A Mini-Dictionary of Common Literary Terms (updated for 2022)

Allegory A narrative work in which events, actions, characters, settings or

objects represent specific abstractions or ideas. Often has a religious,
moral or historical meaning.

Alliteration The repetition of initial consonants in words next to or close to each

other. It can be used to draw emphasis to specific ideas, build
atmosphere, or to alter the rhythm and structure in a poem.

Allusion A reference to someone or something assumed to be well-known.

Anachronism The placement of someone or something associated with a particular

time in history in the wrong time period. Often used to add humour,
make a statement, or to break the fourth wall.

Anagnorisis The moment in a plot or story, specifically a tragedy, where the

character makes a critical discovery. This discovery is often startling
and produces a change from ignorance to knowledge.

Antithesis The use of two phrases that have a similar structure and word-order,
but which are opposing or contrasting in meaning. It is used to highlight
the differences between two entities. In everyday usage, it can refer
more broadly to opposing ideas.

Assonance The repetition of the same vowel sounds.

Atmosphere The emotional tone that pervades a section or the whole of a literary
work. Often used interchangeably with mood.

Bathos An unexpected anti-climax or when there is a sudden and ridiculous

shift in tone to something trivial.

Bildungsroman Refers to a coming-of-age novel, which depict the developments of

their protagonists from youth to adulthood, focusing on the
psychological, emotional, and moral changes these characters
undergo.

Burlesque A type of satire, where the subject matter being imitated is deliberately
distorted in order to amuse or to achieve a comedic effect.

Caricature The exaggerated portrayal of a character, often for comical purposes.

Conceit A comparison between dissimilar objects, intended to provoke readers

into thinking about the subject matter in a new way. A conceit differs
from a metaphor in that the comparison is meant to be novel, often to
surprising or shocking effect.

Conflict The struggle between two opposing forces. Conflict in literature could
be external (e.g. protagonist vs antagonist, protagonist vs outside
 forces) or internal (e.g. a character’s psychological struggle – virtue vs
vice; duty to society vs personal desires).

Connotation The suggestions or associations that a word implies. Connotation is

distinct from denotation, which refers to the dictionary meaning of a
word.

Consonance The repetition of the same consonant sounds.

Denouement Dramatic outcome or showdown.

Deus Ex A Latin phrase that translates to “god in the machine”. Refers to a plot
Machina device where a seemingly unsolvable conflict or impossible problem is
solved by the sudden appearance of an unexpected person, object, or
event.

Diction The choice of words and phrases used. It does NOT refer to the literal
definition of a word/phrase.

Dissonance The use of harsh sounds that are unpleasant and usually disruptive to
the flow of speech and text.

Dramatic Irony A plot device in a drama / play, whereby the audience knows more
about the situation than the characters do. This allows for the speech
of the characters to function at multiple levels of meaning, creating
suspense and humour.

Ellipsis Punctuation mark consisting of three dots in a row (i.e. “…”).

Euphemism A word or expression used in lieu of a harsher alternative. Often used

to soften the impact of something blunt or shocking, though
euphemism can also be used for comic effect.

Euphony The use of pleasant or harmonious sounds, usually meant to create a

soothing effect.

Figurative Metaphorical or non-literal language that describes its subject in terms

Language of something else. Also known as figures of speech.

Examples of figurative language include symbols, personification,

metaphors, allegories, irony, metaphors, similes, etc.

Foreshadowing An advance hint of what to come later in the story. Often appears at the
beginning of a story / scene / chapter, to help the reader develop
expectations about characters or events yet to occur in the plot.

Hamartia The fatal flaw that leads to the downfall of a tragic hero or heroine.

Hubris The trait of arrogance or excessive self-confidence, leading a character

to overstep limits, thus causing their downfall.
Hyperbole Exaggerated language. Often used for purposes of emphasis or satire.

Image A mental picture or impression that appeals to one (or more) of the
reader’s five senses. Imagery refers a group of related images.

Irony Refers to a contrast between reality and what the characters / readers /
audience expects. It can also refer to the contrast between what a
character is saying, vs what they mean. Irony is often used to create
humour or to emphasize the tragedy of a situation.

