Topic 3: Vector Spaces and Linear Transformations

3.1 Vector spaces

3.2 Linear Combinations
3.3 Linear transformations
3.4 Subspaces
3.5 Matrix inverses

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3.1 Vector spaces

Vector spaces
The concepts of addition, scalar multiplication and linear
combinations of vectors can be defined in a very general context,
which turns out to capture a wide range of phenomena.

This motivates the idea of a vector space. A vector space is a set V

with two operations defined:
1. addition, which inputs two vectors and outputs a vector,
2. scalar multiplication, which inputs a scalar and a vector and
outputs a vector.

We want these two operations to satisfy the basic algebraic properties

of vectors in Rn . This leads to a list of ten axioms (properties) that
we use as our definition.

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Definition (Vector space)
Fix a field of scalars F. Then a vector space over F is a non-empty
set V with two operations: addition and scalar multiplication. These
operations are required to satisfy the following 10 rules (axioms).

~ 2 V:
For all ~u , ~v , w
Addition behaves well:
A1 ~u + ~v 2 V . (closure of vector addition)
A2 (~u + ~v ) + w
~ = ~u + (~v + w
~ ). (associativity)
A3 ~u + ~v = ~v + ~u . (commutativity)
There must be a zero and inverses:
A4 There exists a vector ~0 2 V such that
~v + ~0 = ~v for all ~v 2 V . (existence of zero vector)
A5 For all ~v 2 V , there exists a vector ~v
such that ~v + ( ~v ) = ~0. (additive inverse)

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Definition (Vector space continued)
For all ~u , ~v , 2 V and ↵, 2 F:

Scalar multiplication behaves well:

M1 ↵~v 2 V . (closure under scalar multiplication)
M2 ↵( ~v ) = (↵ )~v . (associativity of scalar multiplication)
M3 1~v = ~v . (multiplication by unit scalar)
Addition and scalar multiplication combine well :
D1 ↵(~u + ~v ) = ↵~u + ↵~v . (distributivity 1)
D2 (↵ + )~v = ↵~v + ~v . (distributivity 2)

Note: It follows from the axioms that for all ~v 2 V :

1. 0~v = ~0.
2. ( 1)~v = ~v .
A vector space with scalars from F = R (respectively F = C) is called
a real (respectively complex) vector space.
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Examples of vector spaces

1. Rn
Our definition of vector spaces was based on algebraic properties of
Rn , so it is easy to check that Rn is a vector space with scalars R.

2. Vector space of matrices

Definition
Denote by Mm,n (or Mm,n (R)) the set of all m ⇥ n matrices with real
entries.
Mm,n is a real vector space with the usual matrix addition and scalar
multiplication operations. (These are useful for studying digital
images.)

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3. Vector space of polynomials

Definition
For a fixed integer n > 0, denote by Pn (or Pn (R)) the set of all
polynomials with degree at most n:

Pn = {a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n | a0 , a1 , . . . , an 2 R}

Two polynomials are equal if and only if their coefficients are equal.

Pn is a real vector space with the usual operations of polynomial

addition and scalar multiplication. That is, if
a0 + · · · + an x n 2 Pn , b0 + · · · + bn x n 2 Pn and ↵ 2 R, then
(a0 + · · · + an x n ) + (b0 + · · · + bn x n ) = (a0 + b0 ) + · · · + (an + bn )x n
↵(a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n ) = (↵a0 ) + (↵a1 )x + · · · + (↵an )x n .

Note: We often think of a polynomial p(x) = a0 + · · · + an x n 2 Pn

as a function p : R ! R taking x 7! p(x).
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4. Vector space of functions

Definition
Let
F(S, R) = { all functions f : S ! R }
denote the set of all functions from S to R, where S is a non-empty
set.

If f , g 2 F(S, R) and ↵ 2 R, then f + g and ↵f are the functions

defined by
(f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x)
(↵f )(x) := ↵f (x)
for all x 2 S.
Then F(S, R) is a real vector space.

Note: Here the zero vector is the function which is identically zero,
i.e., ~0 : S ! R such that ~0(x) = 0 for all x 2 S.
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Example:
If f , g 2 F(R, R) are given by
f (x) = sin(x) and g (x) = x for all x 2 R,
then
(f + g )(x) = sin(x) + x and (3f )(x) = 3 sin(x) for all x 2 R.

