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Argument & Its Types

The document provides an overview of arguments, defining them as a group of propositions supporting a conclusion, and categorizing them into deductive and inductive types. Deductive arguments aim for absolute certainty, while inductive arguments suggest probable conclusions based on premises. It also outlines valid, sound, invalid, and unsound deductive arguments, as well as strong and weak inductive arguments, highlighting key differences between the two types.

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8 views4 pages

Argument & Its Types

The document provides an overview of arguments, defining them as a group of propositions supporting a conclusion, and categorizing them into deductive and inductive types. Deductive arguments aim for absolute certainty, while inductive arguments suggest probable conclusions based on premises. It also outlines valid, sound, invalid, and unsound deductive arguments, as well as strong and weak inductive arguments, highlighting key differences between the two types.

Uploaded by

bakhtawarrazzaq00111
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Course Title: Introduction to Logic and reasoning


Course Instructor: MS Maham Saleem
Argument & its Types

An argument is a way of presenting reasoning to support a conclusion.

Or

Group of propositions in which one or more premises and only one conclusion.

Types of arguments

Arguments can be either deductive or inductive, depending on how strong the connection
is between the premises (statements that support the conclusion) and the conclusion itself.

1. Deductive Argument

Deductive arguments aim to provide absolute certainty. They start with general rules or
principles (called premises) and use logic to reach a specific conclusion. A deductive argument if
the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true. There is no possibility for the conclusion
to be false if the reasoning is correct.

Examples:

1) Think of it like a math formula if the input is correct, the output is guaranteed to be correct.
2) All laws made by the government apply to citizens. (Premise 1), Speed limits are laws
made by the government. (Premise 2), Speed limits apply to citizens. (Conclusion)

Here, if both premises are true, the conclusion must be true it is logically necessary.

Types of Deductive Arguments:

Valid Deductive Arguments: A valid deductive argument is like a perfectly balanced equation.
If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. There's no way around it.

 Example:
o Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
o Premise 2: Socrates is a human.
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o Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

In this case, if the first two statements are true, the conclusion has to be true.

A sound argument is a deductive argument that is valid and has all true premises.

Invalid Deductive Arguments: An invalid deductive argument has a problem in its logical
structure. Even if the premises seem true, the conclusion doesn't necessarily follow.

 Example:
o Premise 1: All birds can fly.
o Premise 2: Penguins are birds.
o Conclusion: Penguins can fly.

This is invalid because penguins are a specific type of bird that cannot fly.

An unsound argument is a deductive argument that is invalid, has one or more false
premises.

2. Inductive Argument

An inductive argument if the premises are true, the conclusion is probably true, but there
is still a chance it could be false. The conclusion is likely, but not guaranteed.

Examples:

1) Think of it like weather forecasting if the sky is cloudy and the air is humid, it will
probably rain, but not always.
2) 90% of people who have the suspect’s fingerprints at a crime scene are guilty. (Premise
1), The suspect’s fingerprints were found at the crime scene. (Premise 2), The suspect is
probably guilty. (Conclusion)

Even though the evidence strongly suggests guilt, there is still a chance that the suspect is
innocent (maybe they were framed).
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3) Every time I go to this coffee shop, they serve good coffee. (Premise 1), I am going to
this coffee shop now. (Premise 2), They will probably serve good coffee. (Conclusion)

There is a strong probability of a good coffee experience, but it’s not 100% guaranteed (maybe the
barista is having a bad day).

Types of inductive arguments

Strong Inductive Argument: A strong inductive argument, if the premises are true, the
conclusion is very likely to be true.

Example:

Premise 1: Every swan I have ever seen is white.

Conclusion: All swans are white.

This argument was considered strong for a long time, as many people had only ever seen white
swans. However, the discovery of black swans in Australia proved it to be incorrect.

Weak Inductive Argument: A weak inductive argument is one where, even if the premises are
true, the conclusion is not very likely to be true.

Example:

Premise 1: I woke up late this morning.

Conclusion: I will be late to work every day.

This is a weak argument because one instance of being late doesn't necessarily predict future
lateness.

Key Differences Between Deductive and Inductive Arguments


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