Common types of irony include:

- Verbal irony: contrast between what is said and what was
meant; includes sarcasm
- Situational irony: a discrepancy between expected and actual
outcomes.
- Dramatic irony: (see above)

Juxtaposition Refers to images, objects or concepts that are radically different being
placed near each other for contrasting purposes. Juxtaposition differs
from antithesis (see above) in that the juxtaposed subject is not
necessarily described using a similar structure or word order.

Metaphor The comparison of one thing to another, without the use of the words
“like” or “as”. An extended metaphor occurs when a metaphor is
developed throughout the entire text and is most commonly found in
poems.

Metonymy When an object is referred to by a term closely associated with it. (e.g.
referring to the entire American financial market as “Wall Street”, which
is a street in the New York business district.)

Motif An object, character, incident or image which recurs frequently

throughout a text. Usually points to an issue or theme that the writer
wishes to highlight.

Mood The overall emotional impact or quality of a scene or a text.

Onomatopoeia The use of words that resemble or suggest the sounds they are
referring to. Usually used to bring the scene to life for the reader.

Oxymoron A phrase or even a compound word which consists of two terms

directly opposite in meaning. Often used to convey the paradox or a
contradiction inherent in a situation.

Parody A mocking imitation of the style of a literary work or works, ridiculing the
stylistic habits of an author or school by the exaggeration of
characteristic features.
Pastoral A genre of writing concerned with individuals (usually a shepherd)
living a simple, idyllic life in the countryside, focusing on one’s
wholesome connection to nature and the outdoors. Pastoral writing
tends to idealise bucolic country living in order to criticise the
pressures of urban life.

Pathetic A type of personification which specifically refers to nature, wherein

Fallacy nature is described as having human emotions, feelings or
characteristics.

Peripeteia Refers to the dramatic reversal of circumstances or turning point within

a narrative, usually that of the protagonist’s descent towards inevitable
tragedy.

Pathos Refers to an appeal to the audience’s emotions – usually with the

intention of arousing pity, compassion or sorrow.

Personification The attribution of human qualities such as speech, feelings and actions
to non-human things.

This term is distinct from anthropomorphism, in that personification

consists of figurative attribution (e.g. your laptop hates you), while
anthropomorphism consists of the non-human thing literally acquiring a
human quality (e.g. Winnie the Pooh is an anthropomorphised bear).

Poetic Justice A situation in which everyone is rewarded as they deserve – e.g. good
is rewarded, while evil is punished.

Prose Ordinary writing, as opposed to verse.

Pun A play on words in which a writer either uses a word with two or more
contradictory meanings (i.e. a double entendre), or two words which
sound the same, but which have different spellings.

Rhetorical Refers to a question that requires no answer because the answer is

Question obvious and need not be stated. It is usually used to make a point,
especially in an argument.

Setting Refers to the time, place, physical details, and circumstances in which
a situation occurs. Settings include the background, atmosphere or
environment in which characters live and usually include physical
characteristics of the surroundings.

Simile The comparison of one thing to another, making use of the words “like”
or “as”.

Speaker The narrative voice within a poem. This voice is NOT necessarily that
of the poet. This term is distinct from persona, which refers to the
dramatic identity or fictional “I” that a poet might adopt.
 Teachers’ Note: students are advised to use the term speaker rather
than persona in their essay analysis.

Style An author’s / poet’s distinctive way of writing.

Symbol A person, place, object, animal, word, action or image that represents a
larger idea, issue or value.

Synecdoche When a term for a part of something is used to substitute for the whole
thing. (e.g. “all hands on deck” – the word “hand” is being used in place
of the word sailor, and the hands are a part of the sailor’s body)

Syntax Refers to word order, language structures and grammar.

Tension Refers to the emotions of excitement, anxiety and/or fear that are being
evoked in the readers or audience due to unresolved conflict in the
story. This term is distinct from suspense, which refers to the feeling of
wanting to know what happens next.

