SPECIAL THE ORY OF RELATIITY

Frame of veteren ce - Newlonian velalivity

Inertial fvame of reference:: Thehe one in which
Newton's irst law holds
gocd.
Newtonian principleof velatvity /Galilean invar ance :

If Newton's laws are validin one reference trame,

then they are also valid in a reference trame
moving at cnitorm velocity velative to he ftrst
Systm.
Gallean transtormation
Consider FoR-1 and Fo R-2
with a velocity
mong
wrt FoR-1 axis.

Then,
x'= x- vt ; X= x'+ vt
Y=Y; z'= 2i t'=t
And
- may m m d'y
dt'e d.
may = Fy
Fx ma'y md'x m
dt'2 dt2

The intamous E4hes/Aether and its (non)- existence

Mirror A
" Michelson Interterometer Setup
"One light beam (Path A) tra vels plate

perpendicular to 'Ether curent'

Pavallel
and the other (Path B) thavels Poh B Minor
B
Parallel toEther curyent! trom Halt

Class plate ensures zero

Sngle Souree silvere
mirror
Hypothetc
ethey curren
path diference betieen Pah Vieuing
Sreen
Aand B.
 I4 tansil time is Same tor
the 2paths, conshuctive
interfer encG occurs.
- If the ether cument
OcCUYS.
exists, then destrucive interteren
The experiment was Sensitve enough to detect 4he
espected ether drit.
But none Wa
tound. Constructive interferene wascoserved
Consequencesi
Eher does not exist and all metion is
relat ve to a
Specitied trame ot reterence.
Specd of ligt is the Same tor al ebs er vers
(unlike sound/water waves)
Special theory of relativity - Postulates
1. The laws of
physics are the same in all inertial
trames ot reterence.
2.The Speed ot ht in tree space has he Same value
in all inertial frames of reference.
How is this possible ?
eed = distance
Speed
time
Athough Cgund Crocket d ant are not same!
Expeiments ’ dqreund <drocket ;and tgound (trocket
Time Dilation
Meter
Sttck
Miror Recordeiedng
to 2le
=

'Tchs
Lo

Mirror

Photosensitive
Surface

Lo

Here,
to = time interval on clock at rest relatve to
an
observer = proper tine

4 time interval on clock in motion relative to

an observes

V= speed of relahve motion

speed od light
Calculations
(s- L
4L& (21.)
Or,
cky2 e'(1-ve)
Or, t = 2Lole :

to
 Since the denominator is al ways <I
aluays>to
Ihes time on spacecraft, as obierved from the
movs slower than the time to on the
gund
Qrond as obser ved trom the

he same analysis holds is the time

is
Exacy the
mea sured (obs erve d) on the spacecratf.
observed trom he
Time 't 'on the gicund aS

time to
Spacecraf! moves slower than dhe
spacecraH as observed trom the
n he
spaecraft.
Time dilation- Not all is lost
Time does not run back cward tor any observer,
Asequence ot events Ej. E, E3,-. which happen
at times t t t s . il all appear in he Same
order to
any aHhough the time diterences
observer
tz-t ts- t2 aay be
be diterent,
No observes can see an event betore it happen,

Doppler etect in
Consider a Source as a clock that ticks Vo times
per Second and emits a wave ot i'ght uwith each tck.
Obser ver
Case-1:
Roper time between ticks =to
t
tor the observer, time betweenticks is : t=

Corespondingl ythe tiaguency is : trauvese)t to

Thus, the transvee doppler ettect tor

ignt is ' V-e
 Case-2:
(The observer travels the distance vt away tromm the
Soure between ticks.)
Thus.the light oave tom a glven tick takes vt
longer to reach him thah the previous One.
" Hence, he total time
waves s
between arnval ot Successi ve
= to

· Hençe 4he observed trequency is:

9Geeeding) e
Case- 5:
(The ob server.is
is, moving towards he source )
Va ppro achi no)
=t! ww
Case2 and 3 on be"Combn
to be positivetor Souree
source and observe' Consideri ng.
each oher and
"egotive. tor Souree and obterves
trom egch other.
appaaching
This r
Ahe longitudinal doppler elect to
The Expanding Universe

" Hubble's Law: The speed oti Yecession is proportion

to -the distance trom eath. This
Hhat the universe is is expandig
"Al stars show a 'yed- shit'(a shit towards lower
hequ encies), thus that they are all
proig receedig
dom, us.

