (x )g(x ) )
dx x =1

Answers

a. 5 b. - 17 4 c. 5

ìï x 3 x £1
Example 3.2.5 Find the values of a and b such that f (x ) = ïí is differentiable
ï ïax + b x > 1
at x = 1 . î

Solution Since f is differentiable at x = 1 , then it is continuous at x = 1 . This implies that

lim f (x ) = lim f (x )
x ®1+ x ®1-
lim (ax + b ) = lim x 3
x ®1+ x ®1-
a +b = 1
Since f is differentiable at x = 1 and the functions 3x 2 , a are continuous at x = 1 , then
f-¢ (1) = f+¢ (1)

d
f-¢ (1) =
dx
( x3 ) = 3x 2
x =1
=3
x =1
d
f+¢ (1) = (ax + b ) = a
dx x =1

Thus,
a =3

Since a + b = 1 , b = 1 - a = 1 - 3 = -2 .

ì
ï ax 3 x £2
RELATED PROBLEM 5 Find the values of a and b such that f (x ) = ïí 2 is
ï
ï x +b x > 2
differentiable at x = 2 . ï
î

169
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

1 4
Answers a = , b=- .
3 3

In the following example we will use the quotient rule to find an equation of the tangent line
to the graph of a given function.

x2 + 3
EXAMPLE 3.2.6 Find an equation for the tangent line to the graph of f (x ) = at
x +1
x = 3.
Solution From the quotient rule, we have
d d
(x + 1)
dx
( x 2 + 3 ) - ( x 2 + 3 ) ( x + 1)
dx
f ¢(x ) =
2
(x + 1)

( x + 1 )( 2x ) - ( x 2 + 3 )( 1 ) 2x 2 + 2x - x 2 - 3 x 2 + 2x - 3
= = =
2 2 2
( x + 1) ( x + 1) ( x + 1)
The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at x = 3 is
x 2 + 2x - 3 12 3
m = f ¢(3) = = =
2 16 4
(x + 1) x =3

The equation of the tangent line is

y = m(x - 3) + f (3)
æ3ö
y = çç ÷÷ (x - 3) + 3
çè 4 ÷ø
3 3
y = x+
4 4

RELATED PROBLEM 6 Find an equation for the tangent line to f (x ) = 3x 2 - 3x + p2 at

x = 1.
Answer y = 3x - 3 + p2

In the following example, we find the points at which the curve y = f (x ) has a horizontal
tangent.

EXAMPLE 3.2.7 Find the x -coordinate of the point(s) at which the curve y = x 4 - 4x 2 + 1
has a horizontal tangent.
dy
Solution The horizontal tangents, if any, occur where the slope is zero. To find these
dy dx
points, we find :
dx

170
 KING SAUD UNIVERSITY
PREPARATORY YEAR DEANSHIP
BASIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION
6 y

4
dy
= 4x 32 - 8x ,
dx x=1
x
dy
Solve the equation = 0−8
for x−6, we−4have−2 2 4 6
dx −2
dy
= 4x 3 - x2 + 3 Þ 4x (x 2 - 2) = 0
y =8x = 0 −4
dx x+1
x = 0 or x 2 = 2
Þ −6
Þ −8
x = 0 or x = ± 2

y
6

4 y = x4 − 4x2 + 1

2
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−2
√ √
x=− 2 −4 x= 2

Figurey3.2.1
y = 2 cos x 2
y = −2x + π
1
RELATED PROBLEM 7 Find the x -coordinate of the point(s)
x at which the curve
π π π
y = x - 4x + x + 2 has a −π
3 2 − 2 tangent.
horizontal −1 2

−2
4 - 13 4 + 13
Answer x = , x =
3 3
8 y

6
y = x + sin x
4

(π, π)
2

x
π π 3π 2π
2 2

−2

171
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

EXERCISES 3.2
In Exercises 1-18, find the derivative of the given function

1. f (x ) = 3x 3 - 4x 2 + 5x - 2 1
2. f (x ) = 3x 7 - x 5
5
1
2
1 x2
3. f (x ) = 3x 7 - x 5 + 2x 3 4. f (x ) = x -4 - + -x
5 3x 3 2
1 7
5. g(x ) = 4 2
6. R(x ) =
x +x +1 x 5

7. g(t ) = ( t 2 + t + 1 )( t 2 + 2 ) 8. h(x ) = x 3 (x + 1)(x 2 + 2x )

9. g(x ) = (5x 2 - 7)(3x 2 - 2x + 1) 10. h(x ) = ( 3x 2 + 2x )( x 4 - 3x + 1 )

t +2 x2 - 3
11. g(t ) = 12. g(x ) =
t -2 x +4
x 14. f (x ) = x + 1
13. f (x ) =
3 - 2x
z2 + 2 æ öæ ö
15. f (z ) = 16. f (x ) = çç 1 + 1 ÷÷ çç 1 + 1 ÷÷
èç ÷
x øèç ÷
z3 x2 ø
2t 2 - 3t + 1 x2 - x + 1
17. f (t ) = 18. g(x ) =
2t + 1 x2 + 1
In Exercises 19-27, find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the function at the
indicated point.

5 æ ö
19. f (x ) = 2x 2 - 3x + 4 , ( 2, 6 ) 20. f (x ) = - x 2 + 2x + 2 , çç -1, - 5 ÷÷
3 çè 3 ø÷
21. f (x ) = x 2 - 2x + 2 , ( 1,1 ) x
22. f (x ) = , 6, 2 )
x -3 (

1
23. f (x ) = , æçç -1, 1 ö÷÷ 24. f (x ) = x -2 , ( 1,1 )
2
x +1 èç 2 ø÷÷

x æ 1ö 10
25. f (x ) = , çç 1, ÷÷÷ 26. f (x ) = x 2 - , ( -2, 9 )
x + 1 çè 2 ø x

27. f (x ) = x 3 - x , ( -1, 0 )

28. Suppose f and g are functions of x that are differentiable at x = 0 and that:
f (0) = 5, f ¢(0) = -3, g(0) = -1, and g ¢(0) = 2

Find the values of the following derivatives at x = 0 .

æ ö¢ æ g ö¢
a. ( fg )¢ ( 0 ) b. çç f ÷÷ ( 0 ) c. çç ÷÷ ( 0 ) d. ( 7g - 2 f )¢ ( 0 )
èç g ÷ø èç f ÷ø

172
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

29. Suppose f and g are functions of x that are differentiable at x = 3 and that:

f (3) = 4, f ¢(3) = -6, g(3) = 2, and g ¢(3) = 5

Find the following
æ ö¢ æ f ö÷¢
a. (f + g )¢ (3) b. ( fg )¢ (3) c. çç f ÷÷ (3) d. çç ÷ (3)
çè g ÷ø çè f - g ÷ø

In Exercises 30-33, find x -coordinates of the points where the tangent line to the graph of
the given function is horizontal
5x 31. f (x ) = x 2 - x - 11
30. f (x ) =
2
x +1

32. f (x ) = (x + 2)(x 2 - 2x - 8) 33. f (x ) = x 3 - x 2

34. Find all points ( x , y ) on the graph of f (x ) = x 2 with tangent lines passing through
the point (3, 8) .

35. Find equations for the tangent to the curve y = x 3 - 4x + 1 at the points where the
slope of the curve is 8 .

2 3
36. Let f (x ) = x + x 2 - 12x + 6 . Find the values of x for which
3
a. f ¢(x ) = -12 b. f ¢(x ) = 0 c. f ¢(x ) = 12

1
37. Find the point(s) on the graph of the function f (x ) = 2x + at which the slope of
x
tangent line is ( -2 ) .

1 1 dy
38. Solve the equation + = 6 for y and find .
x y dx

39. Find the values of a and b if the tangent to y = ax 2 + bx at (1, 5) has slope 8 .

ì
ï x 3, x £1
40. Determine whether f (x ) = ï
í is differentiable at x = 1 or not.
ï
ï 4x - 3, x >1
î

ì
ïax 2 + b, x £ -1
41. Find a and b given that the derivative of f (x ) = ïí 5 is
ï
ïbx + ax + 4, x > - 1
everywhere continuous. ï
î

d é 2ù
42. Use product rule to show that ê ( f (x ) ) ú = 2 f (x )f ¢(x ) .
dx ë û

173
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

43. The position of a particle moves in a straight line is given by the equation
s(t ) = t 3 - 4.5t 2 - 7t, t ³ 0 ,
where t is measured in seconds and s in meter. When the particle reaches a velocity
of 5 m s .

44. A particle moves in a straight line according to s(t ) = t 2 - 6t + 9, t ³ 0 , where t

is measured in seconds and s in feet.
a. Find the velocity of the particle at time t .
b. What is the velocity of the particle after 2 seconds?

174
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Section 3.3
DERIVATIVES OF
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Before starting this section, we might need to review the trigonometric functions. In dealing
with problems involving angles of triangles, the measurement of an angle is usually given in
degrees. In calculus, we are dealing with functions of real numbers, and these functions are
defined in terms of radian measure. Thus, when we talk about the function f (x ) = sin x it is
understood that sin x means the sine of the angle which radian measure is x .

So far, we have applied the rules of differentiation on different types of functions such as:
polynomials and rational functions. In this section, we discuss the differentiability of the six
trigonometric functions.

THEOREM 3.3.1

d d
a. ( sin x ) = cos x b. ( cos x ) = - sin x
dx dx
PROOF
We will prove (a), while (b) is left as an exercise.
From the limit definition of the derivative, we have
d sin(x + h ) - sin x
( sin x ) = hlim
dx ® 0 h
Using the identity:
sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b

we have,
d sin x cos h + cos x sin h - sin x
( sin x ) = hlim
dx ®0 h
Grouping terms with sin x and terms with sin h separately, we have

d sin x cos h - sin x cos x sin h

( sin x ) = hlim + lim
dx ®0 h h ®0 h
Factoring sin x from the first term and cos x from the second term, we have
d cos h - 1 sin h
( sin x ) = ( sin x ) hlim + ( cos x ) lim
dx ® 0 h h ® 0 h

175
 SECTION 3.3 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
y
y 1 y  cos x
Recall from Theorem 2.2.8 that
x
– 0 
0 cos h - 1 sin h
–1 lim = 0 and lim =1
y'
h ®0 h h ®0 h
Thus, y'  –sin x
1
d
– 0  ( sin xx ) = sin x (0) + cos x (1) = cos x
–1 dx
¢

These differentiation rules are illustrated in Figure 3.3.1 and Figure 3.3.2. Note that the slope
of the sin x curve determines the value of the cos x curve, while the slope of the cos x curve
determines the value of the - sin x curve.
y y
y  sin x y 1 y  cos x
1
x x
– 0  – 0 
0 –1
–1

y' y'
y'  –sin x
1 1
0 x 0 x
–  – 
–1 y'  cos x –1

Figure 3.3.1 Figure 3.3.2

EXAMPLE 3.3.1 Find the derivative of each function

y = 5 sin x -
1
cos x b. 3 cos x y
a. y = y  sin x
4 1 + sin1x
Solution – 0 
x
–1
a. Using difference rule, we have
y'
dy d æç 1 ö d 1 d 1 1
= çç 5 sin x - cos x ÷÷÷ = 5 ( sin x ) - ( cos x ) = 5 cos x + sin x
dx dx è 4 ø dx 4 dx –  0 4 x
–1 y'  cos x
b. Using quotient rule, we have
d d
d æç 3 cos x ö÷ (
1 + sin x ) ( 3 cos x ) - ( 3 cos x ) ( 1 + sin x )
dy dx dx
= ç ÷=
dx dx çè 1 + sin x ÷ø ( 1 + sin x )
2

( 1 + sin x )( -3 sin x ) - ( 3 cos x ) (cos x ) -3 sin2 x - 3 sin x - 3 cos2 x

= =
2 2
( 1 + sin x ) ( 1 + sin x )
-3 ( sin2 x + cos2 x ) - 3 sin x -3(1 + sin x ) -3
= = =
( 1 + sin x )
2 2
( 1 + sin x ) 1 + sin x

176
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

RELATED PROBLEM 1 Find the derivative of each function

1 -2 sin x
a. y = -4 cos x + sin x b. y =
3 2 + cos x
Solution

1 2 ( 1 + 2 cos x )
a. 4 sin x + cos x b. -
3 2
( 2 + cos x )
Since the tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions are defined in terms of the sine
and cosine functions, the derivatives of these functions can be obtained from Theorem 3.3.1 by
applying quotient rule.