Tone The attitude or emotional register of a speaker’s voice, as conveyed

through diction, images, etc.

Voice Refers to the form or format through which a narrator (prose) or

speaker (poetry) relates the story to the reader.

The main types of narrative voice are:

- First-person: the narrator / speaker speaks with the pronoun “I”.
(Note: again, NOT necessarily that of the poet’s!)
- Second-person: the narrator / speaker addresses an ambiguous
“you” – “you” could be the reader, another character, the
narrator themselves, or be left open to interpretation.
- Third-person: the narrator / speaker exists outside of the story’s
action and relates events to readers, referring to characters by
their names or third-person pronouns (e.g. he, she).

Third-person narratives sometimes employ an omniscient point of

view (i.e. narrator knows everything possible), usually in order to
encourage a reader to accept a particular interpretation of events. They
might also employ a point of view with limited omniscience (i.e.
narrator does not have complete knowledge), which allows for a clearer
focus on certain characters while leaving the motivations of other
characters uncertain or vague.

Some texts may employ unreliable narrators, whose interpretation of

events cannot always be trusted due to bias or incomplete knowledge.
Terms specific to Poetry

Blank Verse Unrhymed iambic pentameter (i.e. ten syllables in a line). Out of all the
English metrical forms, blank verse most closely mimics the natural
rhythms of speech. During the Elizabethan era, blank verse was
recruited as the standard metrical form used in plays.

Caesura A pause or natural break within a line of poetry. Caesuras are often
used to break the rhythmic flow of a poem, which can place more
emphasis on specific points or create different tones and feelings.

Couplet Two adjacent rhyming lines of poetry. Couplets are used to provide
emphasis or a sense of finality at the end of the English/
Shakespearean sonnet.

End-stopped A line in verse with punctuation at its end.

Line

Enjambement The use of run-on lines in a poem. Often used to help the speaker’s
ideas to flow smoothly or to add a sense of energy to the poem.

Foot A combination of stressed and unstressed syllables. The repeated

arrangement of several feet to produce a regular rhythm and pattern is
known as meter. Meter is more often seen in older, more traditional
texts.

The main foot units are:

- iamb: unstressed / stressed (e.g. destroy)
- trochee: stressed / unstressed (e.g. baseball)
- anapaest: unstressed / unstressed / stressed (e.g. understand)
- dactyl: stressed / unstress / unstress (e.g. camera)

Free Verse Poetry that is free from a fixed rhyme scheme, without any consistent
metre or rhythm.

Lyric/Lyrical A poem concerned with the subjective feelings of a first-person

speaker. Lyric poems differ from narrative poems in their focus on the
speaker’s state of mind/perspective, rather than depicting actions
taking place.

Meter Refers to the pattern of feet (see above) that is repeated at regular
intervals in lines of verse or poetry. Traditional poetry and some forms
of drama are written in various metrical forms. For example,
Shakespeare writes in a metrical form called iambic pentameter – i.e.
the rhythm is in iambs, and there are five (“penta-”) sets of iambs in
each line of poetry.

Sometimes, poets may deliberately break or disrupt the meter in a

poem in order to draw attention to a specific word or idea.
 The 7 basic meter lengths are:
- Monometer (1 foot)
- Dimeter (2 feet)
- Trimeter (3 feet)
- Tetrameter (4 feet)
- Pentameter (5 feet)
- Hexameter (6 feet)
- Heptameter (7 feet)

Refrain A phrase, line or lines repeated at intervals during a poem and

especially at the end of a stanza.

Rhyme The juxtaposition of words with matching end sounds, usually (but not
always) at the end of a line in poetry. It can be used to help create
rhythm and flow in a poem, to draw attention to key lines, or simply for
aesthetic effect.

Rhyme is dependent on the sound of words, rather than the spelling of

the words. Words that are spelled similarly but which are pronounced
differently are known as eye rhyme (e.g. rough / plough).

Words that have matching end consonants but different vowel sounds
are called half-rhyme or slant rhyme (e.g. bridge / grudge).

Rhythm Refers to a recognisable pattern in poetry or prose that is created

through the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables. Rhythm
is affected by various factors such as repetition, syllable length and
length.