10 10

5 5

-5 5 -5 5

-5 -5

-10 -10

Note: Function spaces are important in many places, including

analysis of sound and light waves, quantum mechanics and the study
of di↵erential equations. Multiplying with a (positive) scalar turns
your sound up or down, linear combinations amount to sound mixing.
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The field F2
Definition
The set containing just two elements

F2 = {0, 1},

equipped with the operations of addition and multiplication defined

below, is a field called the integers modulo 2.

Addition Multiplication
0+0=0 0⇥0=0
1+0=1 1⇥0=0
0+1=1 0⇥1=0
1+1=0 1⇥1=1

We call the arithmetic in F2 , modular or mod 2 arithmetic.

(To remember this, think of 0 as “even” and 1 as “odd”.)
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The F2 vector space of subsets
Given a set S, the symmetric di↵erence of two subsets X and Y of S,
denoted X 4Y is defined as
X 4Y = (X [ Y ) \ (X \ Y ).
The set P(S) of all subsets of S forms an F2 vector space, where
vector addition is.
(a) Find the symmetric di↵erence of the
Example: Let S be a sets
three element set,
containing a yellow circle, a X = {s 2 S | s is a circle}
red circle and a red square.
and

Y = {s 2 S | s is red}.

(b) List all the elements of P(S). Find

the zero vector. How does
multiplication by scalars from F2
work? 104
105
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6. Complex vector spaces
The real vector spaces Rn , Mm,n (R), Pn (R) and F(S, R) have
complex analogues denoted by Cn , Mm,n (C), Pn (C) and F(S, C).
The complex valued function spaces are very important in the
context of signal processing: complex numbers make the Fast Fourier
Transform fast.
If you want to deep dive into a contemporary application, watch the
application lecture on Signal Processing.

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Applications of general vector spaces
The vector space formalism gives us an object-oriented language to
model objects of interest, for instance, speaking about the
polynomials directly, but with mathematical precision, when we do
curve fitting.
Regarding matrices and functions as vector spaces allows geometrical
notions such as distance, angles and projection to be extended to
these objects. We have already seen how the Frobenius distance
between matrices is useful to decide on the quality of data
compression in the context of digital pictures.
A similar notion is needed when deciding the quality of a compressed
audio file.
Orthogonal projections are used to find best approximations in a
range of settings.

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3.2 Linear combinations
Let V be a vector space with scalars F.

Definition (Linear combination)

A linear combination of vectors ~v 1 , ~v 2 , . . . , ~v k 2 V is the sum of
scalar multiples of the vectors:
k
X
↵i ~v i = ↵1~v 1 + · · · + ↵k ~v k ,
i=1

where each ↵i 2 F.

Example:   
1 1 5 1
In R : 3
2 +2 = is a linear combination of
1 2 1 1

1
and .
2
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Example: Computer graphics application
Linear combinations are used to generate colours in computer
graphics.
Three primary colours are represented as unit vectors in R3 .
2 3 2 3 2 3
1 0 0
Red := 405 Green := 415 Blue := 405
0 0 1

To generate a general colour we form a linear combination

2 3 2 3 2 3
1 0 0
↵ 405 + 415 + 405
0 0 1

with ↵, , chosen between 0 and 1.

Examples Note: These primary colours are

⌅ has ↵ = 0.8, = 0.47, = 0.25 di↵erent from the standard
⌅ has ↵ = 0.8, = 0.12, = 0.5 primary colours red, blue, yellow.
109
Example: 2 3 2 3
1 1
Determine whether 425 2 R3 is a linear combination of 4 15 and
3 2
2 3
1
4 1 5.
2
Solution:

110
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General method for studying linear combinations in Rn

~ 2 Rn , let A = [~v 1 · · · ~v k ] be the matrix

Given vectors ~v 1 , · · · , ~v k , w
with ~v 1 , · · · , ~v k as its columns. Then

w~ is a linear combination of ~v 1 , . . . , ~v k
,
the equation A~x = w~ has a solution ~x 2 Rk
,
the system with augmented matrix [~v 1 , . . . , ~v k | w
~ ] has a solution