THEOREM 3.3.2

d d
a. ( tan x ) = sec2 x b. ( cot x ) = - csc2 x
dx dx
d d
c. ( sec x ) = sec x tan x d. ( csc x ) = - csc x cot x
dx dx

PROOF
We will prove (a) and (c), while (b) and (d) are left as an exercise.
sin x
a. Since tan x = , using quotient rule, we have
cos x
d d
cos x ( sin x ) - sin x ( cos x )
d d æç sin x ö÷ dx dx
( tan x ) = çç ÷=
dx dx è cos x ÷ø cos2 x

cos x ( cos x ) - sin x ( - sin x ) cos2 x + sin2 x

= =
cos2 x cos2 x

1 æ 1 ö÷2
= = çç ÷÷ = sec2 x
2
cos x ç
è cos x ø
1
c. Since sec x = , using quotient rule, we have
cos x
d d
cos x ( 1 ) - ( 1 ) ( cos x )
d d æç 1 ö÷ dx dx
( sec x ) = çç ÷=
dx dx è cos x ÷ø cos2 x

sin x 1 sin x
= = = sec x tan x
2 cos x cos x
cos x
¢
EXAMPLE 3.3.2 Find the derivative of each function

sec x
a. y = x + csc x - cot x b. y = sin x cos x c. y =
1 + tan x

177
 sin x 1 sin x
   sec x tan x
2 cos x cos x
cos x

EXAMPLE 2.3.2 Find the derivative of each function
SECTION 3.3 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
sec x
a. y  x  csc x  cot x b. y  sin x cos x c. y 
1  tan x
Solution
a. Using Theorem 3.2.3, we have
d d
dx
(
x + csc x - cot x =
dx
) ( x ) + dxd ( csc x ) - dxd ( cot x )
1
= - csc x cot x + csc2 x
2 x
b. Using the product rule, we have
d d d
( sin x cos x ) = ( sin x ) ( cos x ) + ( cos x ) ( sin x )
dx dx dx
= ( sin x )( - sin x ) + ( cos x )( cos x )

= - sin2 x + cos2 x = cos(2x )

c. Using the quotient rule, we have

d d
d æç sec x ÷ö (
1 + tan x ) ( sec x ) - sec x ( 1 + tan x )
÷= dx dx
ç
dx çè 1 + tan x ÷ø ( 1 + tan x )
2

( 1 + tan x )( sec x tan x ) - sec x ( sec2 x )

=
2
( 1 + tan x )
sec x tan x + sec x tan2 x - sec3 x
=
2
( 1 + tan x )
sec x (tan x + tan2 x - sec2 x ) sec x (tan x - 1)
= =
2
( 1 + tan x ) (1 + tan x )2

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Find the derivative of each function

a. y = x 4 - 3 cot x + 2 cos x csc x + 1

b. y = x 3 tan x c. y =
sin x
Solution

a. 4x 3 + 3 csc2 x - 2 sin x b. x 2 ( x sec2 x + 3 tan x )

cot x + cos x ( csc x + 1 )

c. -
sin2 x
Now, we are going to find the equation of the tangent line using the derivative of trigonometric
functions.

EXAMPLE 3.3.3 Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of y = 2 cos x at the point
æ p ö÷
çç , 0 ÷ .
çè 2 ÷ø

178
 2
x=1
x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6
−2 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION
x2 + 3 −4
y=
x+1
Solution −6

The derivative is
dy −8 tangent line to the graph of y at x = p is:
= -2 sin x . The slope of the
dx 2
y
dy æpö
= -2 sin çç ÷÷ = -2
6
m =
dx p çè 2 ÷ø
x= 4 2
2 4 y = x − 4x + 1
The equation of the tangent line is
2
æ pö
y = (-2) çç x - ÷÷ + 0 x
çè 2 ÷ø 1
−3 −2 −1 2 3
y = -2x−2+ p
See Figure 3.3.3 √ √
x=− 2 −4 x= 2

y
y = 2 cos x 2
y = −2x + π
1
x
−π − π2 π π
2
−1
−2

Figure 3.3.3
8 y

RELATED PROBLEM 3 Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of y = 3 sin x at the
6
point (p, 0) .
y = x + sin x
4
Answer y = -3x + 3p
(π, π)
2
EXAMPLE 3.3.4 x x , 0 £ x £ 2p where the
Find all point(s) on the graph of f (x ) = x + sin
tangent line is horizontal. π
2
π 3π 2π
2

Solution −2

A horizontal tangent line has slope 0. Therefore, we are seeking all x for which f ¢(x ) = 0
f ¢(x ) = 1 + cos x
Solve the equation
1 + cos x = 0

Since 0 £ x £ 2p , then the only solution to the equation is

x =p
Thus, the graph f has a horizontal tangent line at the point (p, f (p)) = (p, p)

RELATED PROBLEM 4 Find all point(s) on the graph of f (x ) = 2x + sin x where the tangent
line is horizontal.

179
SECTION 3.3 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Answer None

EXAMPLE 3.3.5 Assume that a particle’s position on the x - axis is given by

s(t ) = 3 cos t + 4 sin t

Where s is measured in meters and t is measured in seconds. Find the particle’s instantaneous
p
velocity when t = 0 and t =
2
Solution
The velocity v(t ) of the particle is given by
ds d
v(t ) = = ( 3 cos t + 4 sin t ) = -3 sin t + 4 cos t
dt dt

Particle’s velocity when t = 0 is

v(0) = -3 sin(0) + 4 cos(0) = -3(0) + 4(1) = 4 m sec
p
and particle’s velocity when t = is
2
æpö æpö æpö
v çç ÷÷÷ = -3 sin çç ÷÷ + 4 cos çç ÷÷ = -3(1) + 4(0) = -3 m sec .
çè 2 ø èç 2 ÷ø çè 2 ÷ø

RELATED PROBLEM 5 Assume that a particle’s position on the x - axis is given by

s(t ) = t + 2 sin t
Where s is measured in meters and t is measured in seconds. Find the particle’s instantaneous
velocity when t = 0 and t = p

Answer 3 m sec , -1 m sec .

d
EXAMPLE 3.3.6 Show that ( sin(2x ) ) = 2 cos(2x )
dx
Solution Recall the identities
sin(2x ) = 2 sin x cos x and cos(2x ) = cos2 x - sin2 x
Thus,
d d
( sin(2x ) ) = ( 2 sin x cos x )
dx dx
dd dd
= sin xx dx (( cos
= 22 sin cos xx )) + cos xx dx ((22 sin
+ cos sin xx ))
dx dx
= sin xx ((-
= 22 sin sin xx )) +
- sin cos xx ((22 cos
+ cos cos xx ))
= -2 sin2 x + 2 cos2 x
= 2(cos2 x - sin2 x ) = 2 cos ( 2x )

180
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

d
RELATED PROBLEM 6 Show that ( cos(2x ) ) = -2 sin(2x ) .
dx

181
SECTION 3.3 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

EXERCISES 3.3
dy
In Exercises 1-20, find
dx
1. y = x csc x 2. y = cot x csc x

3. y = x (1 + sec x ) 4. y = tan x
x
sec x csc x
5. y = 6. y =
x -1 tan x
cot x 8. y = x 2 cos x - 4 sin x
7. y =
1 + csc x

9. y = sin2 x + cos2 x 10. y =

( x 2 + 1 ) cot x
3 - cos x csc x

sin x sec x tan x - 1

11. y = 12. y =
1 + x tan x sec x
-3
13. y = x sin x tan x 14. y = x sin x cos x

15. y = tan2 x 16. y = sec3 x

17. y = x 2 cos x 1 - cos x

18. y =
x
sin x + cos x x cos x + sin x
19. y = 20. y =
cos x x2 + 1
In Exercises 21-24, find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the function at the
indicated point.
æ p 1 ö÷ æp ö
ç
21. f (x ) = sin x , ççè 6 , 2 ø÷÷ 22. f (x ) = tan x , ççç ,1 ÷÷÷
è4 ø
æ ö æp ö
23. f (x ) = sec x , çç p , 2 ÷÷ 24. f (x ) = sec x - 2 cos x , çç ,1 ÷÷
èç 3 ÷ø çè 3 ÷ø

In Exercises 25-26, prove each formula

d d
25. ( cot x ) = - csc2 x 26. ( csc x ) = - csc x cot x
dx dx

cos t
27. A particle moves according to the position function s(t ) = , where t is measured
t
in seconds and s in feet. Find the instantaneous velocity at t = p .

In Exercises 28-31, find the x -coordinate(s) of the point(s) on the graph of the function at
which the tangent line has the indicated slope.

28. g(x ) = x + sin x , m = 1 29. f (x ) = sin x , m = 1

182
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

30. g(x ) = cot x , m = -2 31. f (x ) = csc x , m = 0

In Exercises 32-34, find all points on the graph of f (x ) where the tangent line is horizontal.

32. f (x ) = tan2 x 33. f (x ) = 9 sin x cos x

cos x
34. f (x ) =
2 + sin x

183
SECTION 3.4 THE CHAIN RULE

Section 3.4
THE CHAIN RULE

In this section, we derive a result that greatly increases the number of functions whose derivatives
can be easily calculated. Suppose we are asked to find the derivative of the function
5
y = ( x 3 + 2x )
dy
Differentiation formulas we learned till now do not enable us to find . Observe that y is a
dx
composition function. In fact, if we let y = f (u ) = u 5 and let u = g(x ) = x 3 + 2x , then we can
write y = f ( g(x ) ) . We know the derivatives of both f and g , so it will be helpful to have a
rule that tells us how to find the derivative of f  g in terms of derivatives of f and g .