Stanza A division of a poem consisting of two or more lines arranged together

as a unit. Functions similarly to paragraphs in prose.

Stress The emphasis on certain syllables in pronunciation.

Verse Two or more lines of writing – usually in poetry – in which rhyme and
meter are present.

There are two types of verse: blank verse (see above) and free verse
(see above).
Common Poetic Forms

Ballad A poem that tells a self-contained story, typically composed of four-line

stanzas in an ABCB rhyme scheme. Ballads were traditionally set to
music.

Elegy A lyric song or poem lamenting the death of a beloved. Distinct from
eulogy, which refers to a speech that pays tribute to someone who has
recently died.

Epic A long narrative poem written in an elevated style that recounts the
adventures and deeds of a legendary or historical hero.

Ode A lyric poem that elevates and glorifies a certain subject.

Sonnet A lyric poem of 14 lines, usually written in iambic pentameter.

Traditional sonnets tend to focus on themes of love.

The two main types of sonnet are:

- Italian / Petrachan: consists of an octave (8 lines) and a sestet
(6 lines). The octave usually presents an argument or situation,
which is then subsequently resolved or concluded in the sestet.
The division between octave to sestet is called the volta or turn;
it is often accompanied by a shift in the sonnet’s tone or mood.
- English / Shakespearean: consists of three quatrains (4 line
stanzas) and a concluding couplet. The couplet serves as a
summary of the subject matter laid out in the sonnet.

Villanelle A lyric poem of 19 lines, consisting of five tercets (3-line stanzas)

followed by a quatrain. Villanelles generally contain two repeating
rhymes and two refrains, which are often used to show a degree of
obsession or dislocation on the part of the speaker.
 Appendix: Tone Vocabulary (not exhaustive):
Positive Tone Neutral Tone Negative Tone

Adoring Laudatory Commanding Abhorring Hostile

Admiring Lively Direct Acerbic Impatient
Affectionate Light-hearted Impartial Ambivalent Incredulous
Appreciative Lively Indirect Angry Indifferent
Bemused Mirthful Meditative Annoyed Indignant
Benevolent Modest Modest Antagonistic Inflammatory
Bitter Nostalgic Objective Anxious Insecure
Calm Optimistic Speculative Apathetic Insolent
Casual Passionate Unambiguous Apprehensive Irreverent
Celebratory Placid Unconcerned Belligerent Lethargic
Cheerful Playful Understated Bewildered Melancholy
Comforting Poignant Biting Mischievous
Comic Proud Bitter Miserable
Compassionate Reassuring Blunt Mocking
Concerned Reflective Bossy Mournful
Conciliatory Relaxed Cold Nervous
Confident Respectful Conceited Ominous
Contented Reverent Condescending Outraged
Delightful Romantic Confused Paranoid
Earnest Sanguine Contemptuous Pathetic
Ebullient Scholarly Curt Patronizing
Ecstatic Self-Assured Cynical Pedantic
Effusive Sentimental Demanding Pensive
Elated Serene Depressed Pessimistic
Empathetic Silly Derisive Pretentious
Encouraging Sprightly Derogatory Psychotic
Euphonic Straightforward Desolate Resigned
Excited Sympathetic Despairing Reticent
Exhilarated Tender Desperate Sarcastic
Expectant Tranquil Detached Sardonic
Facetious Whimsical Diabolic Scornful
Fervent Wistful Disappointed Self-deprecating
Flippant Worshipful Disrespectful Selfish
Forthright Zealous Doubtful Severe
Friendly Embarrassed Sinister
Funny Enraged Skeptical
Gleeful Evasive Sly
Gushy Fatalistic Solemn
Happy Fearful Stern
Hilarious Foreboding Stolid
Hopeful Frantic Stressful
Humorous Frustrated Strident
Interested Furious Suspicious
Introspective Gloomy Tense
Jovial Grave Threatening
Joyful Grim Tragic
Uncertain
Terms specific to Drama

Act The major organisational unit in a play. An act can be subdivided

into scenes.