Note: 2 3
x1
6 7
If ~x = 4 ... 5 is a solution, then we can write x1~v 1 + . . . + xk ~v k = w
~.
xk

112
Example:
In the real vector space P2 , determine whether ~q = 1 2x x 2 is a
linear combination of ~p 1 = 1 + x + x 2 and ~p 2 = 3 + x 2 .
Solution:

113
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3.3 Linear transformations

We next consider functions (or mappings or maps or operators)

between general vector spaces that preserve the vector space
structure of vector addition and scalar multiplication. These are the
“simplest” functions between vector spaces and will be important in
most of the applications of linear algebra.

Recall that a function f : A ! B consists of

I a set A called the domain of f ,

I a set B called the codomain (or target) of f , and

I a rule that specifies how to map each element a 2 A to an

element f (a) 2 B. (Sometimes this is written a 7 ! f (a).)

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Definition (Linear transformation)
Let V and W be vector spaces over the same field of scalars F.
A linear transformation from V to W is a function T : V ! W such
that for all ~u , ~v 2 V and all ↵ 2 F:
1. T (~u + ~v ) = T (~u ) + T (~v ) (T preserves vector addition)

2. T (↵~u ) = ↵T (~u ) (T preserves scalar multiplication)

Note:
1. Conditions 1 and 2 are equivalent to the condition that T
preserves linear combinations: i.e. for all ~v 1 , ~v 2 2 V and all
↵1 , ↵2 2 F:

T (↵1~v 1 + ↵2~v 2 ) = ↵1 T (~v 1 ) + ↵2 T (~v 2 ).

2. Taking ↵ = 0 in condition 2 shows that T (~0V ) = ~0W ,

i.e. T takes the zero vector in V to the zero vector in W .
116
Example:
Show that the function D : P3 ! P2 defined by di↵erentiation with
respect to x,
D(a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 ) = a1 + 2a2 x + 3a3 x 2
is a linear transformation.
Solution:
Define two vectors in the domain and a scalar

1. D preserves vector addition

117
2. D preserves scalar multiplication

118
Theorem (Any matrix gives a linear transformation)
Let A be an m ⇥ n matrix with real entries. Then matrix
multiplication by A gives a linear transformation TA : Rn ! Rm
defined by
TA (~v ) = A~v .

We sometimes write A for TA .

Example:
Prove that the function T : R3 ! R2 given by
02 3 1
x1 
@ 4 5 A x2 2x3
T x2 =
3x1 + x3
x3
is a linear transformation.
Solution:

119
Example: Determinant
Show that the determinant function
det : M2,2 ! R

a b
7 ! ad bc
c d
is not a linear transformation.
Solution:
Find a specific counterexample

120
Example: Translation
Is the function T : R2 ! R2 given by
✓ ◆ 
x1 x +1
T = 1
x2 x2 + 1

a linear transformation?
Solution:

121
Example: Sampling functions
Let V be the vector space of all real valued functions f : [a, b] ! R.
Then sampling functions at n points a1 , a2 , . . . , an defines a linear
transformation
2 3
f (a1 )
6f (a2 )7
6 7
S : V ! Rn , f 7 ! S(f ) = 6 . 7
4 .. 5
f (an )

y
2 3
y=f(x) 1.25
6 1.5 7
6 7
6 2.5 7
6 7
S(f ) = 6
6 2.5 77
6 2.25 7
6 7
4 2.5 5
x 4
3 2 1 1 2 3
122
Prove that S is a linear transformation.
Solution: 10 10

5 5

-5 5 -5 5

-5 -5

-10 -10

123
Theorem (Linear transformations are given by matrices)
Every linear transformation T : Fn ! Fm is given by multiplication by
a matrix:
T (~v ) = [T ] ~v ,
where
[T ] = [T (~e 1 ) · · · T (~e n )]
and ~e i is the ith standard basis vector for Rn .

The matrix [T ] is called the standard matrix representation for T .

Note:
Knowing the e↵ect of T on the standard basis vectors ~e 1 , . . .~e n
completely determines [T ] and T .