Longh Contraction high alttudes

Consider muons that are Created at
(06 km) by tast cosmic-ray particles trom.spaçe
nuclei in +he earh's
when hey collide with atomi c
eotmosphere.
The muons have an average life time of to =9.2ur
2-2us
after which they decay into anelectron' or apositron.
an

Muons travel oat aspeed ot ab out V= O- q98 c and

Teach sea level.

only Newtonian mech anics, the muons travel

at distance, l:vto = O- GG km.
How does this happen???
We knos hat time dilaton is a Cons
equence
Yelativishe spee ds.
muon's
Thus, hile to =2.2 us is the litetime trom the
pers pectve, toY us, he observer s on earth. the
iHetime is, t : to
34.8us.

Theperspectie
leng travelled by
is, la vt
he
10. 412 km
muons tromn our

That is, the muorn travels about 0.4km trom OuY

perspeche Whereas from its perspective, it travelled

only O-66 km.
 Ara
So. tor he tra veling muorn, lengl
vevy sameactar by
has contraced
Aime
by 4he
expanded tor he observer.
This phenomerton is known as lenglh hntrnkitm

csheve L is the \engh,respect to the observer;

and Lo is the length respect to the muon and
is also known as

Length (dimension) ot a moving

object is
measued to be lesser than it proper lera.
Lo

L
 Relativi stie momentum
ln classical mechanics, linear momentum pemv,
Considey :

Y VA
A

5'

.Collision as seen trom trame S:

"Collision as seen trom trameS':

"Elaste collision ot paricles Aand B, which is observed

from 2 trames of reference S and S!.
S is ng with velocity V wrt S, in +x direction,
mo
A ond B ave initially at rest in Sand S' repeti vely.
Then, at he same instant, A is thrown in the
direction at speed VA while Bis thron in the
directiorn at spe ed Vg.
Maqitudes NA Ve and ma - mg
Thashe beharioro4 Bot asA as sen trom S
ay the behaior
is exacHly he Same
The partieles ave
initiatty at a distan ce Yapart,
Ahe collision in heir respecive FoR occurs
and
at yy':Ye
FoRs,ithe
After he colli sion in their respective
position.
patieles Teturn to heir initial
round ip time Toin So is:
Thus, tor par ticle A, he

lhn S' is
" For particle B,he round trip tine To

Bis S, is :
Now, the speed Ve of particle B
VesYt
Yo.
Tis he round tip time ot partie le B as measured
in S.
To
Fom time dilation, we kro that, T=

observe in bot, trame see Hhe same

-Atbough
event they dis agree about the, length of time

the partcle thron trom the other rame requives

moke 4he colsion and retun,
o
hus Ve

trame S, we have:
*Osing P: my in Pa maVA ma)
 law ot conserration of momentum to ho ld
tor the
hue, we must have P Pa
But Lis cannot be thue it ma ma

Thus, We must have;

the nass at aparicle

In general,
velotity. N, wrt,stationary FoR is:
m()=

Thu Yelativìs tic no mentwm is

.'m' is he (or rest mass)

Proper mass

1 -v/e
Relatiris ic2nd law of motion
dp
Then he relativisic econd law will be: F-dt
=dt (m)

Example
Find the aceleration ot a partiele,. of mass m and
velocity v shen it is acted upon by he congtant
tovce F. when Fis paraltel to Y.
Soln.

ma
. F is equal to Y°ma, not to ma.
od, a E- ve2
m

Enaig1 Mass equi valence

KÊFds foy
tor a
We know that kinetic energy
energy ,
tovce Fappled through a distance S

the relaivis tic

Usng S
expressions:
KE-Fds :

m
m) as
my

Vd (Ymv)

Triegangby
my2
ports, vdv
KE =
m
my?
Wi-v/c + [mc'i-ve]
mc?

Thus, KE 7mct - mct =(7-1) mc?

i.e) the kineti c energy object is equal
to the. dfteren ce betw e en me and mc

"We may write the tolal energY Qs,

kinete
Thus even when a loody has zero
energy it stil possesSes avest energy'.
|E n c2

. Hence, the total eneAY

mc?
Vi- vl
Principle of conser vaion of;. mass
Mass Can be created or destroy ed;but
valent omount of
when this happens, an equi
Simu ltaneowly vanishes or. come in to
enerq1 VIce Ve rsa.

bei
Eneq
ng'ond momentum

Total ener 81 :E=

Vi-vlc
Momentum i P
m'v'c2
1 - v/

Now,
E- p'c' (me)

Massless particles
n daSsi cal wmechanics, a particle must have rest
mass in or der to bave and mo mentun.
enerq1
But in reletivis tic mechanics, this reqwrem ent does
not hold.