Antagonist A character or force against which another character (usually the

protagonist) struggles.

Antilabe A rhetorical technique in verse drama, in which a single verse line of

dialogue is distributed between two or more characters, voices or
entities. It is often used to suggest the speed and tension of the
dialogue taking place by disrupting the rhythmic flow of the verse
line.

In the example below from Shakespeare’s Othello, a line of iambic

pentameter is split between three different characters – suggesting
the urgency with which their discussion is taking place (and thus the
tension of the moment).

e.g. DESDEMONA: Tonight, my lord?

DUKE: This night.
OTHELLO: With all my heart.

Aside Words spoken by an actor directly to the audience, which the other
characters on stage cannot hear. It is often used by playwrights to
reveal a character’s inner thoughts to the audience. According to
convention, an aside always reveals a character’s authentic self –
i.e. characters do not lie in an aside, though they may be mistaken in
their perceptions.

An aside differs from breaking the fourth wall in that the aside is akin
to the character voicing their thoughts aloud, whereas breaking the
fourth wall involves the character acknowledging the existence of the
audience.

Blocking The choreographed movement and positioning of actors on the

stage.

Playwrights often use blocking to:

- Reflect the personality of the characters
- Reflect the relationships between the characters
- Direct the audience’s attention to specific actions / characters
- Suggest mood and atmosphere
Climax The turning point of the action in the plot of a play and the point of
greatest tension in the work. (see Freytag’s Pyramid)

Chorus Refers to a group of characters who comment on the action of a play

without participating in it. A modern chorus may consist of a
character/ narrator coming on stage and giving a prologue or explicit
background information or themes.

Comedy A dramatic work in which the central motif is the triumph over
adverse circumstances, resulting in a successful or happy
conclusion.

Comedy can be divided into visual comedy (e.g. farce, slapstick) and
verbal comedy (e.g. satire, comedy of manners).

A Shakespearean comedy tends to differ from conventional comedy

on account of its blend of humour and tragic elements. A
Shakespearean comedy tends to include:
- A greater emphasis on situations rather than characters (this
numbs the audience's connection to the characters, so that when
characters experience misfortune, the audience still finds it
laughable)
- A struggle of young lovers to overcome difficulty, often
presented by elders
- Separation and reunification
- Deception of characters (especially mistaken identity)

Comic Relief The deliberate inclusion of a light-hearted or humorous moment after

a succession of intensely tragic dramatic moments in a play. The
inclusion of such comic scenes, characters, or speeches can have
various and complex effects, ranging from relaxation after moments
of high tension to sinister ironic brooding.

Costume A character’s outfit, intended to convey key aspects of their

characters. Many playwrights provide detailed descriptions of a
character’s costume in the stage directions that are meant to
suggest specific traits – e.g. social status, occupation, morality, etc.

Dialogue The conversation of characters in the play. While early playwrights

wrote the dialogues of their plays in verse, most modern playwrights
do not compose in verse.

Note: When analysing dialogue, students should pay attention to not

just to what is being said, but also to how it is being said – i.e. the
way the character selects and articulates their words.
Dramatic Irony A plot device in a drama / play, whereby the audience knows more
about the situation than the characters do. This allows for the
speech of the characters to function at multiple levels of meaning,
creating suspense and humour.

Epilogue A scene or piece of writing at the end of a work of literature, usually

used to bring closure to the work.

Exposition The first stage of a dramatic plot, in which necessary background

information is conveyed to the audience through the characters’
interactions. (see Freytag’s Pyramid)

Falling Action This is when the events and complications begin to resolve
themselves and tension is released. The audience thus learns
whether the conflict has been resolved or not. (See Freytag’s
Pyramid)

Fourth Wall The imaginary wall that separates the spectator/audience from the
action taking place on stage. If the audience is addressed directly,
this is referred to as breaking the fourth wall.

Foil A secondary character whose situation often parallels that of the

main character. The foil’s behaviour or personality usually serves as
a direct contrast with that of the main character, in order to better
highlight their specific temperament.