124
Proof:

125
Composition of linear transformations
Recall:
If S : U ! V and R : V ! W are functions, then the composition

R S :U!W

is defined by doing S followed by R:

(R S)(~u ) = R(S(~u )) for all ~u 2 U.

Theorem (Composition corresponds to matrix multiplication)

Suppose R : Rk ! Rm and S : Rn ! Rk are linear transformations
with standard matrices [R] and [S] respectively. Then the
composition R S : Rn ! Rk is a linear transformation with standard
matrix
[R S] = [R] [S].

Note:This explains why matrix multiplication is defined the way it is.

126
Example: 
x
Find the image of after a shear along the x-axis with c = 1
y
followed by a reflection across the y -axis.

Solution:
We have already
 found the matrices of the shear and the reflection.
x
The image of under their composition is
y

127
3.4 Subspaces
Definition (Subspace)
A subspace W of a vector space V is a subset W ✓ V that is itself a
vector space using the addition and scalar multiplication operations
defined on V .

The following theorem allows us to avoid checking all 10 vector space

axioms.

Theorem (Subspace theorem)

Let V be a vector space with scalars F. A subset W ✓ V is a
subspace of V if and only if
0. W contains the zero vector ~0 from V .
1. W is closed under vector addition: ~u , ~v 2 W =) ~u + ~v 2 W .
2. W is closed under scalar multiplication:
~u 2 W , ↵ 2 F =) ↵~u 2 W .
128
Some geometric examples
1. The only subspaces of R2 are
• {0}
• Lines through the origin
• R2

2. The only subspaces of R3 are

• {0}
• Lines through the origin
• Planes through the origin
• R3

Example: ⇢
x
Is the line 2 R2 y = 2x + 1 a subspace of R2 ?
y
Solution:

129
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Theorem (Null Space)
Let A be an m ⇥ n matrix with entries from a field F. Then the
solution set
S = {~x 2 Rn | A~x = ~0}
is a subspace of Fn . This is called the null space or solution space of
A.
Proof: Exercise. (Check the conditions of the subspace theorem.)
Example: 2 3
x
Show that S = {4y 5 2 R3 | x + y + z = 0} is a subspace of R3 .
z

Solution:

130
Theorem
Let A be an m ⇥ n matrix with real entries. Then

Null(A) = Null(AT A).

Proof:

131
Example:
One way of coding data is to use a Hamming code so that errors can
not only be detected but also corrected efficiently.
1. Using modular 2 arithmetic is well-suited to describing digital
information.
2. Data is stored in the form of a string of 1s and 0s. These 1s and
0s are called binary numbers.

The (8,4)-Hamming code is a cleverly chosen subspace of F82

containing 16 elements, which can be obtained as the null space of a
4 ⇥ 8 matrix with F2 entries. Declaring the elements of the Hamming
code as the valid words of length 8 is what makes error correction
work.

132
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Try playing around with Hamming’s List of Words – check the
subspace property in some examples. You receive the corrupted
message 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0. Which Hamming word do you
think it was?
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
6 0 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 1 7 6 0 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 0 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 0 7 6 1 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 0 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 0 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 0 7 6 1 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 1 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 0 7 6 1 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 1 7 6 0 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
4 0 5 4 1 5 4 1 5 4 0 5 4 1 5 4 0 5 4 0 5 4 1 5
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
6 0 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 0 7 6 1 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 0 7 6 1 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 1 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 1 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 0 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 1 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 0 7 6 1 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 0 7 6 1 7 6 1 7 6 0 7 6 0 7 6 1 7 6 1 7 6 0 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
4 0 5 4 1 5 4 0 5 4 1 5 4 1 5 4 0 5 4 1 5 4 0 5
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
133
Null space (kernel) of a linear transformation
The notion of null space makes sense for general a linear
transformation.

Theorem (Null Space)

Let T : V ! W be a linear transformation. Then the set

S = {~v 2 V | T (~v ) = ~0}

is a subspace of V . This is called the null space or kernel of T .

Proof: Exercise. (Check the conditions of the subspace theorem.)

Example:
Let W be the real 2 ⇥ 2 matrices whose trace is equal to 0. Show
that W is a subspace of M2,2 .