THEOREM 3.4.1 Chain Rule

Let y = f (u ) , u = g(x ) such that g(x ) Î Df . If g is differentiable at x and f is
differentiable at u = g(x ) , then the composite function y = f  g is differentiable at
x and
dy dy du
= . (1)
dx du dx
= f ¢(g(x ))g ¢(x ) (2)

Now, we differentiate the function we introduce at the beginning of this section

5 dy
EXAMPLE 3.4.1 If y = ( x 3 + 2x ) , find .
dx
dy
Solution We can find by using Theorem 3.4.1 formula (1) as follows:
dx
Let u = x 3 + 2x and y = u 5 , then

dy dy du
= × = 5u 4 ( 3x 2 + 2 )
dx du dx

Substitute u = x 3 + 2x , we have
dy 4
= 5 ( x 3 + 2x ) ( 3x 2 + 2 )
dx

184
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

dy
Also we can find by using Theorem 3.4.1 formula (2) as follows:
dx

Write y as y = ( f  g ) (x ) = f ( g(x ) ) where f (u ) = u 5 and u = g(x ) = x 3 + 2x . Since

f ¢(u ) = 5u 4 and g ¢(x ) = 3x 2 + 2

Using Theorem 3.4.1 formula (2), we have

dy
= f ¢ ( g(x ) ) g ¢(x )
dx
= f ¢ ( x 3 + 2x ) g ¢(x )
4
= 5 ( x 3 + 2x ) ( 3x 2 + 2 )
dy
RELATED PROBLEM 1 If y = x 2 + 5x , find .
dx
2x + 5
Answer .
2 x 2 + 5x

One of the main uses of the chain rule is to establish other differentiation formulas. As a first
illustration, we shall obtain a formula for the derivative of a power of a function.

THEOREM 3.4.2 (The General Power Rule)

If g is a differentiable function and r is any rational number, then
d
dx
(( g(x )) ) = r ( g(x ))
r r -1 d
dx
( g(x ) )

PROOF
r dy
Let y = u r and u = g(x ) , then y = ( g(x ) ) . Now let us use the chain rule to find .
dx
d é r ù dy dy du
ê ( g(x ) ) ú = = ×
dx ë û dx du dx
d r -1 d
= ru r -1 ( u ) = r ( g(x ) ) ( g(x ) )
dx dx

¢
EXAMPLE 3.4.2 Differentiate the following functions
a. f (x ) = ( x 3 - 7x + 5 )8 1
b. f (x ) =
3
3x 5 - 2x 3 + 1
Solution
a. Apply the general power, we obtain
d æ 3 8ö 7 d
f ¢(x ) = ç ( x - 7x + 5 ) ÷÷ = 8 ( x 3 - 7x + 5 ) ( x 3 - 7x + 5 )
ç
dx è ÷
ø dx
7
= 8 ( x 3 - 7x + 5 ) ( 3x 2 - 7 )
185
SECTION 3.4 THE CHAIN RULE

1
1 -
b. Rewrite the given function as f (x ) = = ( 3x 5 - 2x 3 + 1 ) 3 .
1
( 3x 5 - 2x 3 + 1 ) 3

Apply the general power rule, we obtain

d æçç - ö
1 4
÷÷ 1 - d
f ¢(x ) = ç ( 3x - 2x + 1 ) ÷÷ = - ( 3x - 2x + 1 ) 3 ( 3x 5 - 2x 3 + 1 )
5 3 3 5 3
dx ççè ÷ø 3 dx
4
1 -
= - ( 3x 5 - 2x 3 + 1 ) 3 ( 15x 4 - 6x 2 )
3
15x 4 - 6x 2 5x 4 - 2x 2
=- =-
4 4
3 3 ( 3x 5 - 2x 3 + 1 ) 3
( 3x 5 - 2x 3 + 1 )

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Differentiate the following functions

a. f (x ) = ( x 5 + 3x 2 - x )
5 2
b. f (x ) =
2x 4 + x + 5
Answers

a. 5 ( x 5 + 3x 2 - x )
4 8x 3 + 1
( 5x 4 + 6x - 1 ) b. -
3
( 2x 4 + x + 5 )

EXAMPLE 3.4.3 Differentiate the following functions

æ ö4
a. h(z ) = çç 2z + 1 ÷÷
3 5
b. k (t ) = ( t + 1 ) ( 2t - 3 )
èç 3z - 2 ÷ø
Solution
a. We apply the general power rule and then quotient rule, we have

æ 2z + 1 ö÷3 d æ 2z + 1 ö÷
h (z ) = 4 çç
¢ ÷ ç ÷
çè 3z - 2 ÷ø dz ççè 3z - 2 ÷ø

æ d d ö÷
ç
æ 2z + 1 ÷ö3 çç ( 3z - 2 ) dz ( 2z + 1 ) - ( 2z + 1 ) dz ( 3z - 2 ) ÷÷÷
= 4 çç ÷ ç ÷÷
çè 3z - 2 ÷ø ççç 2 ÷÷
çç ( 3z - 2 ) ÷÷
è ø
æ ö æ ö
æ 2z + 1 ÷ö3 çç ( 3z - 2 )( 2 ) - ( 2z + 1 )( 3 ) ÷÷ æ 2z + 1 ÷ö3 çç 6z - 4 - 6z - 3 ÷÷
ç
= 4ç ÷ ç ÷
÷÷ = ç
4ç ÷ ç ÷
÷÷
çè 3z - 2 ÷ø çç 2
÷ø çè 3z - 2 ÷ø çç 2
÷ø
èç ( 3z - 2 ) çè ( 3z - 2 )
æ ö÷ 3
ç
æ 2z + 1 ÷ö3 çç -7 ÷ ÷ ( 2z + 1 )
= 4ç ÷ ç = -28
çè 3z - 2 ÷ø çç 2÷ ÷ 5
çè ( 3z - 2 ) ÷ø ( 3z - 2 )
b. We apply the product rule and then the general power rule, we have

186
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

d 3 5 5 d 3
k ¢(t ) = ( t + 1 ) ( 2t - 3 ) + ( 2t - 3 ) ( t + 1 )
dt dt
3 é 4 d ù 5 é 2 d ù
= ( t + 1 ) ê 5 ( 2t - 3 ) ( 2t - 3 ) ú + ( 2t - 3 ) ê 3 (t + 1) ( t + 1) ú
êë dt úû êë dt úû
3 é 4 ù 5 é 2 ù
= ( t + 1 ) ê 5 ( 2t - 3 ) ( 2 ) ú + ( 2t - 3 ) ê 3 ( t + 1 ) ( 1 ) ú
ë û ë û
3 4 5 2
= 10 ( t + 1 ) ( 2t - 3 ) + 3 ( 2t - 3 ) ( t + 1 )
2 4
= ( t + 1 ) ( 2t - 3 ) éë 10t + 10 + 6t - 9 ùû
2 4
= ( t + 1 ) ( 2t - 3 ) ( 16t + 1 )

RELATED PROBLEM 3 Differentiate the following functions

æ 2 ö2
a. h(t ) = çç 3t - 5 ÷÷÷
2
b. f (z ) = ( 6z - 7 )3 ( 8z 2 + 9 )
ççè 2t 2 + 7 ÷ø

Answers
124t ( 3t 2 - 5 )
a. h ¢(t ) = b. f ¢(z ) = ( 6z - 7 )
2
( 8z 2 + 9 )( 336z 2 - 224z + 162 )
3
( 2t 2 + 7 )
The next example shows that it may be necessary to apply the general power rule more than
one time to find the derivative of a given function.

æ 4 ö6
EXAMPLE 3.4.4 Find y ¢ , if y = çç ( x 3 + 2x ) + x 2 + 1 ÷÷÷
è ø
Solution Applying the general power rule, we have
æ 4 ö5 d æ 3 4 ö
y ¢ = 6 çç ( x 3 + 2x ) + x 2 + 1 ÷÷÷ ç ( x + 2x ) +
ç x 2 + 1 ÷÷÷
è ø dx è ø
æ 4 ö5 æ d 4 d ö
y ¢ = 6 çç ( x 3 + 2x ) + x 2 + 1 ÷÷÷ çç ( x 3 + 2x ) + x 2 + 1 ÷÷
è ç
ø è dx dx ÷ø

Again applying the general power rule, we have

d 4 3

dx
( x 3 + 2x ) = 4 ( x 3 + 2x ) ( 3x 2 + 2 ) ,

and
1 1
d
( ) d 1 x
-

dx
x2 + 1 =
dx
( x 2 + 1 )2 = ( x 2 + 1 ) 2 ( 2x ) =
2 x2 + 1
Therefore,
æ ö5 æ x ö
÷÷÷
4 3
y ¢ = 6 çç ( x 3 + 2x ) + x 2 + 1 ÷÷÷ ççç 4 ( x 3 + 2x ) ( 3x 2 + 2 ) +
è ø çè x 2 + 1 ÷ø

187
SECTION 3.4 THE CHAIN RULE

( )
5
Find y ¢ , if y =
3
RELATED PROBLEM 4 x2 + x + 2x 4 + 4

Answer
æ ö÷
çç ÷÷
2x + 1 4x 3
( )
4
5 3
x 2 + x + 2x 4 + 4 çç + ÷÷
çç ÷
2
2x 4 + 4 ÷÷÷
èçç 3 ( x + x )
3 2
ø

CHAIN RULE AND TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

In Section 3.3, we studied how to differentiate trigonometric functions such as f (x ) = sin x .

How do we differentiate functions such as f (x ) = sin ( x 3 ) , g(x ) = tan ( 3x 2 + 1 ) and

h(x ) = sec ( sin x ) . We can easily use the chain rule to find the derivative of such functions as
we can see in the following example:
dy
EXAMPLE 3.4.5 If y = 5 sin ( x 4 ) , find
dx
Solution Let, u = x 4 so that y = 5 sin u
By the chain rule
dy dy du
= × = ( 5 cos u ) ( 4x 3 )
dx du dx
Substitute u = x 4
dy
= 5 cos ( x 4 )( 4x 3 ) = 20x 3 cos ( x 4 )
dx

if y = 3 tan ( x + 2x ) .
dy 3
RELATED PROBLEM 5 Find
dx

Answer ( 9x 2 + 6 ) sec2 ( x 3 + 2x ) .
Table 3.4.1 contains a list of generalized derivative formulas that result directly from the chain
rule

Generalized Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

d du d du
( sin u ) = cos u ( cos u ) = - sin u
dx dx dx dx

d du d du
( tan u ) = sec2 u ( cot u ) = - csc2 u
dx dx dx dx

d du d du
( sec u ) = sec u tan u ( csc u ) = - csc u cot u
dx dx dx dx

Table 3.4.1

188
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

EXAMPLE 3.4.6 Find

d
a.
dx
( tan(3x 2 ) ) b.
d
dx
( x 2 csc ( 2x ) ) c. d
dt
( sec3 ( t 4 ) )