Freytag’s Gustav Freytag's analysis of ancient Greek and Shakespearean

Pyramid drama enabled him to come up with a pyramid illustration to show
the different elements in a dramatic plot structure.

Hubris The trait of arrogance or excessive self-confidence, leading a

character to overstep limits, thus causing their downfall.
In Media Res Refers to the opening of the plot in the middle of the action, and then
filling in past details by means of exposition or flashbacks.
Translates to “in the midst of things” in Latin.

Lighting Refers to all lighting effects onstage (and not just the spotlight). Light
is usually used to establish time / location of the setting. It can also
be used to enhance mood and atmosphere.

Mise en scene Refers to the combination of stage set pieces, furniture, decorative
objects, and characters in their costumes. Modern playwrights often
describe their sets in specific detail to achieve certain effects,
leaving little room for creative input from the director or production
designer.

Monologue An extended speech by a single character.

The monologue is distinct from a soliloquy, which is a type of

monologue where the character is either directly addressing the
audience or speaking their thoughts aloud while alone. A
monologue, on the other hand, is usually being addressed to
another character or a group on stage.

Peripeteia Refers to the dramatic reversal of circumstances or turning point

within a narrative, usually that of the protagonist’s descent towards
inevitable tragedy.

Prologue Explicit exposition to introduce background events before the first

scene begins.

Props Articles, furniture or objects that appear on stage during a play.

Props can also take on a significant or even symbolic meaning.

Protagonist / The main character / lead role in a play.

Principal

Rising Action The event, conflict or crisis that leads up to the climax. (see
Freytag’s Pyramid)
Scene A traditional segment in a play. Traditionally, plays are composed of
acts broken down into scenes.

Scenes can be used to:

- Indicate a change in time / location
- Provide a jump from one subplot to another
- Introduce new characters
- Rearranges the actors on the stage

Scenery The physical representation of a play’s setting (i.e. location / time

period).

Stage Direction A playwright’s commentary that provides information about the

dialogue, setting and action of a play. Modern playwrights tend to
include substantial stage directions, while earlier playwrights
typically use them more sparsely, implicitly or not at all.

Tragedy A genre of drama in which the hero experiences suffering and a

downfall due to his / her own flaws. These flaws are usually by
ordinary human shortcomings or defective personality traits – e.g.
greed, ambition. Hubris or excessive pride is a very common tragic
flaw or hamartia.

The traditional tragedy usually starts with the tragic hero in their
prime. The plot then follows their fall from greatness to destruction,
having become the victim of their own flaw. By contrast, modern
tragedies may end with the destruction of a character as a result of
their challenge to the status quo of society – where the tragic flaw
lies with society rather than with the individual.

In traditional tragedies, playwrights often sought to have their

audiences experience catharsis. That is, by vicariously feeling pity
and terror, audiences were meant to identify with the tragic hero,
thus “purifying” themselves by directing their emotions onto the
action taking place on stage, while also gaining moral / intellectual
insights.
COMMON SYMBOLS IN LITERATURE
Original article can be found at http://www.scribd.com/doc/6472314/Symbolism-in-
Literature#download
This document has been modified for the purposes of Literature class.

A symbol is the use of a concrete object to represent an abstract idea. The word symbol
is derived from the Greek verb “symballein”, which means “to put together”, and the related
noun “symbolon”, which means “mark”, “taken” or “sign”.

The term, symbol, when used in literature is often a figure of speech in which a person,
object, or situation represents something in addition to its literal meaning. Conventional or
traditional literary symbols work in much the same way, and because they have a previously
agreed upon meaning, they can be used to suggest ideas more universal than the physical
aspect itself.

A symbol may appear in a work of literature in a number of different ways to suggest a

number of different things. Most commonly, a symbol will present itself in the form of 1) a word,
2) a figure of speech, 3) an event, 4) the total action, or 5) a character.

Some conventional symbols are as follows: (THIS LIST IS NOT EXHAUSTIVE!!!)