134
Solution: We claim that Tr : M2,2 ! R is a linear transformation.
Once the claim is proved, we recognize W as the null space of Tr .

135
Example:
Let W be the set of real 2 ⇥ 2 matrices with determinant equal to 0:
⇢
a b
W = | a, b, c, d 2 R and ad bc = 0
c d
Show that W is not a subspace of M2,2 .

Solution:
Find a specific counterexample

136
Example:
Consider the set

H = {(x, y ) 2 R2 | x > 0, y > 0}

Is H a subspace of R2 ?





Solution:

137
The set of inhomogeneous solutions
The solutions for T (~x ) = ~b where ~b 6= ~0 do not form a subspace.
The general solution (set of all solutions) of a vector equation
T (~x ) = ~b is related to the general solution of the homogeneous
system T (~x ) = ~0 by a parallel shift.

Theorem (Superposition of solutions)

If T (~x ) = ~b is consistent, then the general solution is obtained by
taking one particular solution ~p of T (~x ) = ~b and adding the general
solution ~h of T (~x ) = ~0. Thus, the general solution to T (~x ) = ~b has
the form
~x = ~p + ~h,
and the solution set is

{~x = ~p + ~h | ~h 2 Null(T )}

138
Picture:
y

p
2x + 3y = 4.5

2x + 3y = 0
x
Ax = b

Ax = 0

Note The solution is unique if and only if Null(T ) = {0}.

139
Example: In the traffic flow example on Page 69, we found the
general solution
2 3 2 3
a 9 t
6 b 7 61 + t 7
~x = 6 7=6
4 c 5 46 t 5
7 , t 2 R.

d t
Determine a particular solution ~p and the general solution ~h to the
homogeneous system.
Solution:

140
94
Note The solution set of a linear system in three variables is
represented by either
I the empty set if the system is inconsistent
I a point in R3 if the solution is unique or
I a line in R3 if we have one free parameter
I a plane in R3 if we have two free parameters
I all of R3 .
In each case, the solution set is obtained as a parallel shift of the
null-space. Historically, much of linear algebra evolved around
describing planes and lines in R3 , identifying their intersections and
orthogonal complements.

141
Geometrically, an inconsistent system in 3 variables has no common
point of intersection for the planes determined by the system.

142
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Geometrically, a consistent system in 3 variables has a common point,
line or plane of intersection for the planes determined by the system.

143
Example: (integration constant)
Let T = D be di↵erentiation as on Page 117.

Application: The same method is used for describing solution sets of

systems of linear di↵erential equations.

144
Definition (Injective, surjective, bijective, inverses)
Let T : V ! W be a linear transformation. If for any ~b 2 W

T (~x ) = ~b
I has at least one solution then T is called surjective.

T surjective ()

I has at most one solution then T is called injective.

T injective ()

I has a unique solution, then T is called bijective or invertible or

an isomorphism. If such an isomorphism T exists, then we say
that the vector spaces V and W are isomorphic. In this case,
the inverse linear transformation to T is defined as follows:

145
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Example:
Is the rotation T : R2 ! R2 around the origin anticlockwise by an
angle ✓, with standard matrix

cos ✓ sin ✓
[T ] = ,
sin ✓ cos ✓

an invertible linear transformation? If it is, find [T 1 ].

Solution:

146
Example:
Consider the linear transformation T : R2 ! R2 for projection onto
the x-axis, with standard matrix

1 0
[T ] = .
0 0
(a) Is T surjective?
(b) Is T injective?
(c) Is T invertible?
Solution:

147
148
Example: Give an example of a linear transformation that is injective
but not surjective.

Example: Give an example of a linear transformation that is

surjective but not injective.

149
Let A be an m ⇥ n-matrix.
1. Under which condition is left-multiplication with A injective?
2. Under which condition is it surjective?
3. Under which condition is it bijective?

150
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 2 3
1 1
Example: A = 41 25
1 3

Example: AT A =

151
Example: Let A be an m ⇥ n matrix of rank n with entries from R.
Prove
1. multiplication with A is injective,
2. the matrix AT A is invertible, and
3. multiplication with AT is surjective.