Solution
a. Taking u = 3x 2 in the generalized derivative formula for tan u yields
d d du
dx
( tan(3x 2 ) =
dx
( tan u ) = sec2 u
dx
d
= sec2 ( 3x 2 ) ( 3x 2 ) = 6x sec2 ( 3x 2 )
dx
b. Apply the general power rule, we have

d æçç 2
1ö 1
÷÷ 1 2
d
( )
- d
çç ( x csc(2x ) ) ÷÷ = ( x csc(2x ) ) ( x 2 csc(2x ) )
2
x csc(2x ) = 2 2
dx dx çè ÷ø 2 dx
1
1 2 - æ d d ö
=
2
( x csc(2x ) ) 2 çç x 2 ( csc(2x ) ) + csc(2x ) ( x 2 )÷÷÷
èç dx dx ø
Apply generalized derivative formula for csc u , we have
1
d
( ) 1 2 -

dx
x 2 csc(2x ) =
2
( x csc(2x ) ) 2 ( x 2 ( - csc(2x ) cot(2x )(2) ) + csc(2x ) ( 2x ) )

-2x 2 csc(2x ) cot(2x ) + 2x csc(2x )

=
2 x 2 csc(2x )
-x 2 csc(2x ) cot(2x ) + x csc(2x )
=
x 2 csc(2x )
3
c. Rewrite sec3 ( t 4 ) as ( sec ( t 4 ) ) , and then apply the general power rule
d d 3 2 d

dt
( sec3 ( t 4 ) ) = ( sec ( t 4 ) ) = 3 ( sec ( t 4 ) )
dt dt
( sec ( t 4 ) )

Apply generalized derivative formula for sec u , we have

d 2 d
dt
( sec3 ( t 4 ) ) = 3 ( sec ( t 4 ) ) sec ( t 4 ) tan ( t 4 ) ( t 4 )
dt
= 3 sec2 ( t 4 ) sec ( t 4 ) tan ( t 4 )( 4t 3 )

= 12t 3 sec3 ( t 4 ) tan ( t 4 )

RELATED PROBLEM 6 Find

a. d
dx
( csc ( x 3 )) b.
d
dx
( 3
x 2 + cot(2x ) ) c.
d
dt
( cot5 (t 2 ) )
Answer
a. -3x 2 csc(x 3 ) cot(x 3 ) 2x - 2 csc2 ( 2x ) c. -10t cot4 (t 2 ) csc2 (t 2 )
b.
2
3 3 ( x 2 + cot(2x ) )

189
SECTION 3.4 THE CHAIN RULE

EXAMPLE 3.4.7 Discuss the differentiability of the function f at x = 0

 2 1
x sin   x ≠0
f (x ) =  x 
0 x =0

Solution The function f is continuous at x = 0 because,
1
lim x 2 sin  = 0= f (0) The limit can be found using Sandwich Theorem
x →0
x 
The derivative of f for x ≠ 0 is:
1 1
f ′(x ) 2x sin   − cos   .
=
x  x 
Note that lim f ¢(x ) does not exist, however, we show that the function is differentiable at
x ®0
x = 0 using the definition of derivative as follows:
1
h 2 sin  
f (h ) − f (0) h  1
=f ′(0) lim
= lim = lim h sin  
h →0 h h →0 h h →0
h 
1
Now, sin   ≤ 1 for all h ≠ 0 , then
h 
1 1
h sin   ≤ h ⇒ − h ≤ h sin   ≤ h
h  h 

Since lim − h
h →0
( ) =0 =lim h
h →0
, we get by Sandwich Theorem
1
lim h sin   = 0
h →0
h 
Thus, f ′(0) = 0 . Therefore, f is differentiable at x = 0 .

RELATED PROBLEM 7 Discuss the differentiability of the function f at x = 0

 1
 x sin   x ≠0
f (x ) =  x 
0 x =0

Answer f is not differentiable at x = 0 .

EXAMPLE 3.4.8 Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y = x 2 cos(3x ) at x = p .
2
Solution The slope of the tangent line at any point (x , y ) on the graph of y = x cos(3x ) is
dy
given by . Using product rule and generalized derivative formula for cos u , we obtain
dx
dy d d d
dx
=
dx
( x 2 cos(3x ) ) = x 2
dx
( cos(3x ) ) + cos(3x ) ( x 2 )
dx

190
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

d
( 3x ) + 2x cos ( 3x ) = -3x 2 sin ( 3x ) + 2x cos ( 3x )
= x 2 ( - sin(3x ) )
dx
The slope of the tangent line at x = p is
dy
m = = -3p2 sin ( 3p ) + 2p cos ( 3p ) = -2p
dx x =p 2
40 y
y = 8x3 − 9x2
30
2
y = x cos(3x)
20

10
x
π π 3π 2π
2 2
−10

−20

−30
Figure 3.4.1
32 y

RELATED PROBLEM 8 Find an equation of 24

the tangent line to the graph of y = x 2 sin(4x ) at
p
x = .
4
16 x2/3 + y 2/3 = 8
p2
Answer y = - ( 4x - p ) .
16 8 (8, 8)

y = 16 − x
1 x
EXAMPLE 3.4.9 The equation
−12
of−8motion
−4
of a particle is given by s(t ) = 10 +sin ( 10pt ) ,
4 8 12 4
where t is measured in seconds and s in
2
centimeters. Find the velocity of the particle at time
y
t.
1
ds
Solution We know that the velocity is . Taking u = 10xpt in the generalized derivative
−1 −0.5 dt 0.5 1 1.5 2
formula for sin u yields −1

ds d æ 1 −2 ö 1 5p
= çç 10 + sin ( 10pt ) ÷÷ = ( 10p ) cos ( 10pt ) =
y = 6x − 7
cos ( 10pt )
ç
dt è ÷
dt 4 −3 ø 4 2
Thus, −4
ds 5p
v(t ) = = cos ( 10pt )
dt 18 2
y y = 4x3 − 3x2 − 12x + 7
15
12
RELATED PROBLEM 9 A particle is 9
moving vertically such that its distance s(t ) from a
6
1 3 (2, 3)
fixed point is given by s(t ) = 4 + sin ( 100pt ) , where t isx measured in seconds and s in
−3 25 −1 −3
−2 1 2 3
centimeters. Find the velocity of the particle at time t .
−6
−9 y = 24x − 45
Answer 4p cos ( 100pt ) .
−12
−15
−18

191
SECTION 3.4 THE CHAIN RULE

EXERCISES 3.4
In Exercises 1-30, find the derivative of the following functions

3 5
1. f (x ) = ( 2x + 3 ) 2. f (x ) = ( x 2 + 2x )
30
3. g(x ) = ( x 5 - 10 )
4
4. h(x ) = ( x 2 + 3x + 1 )

1 x
5. f (t ) = 6. g(x ) =
2 x +1
(1 + t 2 )
3
æ 2ö 8. f (x ) = ( x 2 + 1 )
2 3
7. f (t ) = çç t - ÷÷÷ 2x + 1
çè tø
9. g(x ) = ( 3x 2 + 1 ) ( 2x - 1 ) 10. g(x ) = cos ( x )
3 3

6
11. f (x ) = ( 1 + cos2 x ) 12. h(x ) = 4 tan ( x 3 )

æ ö
13. y = sec2 (2x ) - tan2 (2x ) 14. h(q) = csc çç q ÷÷
çè 3 ÷ø

15. f (x ) = cos2 (cos x ) + sin2 (cos x ) 16. h(x ) = sin ( sin ( sin x ) )

3 æ 1 - 8x ö÷4
17. f (x ) = 3
x 3 + ( 2x - 1 ) 18. g(x ) = çç ÷
çè 1 + 8x ø÷
æ 1 - 2v ö÷3 æ x + 5 ÷ö2
19. f (v ) = çç ÷ 20. g(x ) = çç 2 ÷
çè 1 + v ÷ø çè x + 2 ÷ø
3
æ 4ö
22. f (t ) = 3 sec2 ( pt - 1 )
21. g(x ) = çç 2 + ( x 2 + 1 ) ÷÷÷
è ø

(
23. f (x ) = cos ( 1 - 2x )2 ) 24. g(t ) = 2 cot2 ( pt + 2 )

æ1 ö æ1 ö
25. g(x ) = sin ( tan(2x ) ) 26. g(t ) = sec çç t ÷÷÷ tan çç t ÷÷÷
çè 2 ø çè 2 ø
æ sin x ö÷3 28. g(t ) = cos5 ( 4t - 19 )
27. f (x ) = ççç ÷
è cos(2x ) ÷ø
29. g(t ) = cos4 ( sin t 2 ) 30. h(x ) = sin 3 ( cos x )

In Exercises 31-40, find the equation of the tangent line to the given curve at the given point.

31. y = ( 2x + 1 ) ,(0,1)
5 x
32. y = , ( 2, -2 )
5
(3 - x ) 2

3
34. y = ( 1 + 2x 2 ) ,
10
33. y = ( x - x + x - 1 ) , ( 1, 0 )
3 2 ( 1, 27 )

192
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

æ p ÷ö æp 2 ö÷
35. y = cot x , ççç ,1 ÷÷ 36. y = cos ( 3x ) , ççç , -
2
÷÷
è4 ø çè 4 2 ø÷

æ ö æp ö
37. y = tan2 x , çç p ,1 ÷÷ 38. y = 2 tan 3 x , çç , 2 ÷÷
èç 4 ø ÷ çè 4 ÷ø

-2 æ ö æp ö
39. y = ( x 2 + 1 ) , çç 1, 1 ÷÷ 40. y = 1 + x sin ( 3x ) , çç ,1 ÷÷
çè 4 ÷ø çè 3 ÷ø

In Exercises 41-44, find the x -coordinate of the point(s) at which the graph of the equation
has a horizontal tangent line

2 3
41. y = x 2 (x - 1)3 42. y = ( 2x + 1 ) ( x - 3 )
2
(x + 3) æ 1 - 8x ö÷4
43. y = 44. y = ççç ÷
x è 1 + 8x ÷ø

45. Determine the point(s) in the interval ( 0, 2p ) at which the graph of f (x ) = 2 cos x + sin(2x )
has a horizontal tangent.

46. Find all point(s) on the graph of y = sin2 x where the tangent line has slope 1 .

In Exercises 47-48, use the position function to find the velocity at t = 2 (Assume units of
meters and seconds)

60t
47. s(t ) = t2 + 8 48. s(t ) =
t2 + 1

193
SECTION 3.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

Section 3.5
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

If f = {(x , y ) : y = 3x 3 - 5x 2 + x - 7} , then the equation

y = 3x 3 - 5x 2 + x - 7

defines the function f explicitly. However, not all functions are defined by such an equation.
For example, if we have the equation:
3x 3 - x = 3y 3 + y 2 - 5y 7 + 9 (1)

One cannot solve for y in terms of x ; however, Equation (1) may define one or more functions
f such that if y = f (x ) , Equation (1) is satisfied. That is
3 2 7
3x 3 - x = 3 ( f (x ) ) + ( f (x ) ) - 5 ( f (x ) ) + 9

holds for all x in the domain of f . In this case, we say that the function f is defined by
equation (1) implicitly.

If we assume that equation (1) defines at least one differentiable function y in terms of x , then
the derivative of y with respect to x can be found by implicit differentiation.