For m=O and v <«C, E =pÔ

" However for m=0 and V=C, we

E-p (indetermingte torm)

.Thus foy a mass less particle t cavell ing t he
Speed of light, E and P ean be tfnite.
e
Since E? me)'+ p'c² would give us E pc.
 IIMITATIONS OF CLA SS|CAL PHY SICS
Statistical Distributions
The aim of statisti cal mechanics is to determinehe
certain to tal amount of
most probable. way in which a a
disti bule d among N members ot
energy E is d
the
in thermal eguilibrium at
System of partic
can de termine
absolute temperalure T. Thus we
how many parteles are ikely to have the energy
an d So on.
many to have the energy 2
The nümber ot parliçles ot energy e

where
ge)= number of states otot ener9y ¬
statistical weight covvesponding to ene
(e) = distribytioh tuncton
ieles
number of partieles in each state
of erer
-probability occupancy ot each stale
of
eneg
When a continuous. rather than a diserete 'distribuion of
involved is veplaced b÷ ge)de,the
energies
number ot states w:th egies between
and etde.
The three different kinds of statisti cal distribuhons
Bose- Einstein
are: Maxwell- Boltzmann statistics,
statis tics and Fermi- Dirac statis tics.
Mazwell- Boltz mann Statistics
Boltzmann distribution tuncthon holds for
Ihe Maxwell- identical and are suftiiently
Such par ticles that are instance the molecules
istingui shable, tor
tar oportto be
Maxwell- Bo Hzmann distributon function
a
gos.The the
partieles at
is a state ot enegN e in a system
absolute temperature T iS:

e (e),= Ae

Thus n (e) = A
Bose- Einstein Statistics

sysBem of Bosons, the presene ot a particle

In a the probabi'
quantum state increases
cer tain
are to be toud in the same sto
-mat other particles occupies a state of
Je) hat a boson
The probalblity
urns out to be
energy ¬
ae) ee

termi - Dirac Statistics

resence ot a par ticle n
In a system of Fermions,the presence
a certain state prevens any other Pa teles hom being
trom
in that state.
e) for a termion tuns out to be :
The probabiy
1

e
kT 41

In both Bose-Einste in and Fermi -Dirac statisties, hen

¬ kT, the tunctions f(E) approach that of Maxwell-Boltzmann
Statstics.
Clearly to e) tor bosons is at vatio
hah it is tor
aloays
molecules.and tet) tor fermions is
O+
always snmaller.

1.6
4.4
Bose- Fingtein
1.2

Maxwell-Boltz mann
o-8

0. 4t Fermi - Dirac
0.2

kT 2kT 3kT
 From the Fermi - Dirac distribution tunction , we see that
fe(e) tor an ener of

This eneray s called he Fermi energion and it is a verY

importart quantity inin a system of fermions ,such as the
elechon in a metal.
In terms of Eg, the Fermi- Divac
distribution tuncton becomes :

+1

Blackbody Radiatton
Every body at a tinite temperature radiates electromagne ic
energy. The predominant trequencies depend on temperatve.
The abilty of a body to vadiate is closely related to its
abiity to absorb Yadiation sinte it is at thermal equlGbrium
Blackbody is an ideal body that absorbs all radiaton
inidet upon
rgar des of freguen ey
Blackbody Spectra:

dy
u(v)

T= 1200K

in the radiation
Ihe spectral distibution ot e
deperds only temperature the
on of body: The higher
greater amount of radiation
the temperature the greater at cohich the mazimum
and -he' highe the
emission occurS
hreguency
Rayleigh- Jeans Formula :

Rayleigh and Jeans started by consi deyinghe

the
rodak,
insidea Cavity of abselute tempera turelT, who
of
pevtect reflectors to be a seies
walls are
electromagnétie daves. The 'density ot stonding
nding waves stondin
in the coivity is given by:
c
The classical average energt per stond ing Wave IS:

Ihe total energy, u()d per unit volume in the cavit

in the ieery interval from to +d is:

This eauation is called the Roayleigh -Jeans fomula ; and

it contains everytna. that classical physics can say.
obout Hhe spectrum Vof Blackbody radiation,
Ultraviolet Catastrophe:
The
Raylegh Jeans tormula says hat: ul)dn C .
But experimental resulHs Say that as , ul)d’0.
This discveponcy is knguin as the utYa violet
ot classi cal catastrophe
physics.
Rayleigh Jeans

Observed
2X10 3X164 4x10
Planck's Radiation Formula
On the basis of guantum 4heoTY, Planck obtoined
a verage enerqy of an oscillator :
4he tor mula for the a
E= hb

JH can be shown hat 4he number ot oscillations

degrees of tree dom.per unit volume in the
frequency range and
v+do isgiven by :
d

ushere c is thespee d of light in ya cuum.