152
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3.5 Matrix inverses

Let A be an invertible square matrix with n rows and columns. If

2 3

A 1
= 4 ~c1 ~c2 ... ~cn 5,

then the column point of view applied to the matrix multiplication

1
AA = In

gives n linear systems

A~cj = ~ej 1 6 j 6 n.

These are solved simultaneously using the Gauß-Jordan Algorithm.

Note The inverse of A is again an n ⇥ n matrix. If A 1 exists, it is
determined uniquely, and automatically satisfies A 1 A = In .
153
Inverse of a square matrix, algorithmic point of view
Goal: determine whether A possesses an inverse and if so, find the
inverse.
Starting Point: 2 3
1 0 0
6 .. 7
4 A 0 . 0 5.
0 0 1
Apply Gauß-Jordan Algorithm, treating all columns at once, aiming
to arrive at
2 3
1 ··· 0
6 .. . . .. 7
4 . . . ~c . . . ~c 5 .
1 n
0 ··· 1
If this fails, then A is not invertible. Such an A is called singular.
Otherwise, A is called regular, and A 1 is given by the RHS.

154
Example: 2 3
1 2 1
Find the inverse of A = 4 1 1 1 5.
0 1 3

Solution:
Form the augmented matrix [A | I3 ] and perform row operations so
that A is in reduced row-echelon form.

155
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Linear systems revisited
Theorem
If A is an invertible n ⇥ n matrix, then every linear system of the form
Ax = b has a unique solution, given by x = A 1 b.
Example:
Use a matrix inverse to solve the linear system

x + 2y + z = 4
x y + z = 11
y + 3z = 21
Solution:
Step 1. Write the system in the form A~x = ~b

156
Step 2. Find A 1.

157
Step 3.
The solution is ~x = A 1~b.

Note: Once we know A 1 we can immediately solve the linear system

A~x = ~b for any possible choice of the right hand side ~b.

158
Properties of the matrix inverse
If A and B are n ⇥ n invertible matrices and ↵ is a non-zero scalar,
then
1 1 1
1. (↵A) = ↵ A
2. (AB) 1 =B 1A 1
n
3. (An ) 1 = A 1 (for all integers n > 1)
⇣ ⌘ 1
T
4. AT = A 1

159
Theorem (Inverse of a 2 ⇥ 2 matrix)

a b
Let A= . Then
c d
1. A is invertible () ad bc 6= 0.

1 d b
2. If ad 6 0, then A 1 =
bc = .
ad bc c a

Note: ad bc is called the determinant of A, written det(A).

Example:
Find the inverses, if they exist, of the geometric examples from Pages
39 to 47.

Solution:

160
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Example: Encrypting messages
A common way of sending an encrypted message is to assign an
integer value to each letter of the alphabet and send the message as
a string of integers.
For example the message

SEND MONEY

might be sent as
5, 8, 10, 21, 7, 2, 10, 8, 3
Here the S is represented by a 5, the E by an 8, and so on. Ciphers
like this are generally easy to break.
A more secure way is to use matrix multiplication and matrix inverses.

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Step 1: Encrypting the message
We put the message (SEND MONEY) in a matrix by entering the
integers corresponding to each letter down the columns
2 3
5 21 10
B=4 8 7 8 5
10 2 3

For simplicity, choose an invertible 3 ⇥ 3 matrix whose inverse has

integer entries, e.g. 2 3
1 2 1
A=4 2 5 3 5
2 3 2
The product
2 32 3 2 3
1 2 1 5 21 10 31 37 29
AB = 4 2 5 3 5 4 8 7 8 5 = 4 80 83 69 5
2 3 2 10 2 3 54 67 50
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gives the encrypted message to be sent:
31, 80, 54, 37, 83, 67, 29, 69, 50

Step 2: Decrypting the message

The person receiving the encrypted message can decrypt it by
premultiplying the received message by A 1
2 32 3
1 1 1 31 37 29
A 1 (AB) = 4 2 0 1 54 80 83 69 5
4 1 1 54 67 50
2 3
5 21 10
=4 8 7 8 5
10 2 3
which gives the sequence of integers
5, 8, 10, 21, 7, 2, 10, 8, 3
corresponding to
SEND MONEY
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