Since equation (1) can be written so that all the terms involving x are on one side of the
equation and all the terms involving y are on the other side of the equation, such an equation
is a special type of equations involving x and y . The left side of equation (1) is a function of
x , and the right side is a function of y . Let F be the function defied by the left side, and G
be the function defied by the right side. Thus,

F (x ) = 3x 3 - x G (x ) = 3y 3 + y 2 - 5y 7 + 9

where y is a function of x , say y = f (x ) . Thus, equation (1) can be written as

F (x ) = G (x )

This equation is satisfied by all values of x in the domain of f such that G ( f (x )) exists.
Therefore, for all values of x such that f is differentiable,
d d
dx
( 3x 3 - x ) =
dx
( 3y 3 + y 2 - 5y 7 + 9 ) (2)

194
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

The derivative on the left side equation (2) is easily be found, and
d
(3x 3 - x ) = 9x 2 - 1 (3)
dx

while the derivative on the right side of equation (2) is found by the chain rule.
d dy dy dy
dx
( 3y 3 + y 2 - 5y 7 + 9 ) = 9y 2
dx
+ 2y
dx
- 35y 6
dx
(4)

Substituting the obtained values in (3) and (4) into (2), we get
dy
9x 2 - 1 = ( 9y 2 + 2y - 35y 6 )
dx
dy 9x 2 - 1
=
dx 9y 2 + 2y - 35y 6
dy
As we can see from the last result we were able with the help of chain rule to find as an
dx
equation involves both variables x and y .

The above example leads us to the following definition

DEFINITION 3.5.1
The equation F (x , y ) = 0 is said to define an explicit function y = f (x ) if the equation
F ( x , f (x ) ) = 0 is satisfied for every x in the domain of f .

The next illustration will clarify what we have been doing.

ILLUSTRATION
The equation
(x - 2)2 + y 2 - 9 = 0 (5)

defines two functions y1 = 9 - (x - 2)2 and y2 = - 9 - (x - 2)2 , see Figure 3.5.1.

Actually it defines more than two functions. Now, we show that y1 and y2 satisfy equation (5).

Substitute y1 in (5) we obtain

( )
2
(x - 2)2 + y12 - 9 = (x - 2)2 + 9 - (x - 2)2 -9 = 0
= (x - 2)2 + 9 - (x - 2)2 - 9 = 0

Similarly, for y2 .

195
 P
(2, 4)

x
SECTION 3.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
y = 4x−4

y
y

3 (x − 2)2+ y2 = 9 y1  9  (x  2)2

2 y3 + yx2 + x2− 3y2 = 0

-1 2 5 6 x
1
x y2   9  (x  2)2
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 3.5.1

y REMARK Slope m PQ

f (a + h)
It is out of the scope of this book to discuss under what conditions an equation defines
Q Slope m PQ1
a differentiable implicit function. Instead we will assume that in all examples and
Secant lines
exercises. Q1 Slope m PQ2

Q2 Slope m PQ3
Regarding differentiation of a givenL function, when it is explicitly expressed in the form
Q3 Tangent line
y = f (x ) , we apply the rules of mdifferentiation directly to it and find its derivative as we have
Slope
f (a) P
done in the previous sections. On the other hand, when the function is implicitly expressed,
we use the
a method ofa+ implicit differentiation which is xour goal in this section. The idea of
h
implicit differentiation is based on the chain rule and it works as follows:

Guidelines for Implicit Differentiation

Let y be a function of x which is expressed implicitly in terms of an equation of the form
dy
F (x , y ) = 0 . To find the derivative , we proceed as follows:
dx
• Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x .

• Write the terms involving y ¢ (or dy dx ) on one side of the equation and the terms

dy dy
that do not involve on the other side of the equation, then solve for .
dx dx

Now, let us consider some examples to illustrate the method of implicit differentiation.

EXAMPLE 3.5.1 If each of the following equations determines an implicit differentiable function
dy
y = f (x ) , find .
dx
a. x 3 + y 3 = 1 + xy b. y 2 = x cos y

2 3 2 3
c. xy + yx = x2 d. 3 + tan(xy ) - 2 = 0

196
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Solution
a. Differentiating both sides of x 3 + y 3 = 1 + xy with respect to x , regarding y as a
function of x
d d
dx
( x 3 + y3 ) =
dx
( 1 + xy )
d
dx
( x 3 ) + dxd ( y 3 ) = dxd (1) + dxd ( xy )
Using the chain rule on the y 3 term and the product rule on the xy term, we obtain
3x 2 + 3y 2y ¢ = xy ¢ + y
Solving for y ¢ yields
3y 2y ¢ - xy ¢ = y - 3x 2
( 3y 2 - x ) y ¢ = y - 3x 2
y - 3x 2
y¢ =
3y 2 - x

b. Differentiating both sides of the equation y 2 = x cos y with respect to x and using the
product rule, we obtain
d
dx
( y 2 ) = dxd ( x cos y )
d
dx
( y 2 ) = x dxd ( cos y ) + cos y dxd ( x )
2yy ¢ = x ( - sin y × y ¢ ) + cos y ( 1 )

2yy ¢ = -x sin y × y ¢ + cos y

Solving for y ¢ yields
2yy ¢ + x sin yy ¢ = cos y
( 2y + x sin y ) y ¢ = cos y
cos y
y¢ =
2y + x sin y

2 3 2 3
c. Differentiating both sides of the equation xy + yx = x 2 with respect to x , we
obtain
d
dx
(2 3
xy + yx
2 3
=
d
dx
( )
x2 )

Apply product rule, we have

x
dx
( )
d 23
y +y
2 3 d
dx
d
dx
2 3
(x ) + y x + x
2 3 d
dx
( )
( y ) = 2x
æ 2 -1 3 ö÷ æ 2 -1 3 ÷ö
x çç y y ¢ ÷ + y ( 1 ) + y çç x
2 3 2 3
÷ + x ( y ¢ ) = 2x
çè 3 ÷ø çè 3 ÷ø

197
SECTION 3.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

2 -1 3 2 3 2 -1 3 2 3
xy y ¢ + y + yx + x y ¢ = 2x
3 3
Solving for y ¢ yields
æ 2 -1 3 2 3ö 2 -1 3
ççç xy + x ÷÷ y ¢ = 2x - yx
2 3
-y
è3 ÷
ø 3
2 -1 3 23
2x - yx -y
y¢ = 3
2 -1 3 23
xy +x
3

d. Differentiating both sides of the equation 3 + tan(xy ) - 2 = 0 with respect to x , we

obtain
d d
dx
( 3 + tan(xy ) - 2 = ) dx
(0)

12
Rewrite 3 + tan(xy ) as ( 3 + tan(xy ) ) , we obtain

d
dx
(( 3 + tan(xy)) 12
)
-2 = 0

Applying difference rule, we obtain

d
dx
(( 3 + tan(xy)) ) - dxd ( 2 ) = 0
12

1 -1 2
d d
( 3 + tan(xy ) ) ( 3 + tan(xy ) ) - ( 2 ) = 0
2 dx dx
-1 2 æ ö
1 d
( 3 + tan(xy ) ) ççç 0 + sec2 (xy ) (xy ) ÷÷÷ - 0 = 0
2 è dx ø
1 -1 2

( 3 + tan(xy ) ) ( sec2 (xy ) ( xy ¢ + y ) ) = 0

2

Solving for y ¢ yields

1 -1 2

( 3 + tan(xy ) ) ( (x sec2 (xy )y ¢ + y sec2 (xy ) ) = 0

2
1 -1 2
1 -1 2

x sec2 (xy ) ( 3 + tan(xy ) ) y ¢ + y sec2 (xy ) ( 3 + tan(xy ) ) =0

2 2
-1 2
1
- y sec2 (xy ) ( 3 + tan(xy ) )
y
y¢ = 2 -1 2
=-
1 x
x sec2 (xy ) ( 3 + tan(xy ) )
2

198
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

dy
RELATED PROBLEM 1 Find for each of the following
dx
a. 8x 2 + y 2 = 10 b. sin2 (3y ) = x + y - 1

c. 3xy = ( x 3 + y 2 )3 2 d. 1 + sin 3 ( xy 2 ) = y
Answers
-8x b. 1
a.
y 6 sin(3y ) cos(3y ) - 1

3 2 3 12
x (x + y2 ) - y 3y 2 sin2 ( xy 2 ) cos ( xy 2 )
c. 2 d.
x - y (x 3 + y2 )
12
2y - 6xy sin2 ( xy 2 ) cos ( xy 2 )

The following example shows how to find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of
functions that are defined implicitly.

EXAMPLE 3.5.2 Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y 3 + yx 2 + x 2 - 3y 2 = 0

at the point P ( 0, 3 ) .

Solution Note that P ( 0, 3 ) is on the graph since

3 2 2 2
(3) + 3(0) + (0) - 3(3) = 0

dy
The slope m of the tangent line at P ( 0, 3 ) is the value of when x = 0 and y = 3 . First let
dx
dy
us find using implicit differentiation. Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect
dx
to x and using the product rule, we obtain
d d
dx
( y 3 + yx 2 + x 2 - 3y 2 ) =
dx
(0)
d d d d
dx
( y3 ) +
dx
( yx 2 ) +
dx
( x 2 ) - ( 3y 2 ) = 0
dx
dy d d dy
3y 2 + y ( x 2 ) + x 2 ( y ) + 2x - 6y =0
dx dx dx dx
dy dy dy
3y 2 + 2xy + x 2 + 2x - 6y =0
dx dx dx
dy
Solving for yields
dx
dy dy dy
3y 2 + x2 - 6y = -2xy - 2x
dx dx dx
dy
( 3y 2 + x 2 - 6y ) dx = -2x (y + 1)

199
 f (a + h) y = f (x)
Q (a +h, f(a+h))

P (a, f(a))
f (a)
f (a)
SECTION 3.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

a a +h x a+ h
a x
dy 2x (y + 1)
=-
dx 3y + x 2 - 6y
2

Thus, when x = 0 and y = 3 , y

dy 2(0)(3 + 1)
m = =- P =0
dx (0,3) 3(3) + (0)2 - 6(3)
2
(2, 4)

So, an equation of the tangent line at ( 0, 3 ) is

x

y = 0 ( x - 0 ) + 3 or y = 3 , y = 4x−4

see Figure 3.5.2.

y
y

3 (x − 2)2+ y2 = 9 y1  9 

2 y3 + yx2 + x2− 3y2 = 0

-1 2 5 6 x
1
x y2  
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 3.5.2
y Slope m PQ

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Find an equationf (of

a +the
2
h) tangent line to the curve x +Q (y - xm)3 = 9
Slope PQ1
at the point P ( 1, 3 )
Secant lines Q1 Slope m PQ2
5 13
Answer y = x + .
6 6 Q2 Slope m PQ3

L
dy Q3
EXAMPLE 3.5.3 Given that x csc y = 2 , find Tangent line
dx ( x ,y )=çæç1, p ÷÷ö
f (a) P
Slope m
çè 6 ÷ø÷

dy
Solution First let us find using implicit differentiation. Differentiating
a both sides of the x
dx a+ h

equation with respect to x and using the product rule, we obtain

d d
( x csc y ) = ( 2 )
dx dx
d d
x ( csc y ) + csc y ( x ) = 0
dx dx
æ dy ö
x çç - csc y cot y ÷÷ + csc y ( 1 ) = 0
çè dx ÷ø
dy
-x csc y cot y + csc y = 0
dx

200
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

dy
Solving for yields
dx dy csc y 1
= =
dx x csc y cot y x cot y

Thus,

dy 1 æpö 1 3
= = tan çç ÷÷÷ = =
dx ( x ,y )=çæç1, p ö÷÷ æ p ÷ö ç6ø
è 3 3
çè 6 ÷÷ø ( 1 ) cot ççç ÷÷
è6ø

dy
RELATED PROBLEM 3 Given that x 2 cos y + y 2 - 1 = 0 , find .
dx ( x ,y )=( 0,1 )
Answer 0 .