Assuming that the average value od the energes
o1, the various, modes of osllation in blackbody
Tadiation is given by'the alboveequahon,
Planck obtained the equation :
1 d

In terns ot the wavelength of the radiation ,

4his' equation
u(a) d : 8nhe 1

This is -known as Planck's radiation

equaton
formula.
Conseguences ot Planck's Law:
Jeans Law
1. RayleighSmall, ;.e.,2 O , Planck's
For values of
Jeans
Yadiation law reduces to Raylegh
law

For lorge Va lues of

Thus ul)d .
2. Wien's displacement law
To tind max
e express Planck's v
law in ter ms of :
8hc 1
e
helaT-1
We,then solve d[u(a] o to obtain:
mk
4.965k
This is hnoun as he Wien's displace ment
1! quanitatively expresSes the empi ical faci
that the peak in the olackbody spectum
shilts, to shorter waveleng
freoYely
as the teiperaturÇ i
(higher Ts
increas ed

3. Stetan- Botzm ann Law

Stefár and Bolt z mann deduced empirically
4hat the total radi ant ener gy of all avelengl
emited Per unit
area per Second by
heated body is pro por tionalto the four th
pro por
power. of its abso lute temper ture, This
law is calle d 4he Stetan- Boltzmann law.
The law can be obtained direcHy trom
Plan ck's radiation tormula.

E
2nT
where T is calle d he Stefan's coins tant.
Its value is 5-67 x 10 Wmk
Specitic Heats of Solids
Àec ovdinq to classical phy gics ,r harmonic
Oscillator is a system ot. them in thermal
equil' brium at temperature.T has an. average
ener qy ot kT On this basis,each atom
in a solid shoúd have 3T ot enek gy.: The
clasical internal ener gy of a splid is r

E 3N,kT 3RT
The speciie heat at constant volume is given
in ter ms ot E byi'

The Dalong-Petit taw saysi

CyE 3R 5.97 kcál. kmol.K
Most solids obey this law at room tempera ture.
such
However, the law fails for light elements,
as boYon, beryllium an d carl (as diamond),
kcal.kmol' K
tor which Cy 5 3: 34, 3.85 and i.46
4he specifie
Yespeci vely at 20C. Eyen u
temperat
hea ts of all solids drop sharply at low
- UYes
and approach O as Toppro aches OK.
ror

lead rSilicon
Ent
Aluminium Carbon(diam ond)

200 600 800 1000 1200

400

T
 Einstein's Formula :
discoveved that the basie tlaw in the
Enstein
the fo
devi vation o! Dulong- Peti t lawties in
of kT for 4he avevtge jeneroy Per oscilla to,
in a solid . Aceo did tó Einstein, 4he proeabi
f(o) 4hat an oseill ator h ave the trequen y
given by :

Hence, the' average ener tor an.0scillato,

whose fre
fre quencY
and not kT

The total iternl ener gy of a kilonole of a

lid herefore oeco mes
3N, b
E=3N,: hokt1
Its molar' spetifie heat is thus:
(3), (e'
This equation is calle d 4he Einstein's speike
heat tor mula.
Free Electrons in a Metal
In 1 ki lo molé 6f he metal therê are No. free
electrons J! hese electrons behave like the molecules
of an ideal gas, each would have kT of kinehc
on the average The metal wo uld then have
enerq overa
of
FeN,kTPT
inteYnal ene9Y per kilomole due to the electhons
The molay specific heat due to the elec trons
should here fore be :
C ), R
The total speci tie heat ot the metal Would be:
Cy: 3R+RR, at high temperatu
The distibuti on tunc tion that gives te average
occupancy of a,state of energy e in a System
fermions is:
1
e-érlk) +1
The umber of electron statesis aven by:
812T Vm
ade VE de

Fevmi Enerq
The topmost d|led leve) by tiee
energ
electrons at. ab_olute Zero is called the
Fermi enegy le vel. The Fermi ene91 is qiven
by: 2