CHAPTER 4: PERMEABILITY

ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER 𝑢

THROUGH SOILS ℎ= +𝑍
𝛾𝑤
The study of the flow of water through permeable soil
media is important in soil mechanics for estimating the
Open standpipes called piezometers are installed at
quantity of underground seepage under various
points A and B. The levels to which water rises in the
hydraulic conditions, for investigating problems
piezometer tubes situated at points A and B are known
involving the pumping of water for underground
as piezometric levels of points A and B, respectively. The
construction, and for making stability analyses of earth
pressure head at a point is the height of the vertical
dams and earth-retaining structures that are subjected
column of water in the piezometer installed at that
to seepage forces.
point.
Groundwater – water under gravity that fills the soil
The loss of head, ∆ℎ, can be expressed in a
pores
nondimensional form as:
Head (H) – mechanical energy per unit weight
∆ℎ
Hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of permeability, 𝑖=
𝐿
k) – proportionality constant used to determine the flow
velocity of water through soils
where:
Pore water pressure (u) – pressure of water within
the soil pores 𝑖 = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝐿 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

Bernoulli’s Equation

𝑢 𝑣2 The variation of the velocity 𝑣 with the hydraulic

ℎ= + +𝑍
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 gradient 𝑖 is shown in the figure. It is divided into three
zones:

1. Laminar flow zone (Zone I)

2. Transition zone (Zone II)
3. Turbulent flow zone (Zone III)
The elevation head Z is the vertical distance of a given
point above or below a datum plane. The pressure head
is the water pressure, 𝑢, at that point divided by the
unit weight of water, 𝛾𝑤 .

In most soils, the flow of water through void spaces can

be considered laminar. Thus,

𝒗∝𝒊
If Bernoulli’s equation is applied to the flow of water In fractured rock, stones, gravels, and very coarse
through a porous soil medium, the term containing the sands, turbulent flow conditions may exist, and this
velocity head can be neglected because the seepage relationship may not be valid.
velocity is small, and the total head at any point can be
adequately represented by:

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 27

Darcy’s Law Typical values of hydraulic conductivity of saturated
soils:
In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for the
discharge velocity of water through saturated soils, k
Soil type
which may be expressed as: 𝒄𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒇𝒕/𝒎𝒊𝒏
Clean gravel 100 – 1.0 200 – 2.0
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖 Coarse sand 1.0 – 0.01 2.0 – 0.02
Fine sand 0.01 – 0.001 0.02 – 0.002
Silty clay 0.001 – 0.0001 0.002 – 0.0002
where: Clay <0.000001 <0.000002
𝑣 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, which is the quantity of water
flowing in unit time through a unit gross cross-sectional The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is also related to the
area of soil at right angles to the direction of flow properties of the fluid flowing through it by the
equation:
𝑘 = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, otherwise known as the
coefficient of permeability 𝛾𝑤
𝑘= 𝐾
This equation was based primarily on Darcy’s 𝜂
observations about the flow of water through clean
sands. The equation is valid for laminar flow conditions
and applicable for a wide range of soils. where:

𝜂 = 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑣
𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣𝑠 =
𝑛 𝐾 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦

where:

ℎ
𝑖= = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐿
𝑚
𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑜𝑟 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑠
𝑛 = 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

The flow of water is:

𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴

Hydraulic Conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity of soils depends on several

factors:

 fluid viscosity
 pore-size distribution
 void ratio
 roughness of mineral particles
 degree of soil saturation

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 28

DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF Falling-Head Test
PERMEABILITY
Water from a standpipe flows through the soil. The
Constant-Head Test initial head difference ℎ1 at time 𝑡 = 0 is recorded, and
water is allowed to flow through the soil specimen such
In this type of laboratory setup, the water supply at the that the final head difference at time 𝑡 = 𝑡2 is ℎ2 .
inlet is adjusted in such a way that the difference of
head between the inlet and the outlet remains constant
during the test period. After a constant flow rate is
established, water is collected in a graduated flask for a
known duration.

𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= ln ( )
𝐴(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) ℎ2
The total volume of water collected may be expressed
as:
where:
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣𝑡 = 𝐴(𝑘𝑖)𝑡
𝑎 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒

ℎ1 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡1
where:
ℎ2 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡2
𝑄 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛

𝑡 = 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

ℎ
𝑄 = 𝐴 (𝑘 × ) 𝑡
𝐿

𝑄𝐿
𝑘=
𝐴ℎ𝑡

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 29

SAMPLE PROBLEMS (Coefficient of
Permeability)

Problem 1

A constant-head permeability test gives these values:

 L = 30 cm
 A = area of the specimen = 177 cm2
 Constant-head difference, h = 50 cm
 Water collected in a period of 5 min = 350 cm3

Answer: 𝑘 = 3.95 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Problem 2

For a falling-head permeability test, the following

values are given:

 Length of specimen = 8 in Answer: 𝑞 = 0.0789 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟/𝑚

 Area of soil specimen = 1.6 in2
 Area of standpipe = 0.06 in2
 Head difference at time 𝑡 = 0 = 20 𝑖𝑛 Problem 5
 Head difference at time 𝑡 = 180 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 12 𝑖𝑛
Find the flow rate in m3/sec/m length (at right angles to
Answer: 𝑘 = 8.52 × 10−4 𝑖𝑛/𝑠𝑒𝑐 the cross-section shown) through the permeable soil
layer shown in the figure given H=8m, H1=3m, h=4m,
L=50m, 𝛼 = 8°, and k=0.08cm/sec.
Problem 3

The hydraulic conductivity of a clayey soil is 3 ×

10−7 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐. The viscosity of water at 25℃ is 0.0911 ×
10−4 𝑔 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑐𝑚2 . Calculate the absolute permeability 𝐾
̅
of the soil.

Answer: 𝐾
̅ = 0.2733 × 10−11 𝑐𝑚2

Problem 4

A permeable soil later is underlain by an impervious

layer. With 𝑘 = 5.3 × 10−5 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 for the permeable later, Answer: 𝑞 = 0.19 × 10−3 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑚
calculate the rate of seepage through it in 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟/𝑚
width if 𝐻 = 3 and ∝= 8°.

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 30

Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified SAMPLE PROBLEMS (Equivalent coefficient of
Soil permeability)

For horizontal flow in stratified soil: Problem 1

A layered soil is shown in the figure. Given:

 𝐻1 = 2𝑚 𝑘1 = 10−4 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
 𝐻2 = 3𝑚 𝑘1 = 3.2 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
 𝐻3 = 4𝑚 𝑘1 = 4.1 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚/𝑠

Estimate the ratio of equivalent hydraulic conductivity,

𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞)
1 .
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) = (𝑘𝐻1 𝐻1 + 𝑘𝐻2 𝐻2 + 𝑘𝐻3 𝐻3 … + 𝑘𝐻𝑛 𝐻𝑛 ) 𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞)
𝐻
Answer: 139.96

Problem 2
For vertical flow in stratified soil:
The figure shows three layers of soil in a tube that is
100𝑚𝑚 × 100𝑚𝑚 in cross section. Water is supplied to
maintain a constant-head difference of 300 mm across
the sample. The hydraulic conductivities in the
direction of flow through them are as follows:

Soil k (cm/sec)
A 10−2
B 3 × 10−3
C 4.9 × 10−4

𝐻
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) =
𝐻1 𝐻2 𝐻 𝐻
( ) + ( ) +( 3) + ⋯+( 𝑛)
𝑘𝑉1 𝑘𝑉2 𝑘𝑉3 𝑘𝑉𝑛

Find the rate of water supply, in 𝑐𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟.