2 3 2 3
EXAMPLE 3.5.4 Find all points (x , y ) on the graph of x +y = 8 where tangent to the
graph at (x , y ) have slope -1 .

Solution Differentiate both sides of the equation, we have

d
dx
( 2 3
x +y
2 3
=
d
dx
(8) )
2 -1 3 2 -1 3
x + y y¢ = 0
3 3
Thus,
13
y
y¢ = -
13
x

Since the tangent to the graph will have slope -1 , set y ¢ = -1 , we have
13
y 13 13
- = -1 Þ y =x Þy =x
13
x

2 3 2 3
Substitute this in the original equation x +y = 8 , we obtain
23 23 23 23
x +x = 8 Þ 2x =8Þx =4

(x )
3 3
2 3
= ( 4 ) Þ x 2 = 64 Þ x = ±8

If x = 8 , then y = 8 , and the tangent line passing throw the point (8, 8) has slope -1 .

If x = -8 , then y = -8 , and the tangent line passing throw the point (-8, -8) has slope -1 .

201
SECTION 3.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

RELATED PROBLEM 4 Find the coordinates of the point in the first quadrant at which the
tangent line to the curve x 3 - xy + y 3 = 0 is horizontal.

æ 3 2 3 4 ö÷
Answer ççç , ÷÷ .
çè 3 3 ÷ø÷

202
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

EXERCISES 3.5
dy
In Exercises 1-21, Find using implicit differentiation
dx

1. x 2 + y = 2xy 2. x 2 = y2 + 1 3. x 2y + xy 2 = 3x
2
4. 2x 2 - y 2 = 1 5. ( 2x + y ) =y 6. x 2 - y 2x = 1

7. x 3 - y 3 = 6xy 8. x 2y + 3xy 3 - x = 3 9. 1 + xy = y

10. tan y = 3x 2 11. cos ( xy ) = x 12. 2 sin y = ( x + 1 )

2

13. x sin y + y sin x = 1 2 2

14. ( x + 1) + (y - 2 ) = 9 15. x + y =1

16. x = sec(2y ) 17. 1 + cos2 y = xy 18. x + y 2 = cot ( xy )

xy
21. 1 + 1 = 1
52
19. 2
x +y 2
= x +1 20. ( 2x 2 + 3y 2 ) =x
x y

In Exercises 22-30, find an equation of the tangent line at the given point.

22. x 3y 2 = -3xy , (-1, -3) 23. x 2 - 4y 3 = 0 , (2,1)

24. x 4 = 8 ( x 2 - y 2 ) , 2, - 2 ( ) æ ö
25. x 4 = 4 ( x 2 - y 2 ) , çç 1, 3 ÷÷÷
çç 2 ÷
è ø
x 2 y2 æ 9ö x 2 y2
26. - = 1 , çç -5, ÷÷÷ 27. + = 1 , ( 1, 2 )
16 9 çè 4ø 2 8

28. x
2 3
+y
2 3
(
= 4 , -3 3,1 ) 29. y = x ( 2 - x ) , ( 1,1 )
2 3

2
30. 2 ( x 2 + y 2 ) = 25 ( x 2 - y 2 ) , ( 3,1 )

In Exercises 31-32, find the points at which the graph of the equation has a horizontal tangent
line
31. 25x 2 + 16y 2 + 200x - 160y + 400 = 0 32. 4x 2 + y 2 - 8x + 4y + 4 = 0

33. Find all point(s) on the curve x 2y 2 + xy = 2 where the slope of the tangent line is -1 .

34. Show that the equation of the tangent line to the parabola y 2 = 4 px at the point (a, b )
is by = 2p(a + x ) .

203
SECTION 3.6 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

Section 3.6
HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

If the derivative f ¢ of the function f is itself differentiable, then the derivative of f ¢ is a

function denoted by f ¢¢ and is called the second derivative of f . If f ¢¢ is also differentiable,
then its derivative is denoted by f ¢¢¢ and is called the third derivative of f . In general, if the
n th derivative of f is differentiable, we can apply the differentiation process to obtain the
(n + 1)th derivative of f . The successive derivatives of f are denoted by

f ¢, f ¢¢, f ¢¢¢, f (4),..........., f (n )

or
2 3 n
d é ù , d é f (x ) ù , d é f (x ) ù ,.........., d é f (x ) ù .
f (x )
dx ë û
dx 2
ë û
dx 3
ë û
dx n
ë û

If y = f (x ) , then the first n derivatives are also denoted by

y ¢, y ¢¢, y ¢¢¢,........., y (n )
or
dy d 2y d 3y d ny
, , ,..........,
dx dx 2 dx 3 dx n

Now, let us consider some examples on higher derivatives.

EXAMPLE 3.6.1 Find each of the following

a. f ¢¢(x ) for f (x ) = x + 2x - 2x .
5 3

d 5y
b. for y = x 7 - 2x 4 + 6x 2 - 12 .
5
dx

Solution

a. In order to find f ¢¢(x ) , we need to find f ¢(x ) . We obtain

d
f ¢(x ) =
dx
( x 5 + 2x 3 - 2x ) = 5x 4 + 6x 2 - 2
Thus,
d d
f ¢¢(x ) = ( f ¢(x ) ) = ( 5x 4 + 6x 2 - 2 ) = 20x 3 + 12x .
dx dx

204
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

d 5y dy d 2y d 3y d 4y
b. In order to find , we need to find , , , . We obtain
dx 5 dx dx 2 dx 3 dx 4
dy d
dx
=
dx
( x 7 - 2x 4 + 6x 2 - 12 ) = 7x 6 - 8x 3 + 12x
d 2y d
dx 2
=
dx
( 7x 6 - 8x 3 + 12x ) = 42x 5 - 24x 2 + 12

d 3y d
dx 3
=
dx
( 42x 5 - 24x 2 + 12 ) = 210x 4 - 48x

d 4y d
dx 4
=
dx
( 210x 4 - 48x ) = 840x 3 - 48
Thus,
d 5y d
dx 5
=
dx
( 840x 3 - 48 ) = 2520x 2 .

RELATED PROBLEM 1 Find each of the following

4 3
a. f ¢¢(x ) for f (x ) = 2x - .
x
d 3f 4
b. for f (t ) = 4t 2 - 12 + .
dt 3 t2

Answer
9 96
a. 24x 2 - . b. - .
4 x 5 t5

EXAMPLE 3.6.2 Given that f (x ) = sin ( x 2 ) . Find f ¢¢(x ) .

Solution In order to find f ¢¢(x ) , we need to find f ¢(x ) . Doing so using the generalized
derivative formula for sin u yields
d d
f ¢(x ) =
dx
( sin ( x 2 ) ) = cos ( x 2 ) ( x 2 ) = 2x cos ( x 2 )
dx
Thus,
d d
f ¢¢(x ) = ( f ¢(x ) ) = ( 2x cos ( x 2 ) )
dx dx
Using product rule and the generalized derivative formula for cos u yields
d d d
f ¢¢(x ) =
dx
( 2x cos ( x 2 ) ) = 2x ( cos ( x 2 ) ) + cos ( x 2 ) ( 2x )
dx dx

= 2x ( -2x sin ( x 2 ) ) + 2 cos ( x 2 )

= -4x 2 sin ( x 2 ) + 2 cos ( x 2 )

205
SECTION 3.6 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Given that f (x ) = cos ( x 3 ) . Find f ¢¢(x ) .

Answer f ¢¢(x ) = - ( 9x 4 cos ( x 3 ) + 6x sin ( x 3 ) )

Notice that higher derivatives of sin x and cos x form a pattern, that is because of the
periodicity of the two functions. For example, if f (x ) = sin x , then

f ¢(x ) = cos x , f ¢¢(x ) = - sin x , f (3)(x ) = - cos x , f (4)(x ) = sin x

Now, we can see that f (4)(x ) = sin x , so we can find any derivative of the sine function as
follows. Suppose we want to find the n th derivative of sin x . All we need to do is divide n by
4 , and look at the remainder r . If we take the r th derivative of sin x , it will be exactly the
same as taking the n th derivative, as every four derivatives will simply return us to the original
result of the sine function. Applying this principle, we find that

f (17)(x ) = f ¢(x ) = cos x

f (18)(x ) = f ¢¢(x ) = - sin x
f (19)(x ) = f (3)(x ) = - cos x
f (20)(x ) = f (x ) = sin x

Note the derivatives follow a similar pattern for f (x ) = cos x

The following example shows how to find the second derivatives of functions that are defined
implicitly.

EXAMPLE 3.6.3 Find y ¢¢ if y + sin y = x

Solution In order to find y ¢¢ , we need to find y ¢ providing this function determines an implicit
differentiable function. Doing so using implicit differentiation yields
d d
( y + sin y ) = ( x )
dx dx

y ¢ + ( cos y ) y ¢ = 1

Solving for y ¢ yields

1
y¢ =
1 + cos y

Thus,

d æç 1 ö÷
y ¢¢ = çç ÷
dx è 1 + cos y ø÷

206
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

We now use the quotient rule, differentiating implicitly as follows

-(- sin y )y ¢ (sin y )y ¢
y ¢¢ = =
2 2
( 1 + cos y ) ( 1 + cos y )
Substituting for y ¢ yields
æ 1 ÷÷ö
sin y çç
çè 1 + cos y ÷ø sin y
y ¢¢ = =
2 3
( 1 + cos y ) ( 1 + cos y )

RELATED PROBLEM 3 Find y ¢¢ if x 3y 3 - 4 = 0 .

2y
Answer y ¢¢ =
x2

EXAMPLE 3.6.4 Find all values of k such that y = x k satisfy the equation
3x 2y ¢¢ + 4xy ¢ - 2y = 0 .
Solution

y ¢ = kx k -1, y ¢¢ = k ( k - 1 ) x k -2

Substitute values of y, y ¢, y ¢¢ in the equation 3x 2y ¢¢ + 4xy ¢ - 2y = 0 , so, we have

3x 2k ( k - 1 ) x k -2 + 4kxx k -1 - 2x k = 0

3k ( k - 1 ) x k + 4kx k - 2x k = 0

x k éë 3k ( k - 1 ) + 4k - 2 ùû = 0 .
Thus,
3k ( k - 1 ) + 4k - 2 = 0
3k 2 + k - 2 = 0
( 3k - 2 )( k + 1 ) = 0
2
k = , k = -1 .
3

The following example shows how to find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f ¢
at indicated point.

EXAMPLE 3.6.5 If f (x ) = x 4 - x 3 - 6x 2 + 7x , find an equation of the tangent line to the

graph of f ¢ at the point P (2, 3) .