COLOURS
A. Red: immorality, the colour of the life, blood, passion, emotion, danger, or daring; often
B. associated with fire
C. Black: seen as a cold and negative aspect suggesting passivity, death, ignorance, or
evil; black hens are used in witchcraft, as are black cats
D. White: innocence, life, light, purity, or enlightenment
E. Green: inexperience, hope; new life, immaturity; a combination of blue and yellow, it
mediates between heat and cold and high and low; it is a comforting, refreshing human
colour; it is the colour of plant life
F. Yellow: sickness, rotting, heat, decay, violence, decrepitude, old age, and the approach
of death
G. Blue: cool, calm, peaceful; an insubstantial colour in the real world except as
translucency, the void of heavens
H. Pink: innocence, femininity
I. Purple: royalty; bruising or pain
J. Brown: a colour somewhere between russet and black; it is the colour of earth and
ploughed land and soil, it represents humility and poverty
K. Orange: symbolises the point of balance between the spirit and the libido; it may be the
emblem of divine love or extreme lust
L. Violet: composed of red and blue, it is the colour of temperance, clarity of mind

NATURE
A. Seasons
1. Spring: birth, new beginning
2. Summer: maturity, knowledge
 3. Autumn: decline, nearing death, growing old
4. Winter: death, sleep, hibernation, or stagnation
5. Christmas season: birth, change for the better
6. Easter season: rebirth, enlightenment
7. Light: truth, safety, warmth, knowledge
8. Darkness: evil, ignorance, danger

B. Trees
1. Apple: temptation, loss of innocence
2. Chestnut: foresight
3. Oak: strength, wisdom
4. Pear: blossoming, fleeting nature of life
5. Poplar: linked to the underworld, to pain, sacrifice, and grief, a funeral tree, symbolises
the regressive powers of nature
6. Sycamore: a sign of vanity and to climb it is to trust in vain things
7. Pine: symbol of immortality because of its evergreen foliage

C. Weeds: evil (hemlock, pigweed, etc), wildness/outcasts of society, stubbornness

D. Flowers: beauty, youth, strength, gentleness

1. Anemone: transience
2. Chrysanthemums: solar symbol; represents perfection, an autumn flower
3. Rose: budding youth, romance, potential, fragility, passion ← only if the rose is red!
4. Sunflower: Sturdiness, cheer
5. Violet: shyness, something petite
6. Lily: chastity and virtue, white lilies at funerals represent the return of the dead to a state
of innocence

E. Water: washes away guilt, origin of life, regeneration, vehicle of cleansing, baptism

F. River: fluidity of life, stream of life and death

G. Moon: changing and returning shape, cycle of time, feminine symbol

H. Sun: source of light, heat and life; a masculine symbol

I. Cavern: the maternal womb

J. Mountain: where heaven and earth meet; stability, safety, often symbolic of human pride

K. Precious gems / metals:

1. Rubies: represents good fortune; it was believed that they banished sorrow and warded
off evil spirit
2. Sapphires: contemplation, purity
3. Silver: relates to the moon, to water and the female principle; it may also symbolise the
object of all desires and the harm they cause
4. Gold: the perfect metal; a reflection of heavenly light; it suggest the sun-fertility, wealth,
dominion; it is a male principle
5. Pearl: associated with water, they may be regarded as symbols of knowledge and
wealth
CARDINAL DIRECTIONS
A. East: land of birth or rebirth; of the Sun and Venus; it is associated with renewal, youth,
feasting, song and love
B. North: is the side which lies on the sun’s right hand and lies on either side of life; it
symbolises night sky and night wind and is the home of the Moon and the Milky Way.
North represents coldness, alienation, and hostility; it is the abode of death
C. South: is the side which lies on the Sun’s left hand and is the hand of fire; represents
warmth and comfort
D. West: is the land of evening, old age, and the descending passage of the sun