Answer: 0.0809 cm3/sec or 291.24 cm3/hr

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 31

Problem 3 a. Total Flow

Given the stratified soil shown in the figure. The Solving for 𝑞1 : [𝑞1 = 𝑘1𝑒𝑞 𝑖 𝑎1 ]
properties of each soil are as follows:
3.9
𝑘1𝑒𝑞 = = 0.04681 𝑚/ℎ𝑟
Coefficient of permeability: 0.80 0.70 1.5 0.9
+ + +
6.25 5.75 4.5 3.6
 k1 = 6.25 cm/hr; k2 = 5.75 cm/hr; k3 = 4.50
cm/hr; k4 = 6.25 cm/hr; k5 = 8.15 cm/hr; k6 = 𝑎 = 0.3 × 1 = 0.3 𝑚2
3.60 cm/hr 𝑞1 = 0.04681(0.4615)(0.3) = 0.00648 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
Thickness

 H = 1.20 m; H3 = 0.30 m; H4 = 0.50 m; H5 = Solving for 𝑞2 : [𝑞2 = 𝑘2𝑒𝑞 𝑖 𝑎2 ]

0.40 m
3.9
Length 𝑘2𝑒𝑞 =
0.80 0.70 1.5 0.9
= 0.05272 𝑚/ℎ𝑟
+ + +
6.25 5.75 6.25 3.6
 L1 = 0.8 m; L2 = 0.7 m; L3 = 1.5 m; L6 = 0.9 m
𝑎 = 0.5 × 1 = 0.5 𝑚2

𝑞1 = 0.05272(0.4615)(0.5) = 0.01217 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟

Solving for 𝑞3 : [𝑞3 = 𝑘3𝑒𝑞 𝑖 𝑎3 ]

3.9
𝑘3𝑒𝑞 = = 0.05704 𝑚/ℎ𝑟
0.80 0.70 1.5 0.9
+ + +
6.25 5.75 8.15 3.6
𝑎 = 0.4 × 1 = 0.4 𝑚2

𝑞1 = 0.05704(0.4615)(0.4) = 0.010529 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟

a. Determine the total flow per meter.

b. Determine the equivalent coefficient of
Total flow: 𝑞 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3
permeability.
𝒒 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟗𝟏𝟕𝟗 𝒎𝟑 /𝒉𝒓
Solution:

b. Equivalent coefficient of permeability for

all layers:
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑖 𝑎
0.029179 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 (0.4615)(1.2 × 1)
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 0.05269 𝑚/ℎ𝑟
𝒌𝒆𝒒 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟔𝟗 𝒄𝒎/𝒉𝒓
𝐻0 = 0.8 + 0.7 + 1.5 + 0.9

𝐿 = 0.8 + 0.7 + 1.5 + 0.9 = 3.9 𝑚 Problem 4

ℎ 1.8
𝑖= = = 0.4615 A canal is cut into a soil with a stratigraphy shown in
𝐿 3.9 the figure. Assume flow takes place laterally and
𝐻0 vertically through the sides of the canal and vertically
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = below the canal. The values of 𝑘 = 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑧 in each layer
𝐻
∑( )
𝑘 are given.

a. What is the equivalent permeability in the

horizontal direction through the sides of the
canal, in cm/day?

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 32

 b. What is the equivalent permeability in the Problem 5
vertical directions through the sides of the
canal, in cm/day? A confined aquifer underlies an unconfined aquifer as
c. Determine the equivalent permeability in the shown in the figure. Given the following: D1 = 59 m, D2
vertical directions below the bottom of the = 41 m, H1 = 45 m, H2 = 33 m, k1 = 35 m/day, k2 = 27
canal, in cm/day. m/day, L = 2 km.

a. Calculate the equivalent coefficient of

permeability in horizontal direction.
b. Calculate the hydraulic gradient.
c. Calculate the flow of water from one stream to
another per meter width.

Solution:

a.) Equivalent permeability in horizontal direction Solution:

through sides of the canal (H0 = 3 m)
a.) 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝐻 = ∑ 𝑘ℎ
1 𝑘𝑒𝑞 (33 + 45) = 33(45) + 27(33)
𝑘𝑥(𝑒𝑞) = [1(2.3 × 10−5 ) + 1.5(5.2 × 10−6 )
3 𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 31.615 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
+ 0.5(2 × 10−6 )]
ℎ 18
𝑘𝑥(𝑒𝑞) = 10.6 × 10−6 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟒 𝒄𝒎/𝒅𝒂𝒚 b.) 𝑖 = = = 0.009
𝐿 2000