207
SECTION 3.6 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

Solution

f ¢(x ) = 4x 3 - 3x 2 - 12x + 7

P ( 2, 3 ) is on the graph of f ¢ since,

3 2
f ¢(2) = 4 ( 2 ) - 3 ( 2 ) - 12 ( 2 ) + 7 = 3

The slope m of the tangent line to the graph of f ¢ at P ( 2, 3 ) is f ¢¢(2) . We have

f ¢¢(x ) = 12x 2 - 6x - 12

Thus,
2
m = f ¢¢(2) = 12 ( 2 ) - 6 ( 2 ) - 12 = 24

Therefore, the tangent line is described by the equation

y = 24 ( x - 2 ) + 3
y = 24x - 45

RELATED PROBLEM 4 If f (x ) = 2x 4 - 3x 3 , find an equation of the tangent line to the graph

of f ¢ at the point P (1, -1) .

Answer y = 6x - 7 .

d2
EXAMPLE 3.6.6 If g is twice differentiable function, find
dx 2
( x × g ( x 2 )) in terms of g, g ¢, g ¢¢
d
Solution Apply the product rule and the chain rule to find
dx
( x × g ( x 2 )) , we obtain
d
dx
( x × g ( x 2 )) = x dxd ( g ( x 2 )) + g ( x 2 ) dxd ( x )
= xg ¢ ( x 2 ) ( 2x ) + g ( x 2 )

= 2x 2g ¢ ( x 2 ) + g ( x 2 ) .

d2
Apply product rule, chain rule, and sum rule to find
dx 2
( x × g ( x 2 )) , we obtain
d2
dx 2
( x × g ( x 2 )) = dxd ( 2x 2g ¢ ( x 2 ) + g ( x 2 ))
é d d ù d
= ê ( 2x 2 ) ( g ¢ ( x 2 ) ) + g ¢ ( x 2 ) ( 2x 2 ) ú +
úû dx ( ( ) )
g x2
êë dx dx

= ( 2x 2 ) g ¢¢ ( x 2 ) ( 2x ) + g ¢ ( x 2 ) ( 4x ) + g ¢ ( x 2 ) ( 2x )

= 4x 3g ¢¢ ( x 2 ) + 4xg ¢ ( x 2 ) + 2xg ¢ ( x 2 )

= 4x 3g ¢¢ ( x 2 ) + 6xg ¢ ( x 2 ) .

208
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

d2
RELATED PROBLEM 5 If g is twice differentiable function, find
dx 2
( g ( x )) in terms of

g, g ¢, g ¢¢ .

Answer
xg ¢¢ ( x ) - g¢( x ) .
4x x

ACCELERATION
In Section 3.2, we know that if s = f (t ) is the position function of an object that moves in a
straight line, then its first derivative represent the velocity of the object
ds
v(t ) = f ¢(t ) =
dt
d 2s
Now, we want to give a physical interpretation of the second derivative . It is just the first
dt 2
derivative of the velocity. Thus, it measures the rate of change of velocity with respect to time,
which is called acceleration and it is denoted by a . Thus,
dv d 2s
a = = .
dt dt 2
If t is measured in seconds and s in meters, then the unit of velocity is meters per second,
which we abbreviate as m sec . The unit of acceleration is then meters per second squared,
2
which we abbreviate as m sec .

EXAMPLE 3.6.7 The position of a particle is given by the equation

s(t ) = 4t 3 - 9t 2 + 6t + 2 ,
where s is measured in meters and t in seconds.
a. What are v(t ) and a(t ) , the velocity and acceleration of the particle, at time t ?
b. What is the velocity of the particle after 2 seconds?
c. When is the particle at rest?
d. What is the acceleration of the particle after 3 seconds?
e. When is the acceleration of the particle positive?
Solution
a. We have
ds d
v(t ) = = ( 4t 3 - 9t 2 + 6t + 2 ) = 12t 2 - 18t + 6
dt dt ,
while
d 2s d
a(t ) =
dt 2
=
dt
(12t 2 - 18t + 6 ) = 24t - 18 .

209
SECTION 3.6 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

b. The velocity after 2 seconds means the instantaneous velocity when t = 2 , that is,

v(2) = 12(2)2 - 18(2) + 6 = 18 m sec

c. The particle is at rest when v(t ) = 0 , that is,

12t 2 - 18t + 6 = 6 ( 2t 2 - 3t + 1 ) = 6 ( 2t - 1 )( t - 1 ) = 0

1 1
And this is true when t = or t = 1 . Thus the particle is at rest after second and
2 2
after 1 second.

d. The acceleration after 3 seconds is given by

a(3) = 24(3) - 18 = 54 m sec2

e. The acceleration is positive when a(t ) > 0 , that is,

24t - 18 = 6(4t - 3) > 0 .

3
Thus, a(t ) > 0 when t > .
4

1 4
RELATED PROBLEM 6 If s(t ) = t - 5t 3 + 12t 2 , where s is measured in meters and t in
2
seconds. Find the velocity of the moving object when its acceleration is 0 m/sec2.

Answer v(1) = 11 m / sec , v(4) = -16 m / sec .

210
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

EXERCISES 3.6
In Exercises 1-16, find the second derivative of the given function
1. f (x ) = x 7 - 2x 4 + x 3 + 6x + 2 8 5 2
2. g(x ) = x - 2x - 3x + 1

3
3. h(t ) = t2 + 1 4. f (x ) = x 2 + 2x

1 6. h(x ) = x 3 - 3 x - 2x
5. g(x ) = - x 3 + 2x 2 - 18
2
8. f (x ) = 1 - x
x
7. g(x ) =
x -1 1+x
34 65
9. g(x ) = ( 1 - x 2 ) 10. h(x ) = ( x 3 - 2x 2 )

11. g(t ) = sin 3 t 12. f (x ) = x 2 cos ( 2x )

1
13. g(x ) = 14. r (t ) = tan ( t 2 )
1 - cos(3x )
4 3
15. h(t ) = ( 3t + 1 ) 16. f (x ) = 2 - 9x

In Exercises 17-22, find y ¢¢¢

2 3
17. y = 5t - 1 18. y = ( x + 1 )
1 3x
19. y = 20. y =
x -1 1-x
21. y = sin ( 7x ) 22. y = sin ( x 3 )

In Exercises 23-28, find g ¢¢(2)

2 2x 2
23. g(x ) = 24. g(x ) =
x 5-x
-2 æpö
25. g(t ) = ( cos pt ) 26. g(x ) = x sin çç ÷÷
çè x ø÷
2
27. g(x ) = x ( 1 - x 2 )
3 (s + 1)
28. g(s ) =
s -1
In Exercises 29-36, find y ¢¢ by implicit differentiation

29. x 2 + y 2 = 1 30. x 2 3 + y 2 3 = 1
31. x 2 + 6xy + y 2 = 8 32. x + y =1
33. x + cos y = y 34. 2 sin(xy ) = 1

35. 2 tan y = x 36. 2 cos y = x

211
SECTION 3.6 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

d 2 æç g(x ) ö÷
37. If g is twice differentiable function, find çç ÷÷ in terms of g, g ¢, g ¢¢ .
2è x ø
dx

38. If f (x ) = x 3 - x 2 + 6x - 5 , find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f ¢ at

the point P (1, 7) .

d 2y
39. If y = x 4 , show that x 2 - 12y = 0 .
dx 2

1
40. If y = , show that x 2y ¢¢ + 3xy ¢ + y = 0 .
x

d2 é 2 d æ 1 öù
41. Evaluate ê ( x + 1 ) çç ÷÷ ú .
dx 2 êë dx èç x ÷ø úû

d 2 éê d2 ù
42. Evaluate
ê
dx 2 ë
( 1 + 2x )
dx 2
( 5 - x 3 ) úú .
û

43. The position of a particle moves in a straight line is given by the equation
s(t ) = t 4 - 4t - 1 ,
where s is measured in meters and t in seconds.

a. What are v(t ) and a(t ) , the velocity and acceleration of the particle, at time t ?
b. What is the velocity of the particle after 2 seconds?
c. What is the acceleration of the particle after 1 2 second?
d. When is the acceleration of the particle positive?

1 4
44. If s(t ) =
10
(t - 14t 3 + 60t 2 ) , find the velocity of the moving object when its
acceleration is zero.

212
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Section 3.7
THE DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE
FUNCTIONS
In this section, we use the chain rule to find the derivative of an inverse function in terms of
the original function. Recall from Theorem 1.4.1 that if f -1 is the inverse function of f , then
f -1( f (x )) = x for x in the domain of f and f ( f -1(x )) = x for x in the domain of f -1 .
Suppose f and f -1 are differentiable, it follows that

f ( f -1(x )) = x
d é -1 ù d é ù
dx êë f ( f (x )) úû = dx ë x û

Using the chain rule, we have

f ¢( f -1(x ))( f -1 )¢ (x ) = 1 (1)

Solving equation (1) for ( f -1 )¢ (x ) , we have

1
( f -1 )¢ (x ) = , f ¢( f -1(x )) ¹ 0
-
f ¢( f 1(x ))

Now, we state the result as Theorem 3.7.1

THEOREM 3.7.1
Let f be a function that is differentiable on an interval I . If f has an inverse function

f -1 , then f -1 is differentiable at any x for which f ¢( f -1(x )) ¹ 0 . Moreover,

1
( f -1 )¢ (x ) = , f ¢( f -1(x )) ¹ 0 (1)
-1
f ¢( f (x ))

Formula (1) can be expressed in a less forbidding form by letting

y = f -1(x ) so that x = f (y )
Thus,
dy dx
= ( f -1 )¢ (x ) and = f ¢(y )
dx dy

Substituting these expressions in (1) yields the following alternative formula for (1)

213
SECTION 3.7 THE DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS

dy 1
= (2)
dx dx dy

If we can obtain an explicit formula for the inverse of a function, then we can use such formula
in order to find the derivative of the inverse. On the other hand, this is not always the case.
Thus, we have to apply Theorem 3.7.1 to discuss the differentiability and obtain the derivative
of the inverse. The following example illustrates this.

EXAMPLE 3.7.1 Let f (x ) = x 3 + 4x - 1

a. Show that f -1 is differentiable on  .
b. Find the derivative of f -1 by using Formula (2).
c. Find the derivative of f -1 by implicit differentiation.

Solution
a. We need to show that as x varies over  , the value of f -1(x ) varies over an interval
on which f has a nonzero derivative. But this is so because
f ¢(x ) = 3x 2 + 4
Which is positive for all x .

b. If we let y = f -1(x ) , then

x = f (y ) = y 3 + 4y - 1 (3)
from which it follows that,
dx
= 3y 2 + 4
dy
Thus,
dy 1 1
= = (4)
dx dx dy 3y 2 + 4

Because (3) is too complicated to solve for y in terms of x , we leave (4) in terms of y .

c. Differentiating (3) implicitly with respect to x yields

d d
( x ) = ( y 3 + 4y - 1 )
dx dx
dy dy
1 = 3y 2 +4
dx dx
dy
1 = ( 3y 2 + 4 )
dx

214
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Thus,
dy 1
=
dx 3y 2 + 4
Which agrees with (4).

1 3
RELATED PROBLEM 1 Let f (x ) = x + x -1
3
a. Show that f -1 is differentiable on  .

b. Find the derivative of f -1 by using Formula (2).

c. Find the derivative of f -1 by implicit differentiation.