WEATHER, SEASON, TIME

A. Snow: blanket which obscures, covers or even smothers; possibly purity or death
B. Fog/Mist: prevents clear vision or thinking; represents isolation; mist is often the symbol
of the indeterminate phase in development when shapes have yet to be defined; they
are preludes to important revelations or prologues to manifestations
C. Rain: sadness or despair or new life; a symbol of celestial influences the Earth receives
D. Wind and Storms: violent human emotions
E. Lightning: indicates the spark of life and the powers of fertilisation; it can be either life-
giving or death dealing, so it is a sign of power and strength
F. Morning: the time of God’s blessings; the beginning of when all is still uncorrupted; a
symbol of purity and promise
G. Rainbows: also intermediaries and pathways between Heaven and Earth; generally
herald good and are linked with cycles of rebirth; they may also serve as prologues to
disturbance
H. Thunder: the voice of God or gods

ANIMALS
A. Dove: peace, purity, simplicity
B. Fox: slyness, cleverness
C. Raven: death, destruction; they often play prophetic roles or function as a conductor of
the soul
D. Lion: a solar symbol, power, pride
E. Peacock: pride, vanity
F. Serpent/Snake: temptation, evil
G. Mouse: shyness, meekness
H. Hawk: sharp, keen eyesight
I. Owl: wisdom, rational knowledge; messenger of death
J. Salmon: instinct; sacred wisdom
K. Cats: are often viewed as servants of the underworld; they also symbolise cunning,
forethought, and ingenuity
L. Lamb: serves as a manifestation of the power of Spring and renewal, sacrificial element,
the children of God
M. Cuckoo: jealousy and parasitism, it lays eggs in the nests of other birds; laziness

WALLS: barriers between people, both physical and mental; a barrier that shuts out the world

DOORS/ GATES: same as WALLS; entrances or exits; may represent communication (or lack
thereof, depending on whether the door is open or closed) between two parties
BRIDGES/ STAIRS: entry and pathways to new realms; may represent new possibilities, hope,
or escape (especially if they are ascending or cross chasms or pits); crossing boundaries and
barriers,

HUMAN BODY PARTS

A. Blood: symbolises all the integral qualities of fire and the heat and vitality inherent in the
sun; it also corresponds to vital and bodily heat
B. Bones: framework of the human body, representing mortality; could suggest the inmost
or unvarnished self; can also represent permanence rather than transience, since bones
are what remains after death
C. Hands: strength or weakness; intimacy if hands are linked or open; clenched hands
signal aggression or determination
D. Eyes: windows to the soul; barometer of emotions
E. Mouth: indicator of character traits
F. Neck: long slender neck is associated with sexuality
G. Knee: main source of bodily strength according to ancient traditions
H. Right and Left: to look to one’s right hand is to look to the protector; this is the place of
the elect at the Last Judgement in the Bible, the damned will go to the left

CLOTHING
A. Cape: or any circular garment or vestment with a hole in the middle suggests a celestial
and ascendant symbolism. When monks or nuns withdraw from the world, they cover
themselves in a cape or cloak, which symbolises a withdrawal into oneself or into God.
B. Cloak: is a symbol of human trickery, and the different personalities humans can assume
C. A.Mask: externalise demonic tendencies; the false self / persona and deception;
alternatively, can represent shamanistic empowerment

OBJECTS
A. Chain: symbolizes the bond which connect Heaven and Earth or ties together two
extremes or beings; can also represent bondage or slavery
B. Key: a key has the power and authority of letting in and shutting out; to hold a key
means to have been initiated. It not only shows the power to enter a place, town, or
house, but to accede to a spiritual state or abode or to a level of initiation
C. Ladder: ladders are symbols of ascension and realisation of potential; they are also
symbols of intercommunication and the comings and goings between Heaven and Earth
D. Mirror: often a solar symbol; an unbroken mirror can be a sign of a happy marriage: a
broken mirror would indicate a separation or destruction of the union; a mirror can also
represent self-reflection or be a true manifestation of a person’s inner being
E. Tower of Babel: confusion, human pride, resulted in multiple languages

JOURNEY: may be a quest for truth, peace or immortality; a journey often serves as a
metaphor for life

References
Chevalier, J. & Gheerbrant, A. (1996). The Penguin Dictionary of Symbols. New York: Penguin.
Hancock, E. (1972). Techniques for Understanding Literature. Belmont, CA.