c.) 𝑄 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝐴
b.) Equivalent permeability in horizontal direction 59 + 41
𝐴 = ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 × 1 = (1) = 50 𝑚2
through sides of the canal (H0 = 3 m) 2
𝑄 = 31.615(0.009)(50) = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟐𝟕 𝒎𝟑 /𝒅𝒂𝒚
3
𝑘𝑧(𝑒𝑞) =
1 1.5 0.5
+ +
2.3 × 10−5 5.2 × 10−6 2 × 10−6
10−6 𝑐𝑚
𝑘𝑧(𝑒𝑞) = 5.16 × = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟓𝟖𝟐𝟒 𝒄𝒎/𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝑠

c.) Equivalent permeability in vertical direction

though the bottom of the canal

𝐻𝑜 = 1.5 + 1.2 + 3 = 5.7 𝑚

5.7
𝑘𝑧(𝑒𝑞) =
1.5 1.2 3
+ +
2 × 10−6 0.3 × 10−4 0.8 × 10−3
𝑘𝑧(𝑒𝑞) = 7.18 × 10−6 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟐 𝒄𝒎/𝒅𝒂𝒚

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 33

SOILS INVESTIGATIONS contingencies. The first component is generally more
extensive and is conducted in phases. These phases are
A soils investigation is an essential part of the design as follows:
and construction of a proposed structural system
(buildings, dams, roads and highways, etc.) Soils are
identified, observed, and recovered during a soils
investigation of a proposed site. Usually soils Phase I. This phase is sometimes called “desk study.”
investigations are conducted only on a fraction of It involves collection of available information such as
a proposed site because it would be prohibitively a site plan; type, size, and importance of the structure;
expensive to conduct an extensive investigation of a loading conditions; previous geotechnical reports;
whole site. maps, including topographic maps, aerial photographs,
still photographs, satellite imagery, and geologic
maps; and newspaper clippings.

Phase II. Preliminary reconnaissance or a site visit to

provide a general picture of the topography
and geology of the site. It is necessary that you take
with you on the site visit all the information
gathered in Phase I to compare with the current
Soil profile at a construction site (McCammon and conditions of the site. Your site visit notes should
Golder, 1970) include the following:

 Photographs of the site and its neighborhood.

 Access to the site for workers and equipment.
Purposes of a soils investigation  Sketches of all fences, utility posts, driveways,
walkways, drainage systems, and so on.
A soils investigation program is necessary to provide
 Utility services that are available, such as
information for design and construction, environmental
water and electricity.
assessment, and project due diligence (due diligence is
 Sketches of topography including all existing
the process of evaluating a prospective project to
structures, cuts, fills, ground depression,
facilitate business decisions by the owner). The
purposes of a soils investigation are: ponds,
and so on.
1. To evaluate the general suitability of the site  The state of any existing building at the site or
for the proposed project. nearby. Your notes should include exterior and
2. To enable an adequate and economical design interior cracks, any noticeable tilt, type of
to be made. construction (e.g., brick or framed stucco
3. To disclose and make provision for difficulties building), evidence of frost damage, molds, and
that may arise during construction due to any exceptional features.
ground and other local conditions.  Geological features from any exposed area such
as a road cut.
 Occasionally, a few boreholes may be dug to
explore the site.
Phases of a soils investigation

The scope of a soils investigation depends on the type,

size, and importance of the structure; the client; Phase III. Detailed soils exploration. The objectives of
the engineer’s familiarity with the soils at the site; and a detailed soils exploration are:
local building codes. Structures that are sensitive
to settlement such as machine foundations and high-  To determine the geological structure, which
use buildings usually require a more thorough soils should include the thickness, sequence, and
investigation than a foundation for a house. extent
of the soil strata.
A soils investigation has three components. The first  To determine the groundwater conditions.
component is done prior to design. The second  To obtain disturbed and undisturbed samples
component is done during the design process. The third for laboratory tests.
component is done during construction.  To conduct in situ tests.
The second and third components are needed for

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 34

Phase IV. Laboratory testing. The objectives of hydrological and environmental conditions. Popular
laboratory tests are: methods are:

 To classify the soils. 1. Ground-penetrating radar. GPR, also called

 To determine soil strength, failure stresses and georadar, is a high-resolution, high-frequency
strains, stress–strain response, permeability, (10 MHz to 1000 MHz) electromagnetic wave
compactibility, and settlement parameters. Not technique for imaging soils and ground
all of these may be required for a project. structures. An antenna is used to transmit and
recover radar pulses generated by a pulse
generator. The returned pulse is then
processed to produce images of the soil prof le.
Phase V. Write a report. The report must contain a
The key geotechnical uses are soil prof le
clear description of the soils at the site, methods
imaging and location of buried objects. GPR
of exploration, soil stratigraphy, in situ and laboratory
produces continuous-resolution images of the
test methods and results, and the location
soil prof le with very little soil disturbance.
of the groundwater. You should include information on
GPR is not suitable for highly conductive (.15
and/or explanations of any unusual soil,
milliohms/m) wet clays and silts. GPR
water-bearing stratum, and any soil and groundwater
resolution decreases with depth.
conditions such as frost susceptibility or
waterlogged areas that may be troublesome during
2. Seismic surveys. Seismic investigations utilize
construction.
the fact that surface waves travel with
different velocities through different materials.
The subsurface interfaces are determined by
Soils Exploration Program recording the magnitude and travel time of the
seismic waves, essentially compression waves
A soils exploration program usually involves test pits
(P waves), at a point some distance from the
and/or soil borings (boreholes). During the site
source of the wave. The velocity of propagation
visit (Phase II), you should work out most of the soils
is the most important parameter in the
exploration program. A detailed soils exploration
application of seismic methods. The densities
consists of:
and elastic properties of the geological
1. Determining the need for and extent of materials control the velocity of propagation.
geophysical exploration. When a seismic wave encounters a boundary
2. Preliminary location of each borehole and/or between two elastic media, the wave energy is
test pit. transmitted by reflection, refraction, and
3. Numbering of the boreholes or test pits. diffraction. Seismic reflection and refraction
4. Planned depth of each borehole or test pit. are used in geotechnical site characterization.
5. Methods and procedures for advancing the
boreholes. 3. Electrical resistivity. Electrical resistivity
6. Sampling instructions for at least the f rst measurements can be used for identification
borehole. The sampling instructions must and quantification of depth of groundwater,
include the detection of clays, and measurement of
number of samples and possible locations. groundwater conductivity. Soil resistivity,
Changes in the sampling instructions often measured in ohm-centimeters (ohm-cm), varies
occur after with moisture content and temperature
the first borehole. changes. In general, an increase in soil
7. Determining the need for and types of in situ moisture results in a reduction in soil
tests. resistivity. The pore fluid provides the only
8. Requirements for groundwater observations. electrical path in sands, while both the pore
fluid and the surface charged particles provide
electrical paths in clays. Resistivities of wet
fine-grained soils are generally much lower
Soil Exploration Methods
than those of wet coarse-grained soils. The
The soils at a site can be explored using one or more of difference in resistivity between a soil in a dry
the following methods: and in a saturated condition may be several
orders of magnitude.
Geophysical methods – nondestructive techniques used
to provide spatial information on soils, rocks and