Answer
1 1
b. c.
2 2
y +1 y +1

DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The inverse trigonometric functions are the inverse functions of the trigonometric
functions (with suitably restricted domains). They are used to obtain an angle from any of the
angle›s trigonometric ratios. Now, we develop rules for differentiating the inverse trigonometric
functions. Recall from Section 1.6 that we need pay very close attention to the domains
and ranges for these functions. The following theorem lists the derivatives of the six inverse
trigonometric functions.

THEOREM 3.7.2 (Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions)

d 1 d 1
a.
dx
( sin-1 x ) =
2
, -1 < x < 1 b.
dx
( cos-1 x ) = - , -1 < x < 1
1-x 1 - x2
d 1 d 1
c.
dx
( tan-1 x ) = 1 + x 2 d.
dx
( )
cot-1 x = -
1 + x2
d 1 d 1
e.
dx
( sec-1 x ) = , x >1 f.
dx
( csc-1 x ) = - , x >1
x x2 - 1 x x2 - 1

PROOF
We shall prove (a), (c) and (e). The other formulas are left as an exercise.

a. Let y = sin-1 x . Therefore,

p p
sin(y ) = x for -£y £
2 2
Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to y , we have

215
SECTION 3.7 THE DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS

d d
( sin y ) = ( x )
dy dy
dx
cos y = (5)
dy
From the identity sin2 y + cos2 y = 1 , and replacing sin y by x , we obtain

cos2 y = 1 - x 2
p p
If - £ y £ , then cos y ³ 0 . Thus,
2 2
cos y = 1 - x2

Substituting cos y = 1 - x 2 in equation (5), we get

dx
= 1 - x2
dy
From Formula (2),
dy 1
=
dx dx dy
And hence,
d 1
dx
( sin-1 x ) = , where -1 < x < 1
1 - x2

c. Let y = tan-1 x . Therefore,

p p
tan y = x for - <y <
2 2
Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to y , we have
d d
( tan y ) = ( x )
dy dy
dx
sec2 y = (6)
dy
From the identity 1 + tan2 y = sec2 y , and replacing tan y by x , we obtain

sec2 y = 1 + x 2

Substituting sec2 y = 1 + x 2 in equation (6), we get

dx
= 1 + x2
dy
From Formula (2),
dy 1
=
dx dx dy
And hence,
d 1
dx
( tan-1 x ) =
1 + x2

216
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

e. Let y = sec-1 x . Therefore,

p 3p
sec y = x for 0<y < or p < y <
2 2
Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to y , we have
d d
( sec y ) = ( x )
dy dy
dx
sec y tan y = (7)
dy
From the identity 1 + tan2 y = sec2 y , and replacing sec y by x , we obtain
tan2 y = x 2 - 1

p 3p
If 0 < y < or p < y < , then tan y > 0 . Thus,
2 2
tan y = x2 - 1

Substituting tan y = x 2 - 1 , and replacing sec y by x in equation (7), we get

dx
= x x2 - 1
dy
From Formula (2),
dy 1
=
dx dx dy
And hence,
d 1
dx
( sec-1 x ) = for x > 1
x x2 - 1
¢

Now, if u = g(x ) is differentiable function of x , then the chain rules gives the following
generalized derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions.

THEOREM 3.7.3 (Generalized Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions)

d du
1 d 1 du
a. ( sin-1 u ) = b.
dx
( cos-1 u ) = -
dx 1-u 2 dx
1 - u 2 dx
d 1 du d 1 du
c.
dx
(
tan-1 u = )
1 + u 2 dx
d. ( cot-1 u ) = -
dx 1 + u 2 dx
e. d
( sec-1 u ) =
1 du f. d ( csc-1 u ) = - 1 du
dx u u - 1 dx
2 dx u u - 1 dx
2

EXAMPLE 3.7.2 Find the derivative of each of the following functions

a. f (x ) = sin-1 ( 5x ) b. f (x ) = tan-1 ( x +1 ) c. f (t ) = t 2 sec-1 ( 2t )
d. f (t ) = sin ( cos-1 t )

217
SECTION 3.7 THE DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Solution
a. Taking u = 5x in the generalized derivative formula for sin-1 u yields
d d 1 du
f ¢(x ) =
dx
( sin-1 ( 5x ) ) =
dx
( sin-1 u ) =
1 - u 2 dx
1 d 5
= ( 5x ) =
2 dx 1 - 25x 2
1 - ( 5x )

1
b. Taking u = x + 1 = ( x + 1 )2 in the generalized derivative formula for tan-1 u yields

d
f ¢(x ) =
dx
(
tan-1 ( x +1 )) = dxd ( tan-1 u ) = 1 +1 u 2 du
dx
1 d æç 1ö
= çç ( x + 1 )2 ÷÷÷
æ 1 ö dx ç
2
è ÷ø
ç ÷
1 + çç ( x + 1 )2 ÷÷
çè ÷ø
1 æ1 1 ö
çç x + 1 -2 1 ÷÷
= ( ) ( ) ÷
1 + x + 1 çèç 2 ø÷
1 1 1
= =
(x + 2 ) 2 x + 1 2 (x + 2) x + 1

c. Apply the product rule, we have

d d
f ¢(t ) = t 2 ( sec-1 ( 2t ) ) + sec-1 ( 2t ) ( t 2 )
dt dt
Taking u = 2t in the generalized derivative formula for sec-1 u yields
d d 1 du
dt
( sec-1 ( 2t ) ) = ( sec-1 u ) =
dt u u - 1 dt
2

1 d 2 1
= ( 2t ) = =
2
( 2t ) ( 2t ) -1
dt ( 2t ) 4t - 1 t × 4t 2 - 1
2

Thus,
æ 1 ö÷ t
f ¢(t ) = t 2 çç ÷÷ + sec-1 ( 2t )( 2t ) = + 2t sec-1 ( 2t )
çè t× 4t - 1 ø÷
2 2
4t - 1

d. Taking u = cos-1 t in the generalized derivative formula for sin u yields

du d æ 1 ö÷ t
f ¢(t ) = sin u = cos u = cos ( cos-1 t ) ( cos-1 t ) = t çç - ÷ø÷÷ = -
dt dt çè 1 - t2 1 - t2

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Find the derivative of each of the following functions

a. f (x ) = 2 sin-1 ( x - 1 ) b. f (x ) = sec-1 ( 2x )

c. f (t ) = tan-1 ( sin(2t ) ) d. f (t ) = tan-1 t + t cot-1 t

218
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Answer

a. 2 b. 1
2
2x - x x 4x 2 - 1

2 cos ( 2t ) d. 1-t
c. + cot-1 t
1 + sin 2
( 2t ) 1 + t2

3 dy
EXAMPLE 3.7.3 If y = ( 1 + cos-1(3x ) ) , find .
dx
Solution Apply the general power rule, we have
dy 2 d
= 3 ( 1 + cos-1(3x ) ) (1 + cos-1(3x ) )
dx dx
Taking u = 3x in the generalized derivative formula for cos-1 u yields
d 1 d -3
dx
( 1 + cos-1(3x ) ) = 0 - ( 3x ) =
1 - (3x ) dx
2
1 - 9x 2
Thus,
dy 2æ -3 ö÷
= 3 ( 1 + cos-1(3x ) ) çç ÷÷
dx ç
è 1 - 9x 2 ÷ø

2
-9 ( 1 + cos-1(3x ) )
=
1 - 9x 2

4 dy
RELATED PROBLEM 3 If y = ( x 2 + csc-1(2x ) ) , find .
dx
3æ 1 ö÷
Answer 4 ( x 2 + csc-1(2x ) ) çç 2x - ÷÷ .
çè x 4x 2 - 1 ø÷

EXAMPLE 3.7.4 Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the curve
p æ 2 2 ö÷
sin-1 x + sin-1 y = at the point P ççç , ÷÷ .
2 çè 2 2 ø÷
Solution Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x , we obtain
d d æç p ö÷
dx
( sin-1 x + sin-1 y ) = ç ÷
dx çè 2 ÷ø
Thus,
1 1 dy
+ =0
1 - x2 1 - y 2 dx
dy
Solving for yields
dx

219
SECTION 3.7 THE DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS

-1
2
dy
= 1 - x2 = - 1 - y
dx 1 1 - x2
1 - y2
æ 2 ö÷2
1 - ççç ÷
dy çè 2 ÷÷ø
æ 2 2 ö÷
=- = -1
dx (x ,y )=ççç , ÷÷ æ 2 ö÷ 2
çè 2 2 ø÷
1 - ççç ÷
çè 2 ÷÷ø

æ 2 2 ö÷
Thus, the equation of the tangent line at ççç , ÷÷ is
çè 2 2 ÷ø
æ 2 ö÷ 2
y = -1 ççç x - ÷÷÷ +
çè 2 ø 2
y = -x + 2

RELATED PROBLEM 4 Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the curve
æ3 pö
y = sin-1(x - 1) at the point P çç , ÷÷÷ .
çè 2 6 ø
2 æç 3ö p
Answer y = çç x - ÷÷÷ + .
3è 2ø 6

220
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

EXERCISES 3.7
In Exercises 1-3 use Formula (2) to find the derivative of f -1

1. f (x ) = 2x 3 + x - 3 2. f (x ) = 2x 5 + x 3 + x

3. f (x ) = x 7 + x 5 + x

In Exercises 4-17, find the derivative of the function

cos-1 x
4. f (x ) = sec-1 ( 3x ) 5. g(x ) =
x +1

6. f (x ) = cot-1 ( x) 7. f (x ) = x cos-1 x - 1 - x 2

1 æt ö
8. f (t ) = t 4 - t 2 + 2 sin-1 çç ÷÷÷ 9. f (t ) = tan ( sin-1 t )
2 èç 2 ø

10. f (x ) = ( csc(2x ) + cot(2x ) )

4
11. f (x ) = sec-1 ( x2 - 1 )
12. f (x ) = x tan ( x ) 13. f (x ) = cos ( x -1 ) + ( cos x )
2 -1 2 -1
+ cos-1 x

tan-1(x )
14. f (x ) =
x2 + 1
15. f (x ) = x sec-1 ( x)
æ ö
-1 1 ÷
(
16. f (t ) = tan-1 t - t 2 + 1 ) 17. f (t ) = cot t + cot ççç ÷÷
-1
èt ø

In Exercises 18-22, find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the function at the
indicated point.
æx ö æ1 p ö
18. y = 3 cos-1 çç ÷÷ , ( 1, p ) 19. y = x sin-1 x , ççç , ÷÷÷
çè 2 ÷ø è 2 12 ø
æ 2 p ÷ö æ pö
20. y = sec-1 ( 2x ) , ççç , ÷÷ 21. y = cos-1 ( x 2 ) , ççç 0, ÷÷÷
çè 2 4 ÷ø è 2ø

-1 , æçç -1, - p ö÷÷

22. y = tan x èç 4 ÷ø

æx ö
23. If h(x ) = x sin-1 çç ÷÷ + 16 - x 2 , find h ¢(2) .
çè 4 ÷ø

d 1 du
24. Prove that
dx
( cot-1 u ) = -
1 + u 2 dx
.

221
SECTION 3.7 THE DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS

222