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 35

 4. Other geophysical methods of geotechnical Shape: Angular, sub angular, sub rounded, rounded,
engineering interests flaky.
a. Gamma density, or gamma-gamma,
measures electron density and can be Weathering: Fresh, decomposed, weathered.
used to estimate Carbonate: Effervesces with acid. Add a small amount
the total soil density or porosity. of hydrochloric acid and check if soil effervesces. If it
b. Neutron porosity measures hydrogen does, it contains carbonate.
density. It is used for porosity
estimation below the Smell: Organic soils give off a strong odor that
groundwater level. intensifies with heat. Nonorganic soils have a subtle
c. Sonic-VDL measures the seismic odor with the addition of water.
velocity. It is useful to measure soil
stiffnesses and to Feel: Use feel to distinguish between sand, silts, and
detect bedrock elevation. clays.
d. Microgravity is used to detect changes
 Sand has a gritty feel.
in subsurface densities and is
 Silt has a rough feel similar to fine sandpaper.
particularly good at detecting cavities.
 Clay feels smooth and greasy. It sticks to
A gravimeter is used at discrete points
fingers and is powdery when dry.
on the earth’s surface to detect small
changes in gravity. These changes are Consistency: Very stiff: Finger pressure barely dents
called gravity anomalies and are soil, but it cracks under significant pressure.
related to density changes.
 Stiff: Finger pressure dents soil.
 Firm: Soil can be molded using strong finger
pressure.
Soil Identification in the Field
 Soft: Easily molded by finger.
In the field, the predominant soil types based on texture  Very soft: Soil flows between fingers when fist
are identified by inspection. Gravels and sands is closed
are gritty and the individual particles are visible. Silts
Dilatancy: Place a small amount of the soil in your palm
easily crumble, and water migrates to the surface
and shake horizontally. Then strike it with the
on application of pressure. Clays fail this water
other hand. If the surface is slurry and water appears,
migration test since water flows very slowly through
the soil probably has a large amount of silt.
clays. Clays feel smooth, greasy, and sticky to the touch
when wet but are very hard and strong when dry. Packing: Coarse-grained soils are described as:
Common descriptive terms and methods of
identification are as follows:  Very loose: collapses with slight disturbance;
open structure
Color: Color is not directly related to engineering  Loose: collapses upon disturbance; open
properties of soils, but is related to soil mineralogy structure
and texture.  Medium dense: indents when pushed firmly
 Dense: barely deforms when pushed by feet or
 Gray and bluish: unoxidized soils
by stomping
 White and cream: calcareous soils
 Very dense: impossible to depress with
 Red and yellow: oxidized soils
stomping
 Black and dark brown: soils containing organic
matter

Moisture: Appearance due to water is described as wet,

dry, or moist.

Structure:

 Homogeneous: Color and texture feel the same

throughout.
 Nonhomogeneous: Color and texture vary.

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 36

Advantages and Disadvantages of Soil Exploration Methods

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 37

Number and Depths of Boreholes due to the heaviest foundation load is less than
10%, whichever is greater.
In most cases, the number and depths of borings are  In very stiff clays and dense, coarse-grained
governed by experience based on the geological soils, borings should penetrate 5 m to 6 m to
character of the ground, the importance of the prove
structure, the structural loads, and the availability of that the thickness of the stratum is adequate.
equipment. Building codes and regulatory bodies  Borings should penetrate at least 3 m into
provide guidelines on the minimum number and depths rock.
of borings. The number of boreholes should be adequate  Borings must penetrate below any fills or very
to detect variations of the soils at the site. If the soft deposits below the proposed structure.
locations of the loads on the footprint of the structure  The minimum depth of boreholes should be 6 m
are known (this is often not the case), you should unless bedrock or very dense material is
consider drilling at least one borehole at the location of encountered.
the heaviest load. As a guide, a minimum of three
boreholes should be drilled for a building area of about Guidelines for the minimum number of boreholes for
250 m2 (2500 ft2) and about five for a building area of buildings and subdivisions based on area
about 1000 m2 (10,000 ft2).

Some general guidance on the depth of boreholes is

provided in the following:

 In compressible soils such as clays, the borings

should penetrate to at least between 1 and 3
times the
width of the proposed foundation below the
depth of embedment or until the stress
increment

Guidelines for the minimum number or frequency and depths of boreholes for common geostructures

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 38

Soil Sampling pumping groundwater from wells and drawdown during
construction), and geological conditions.
The objective of soil sampling is to obtain soils of
satisfactory size with minimum disturbance for The water-bearing soils below the groundwater level
observations and laboratory tests. Soil samples are are called an aquifer. Aquifers can be unconfined or
usually obtained by attaching an open-ended, thin- confined. In an unconfined aquifer, the groundwater
walled tube—called a Shelby tube or, simply, a level is free to fluctuate up and down, depending on the
sampling tube—to drill rods and forcing it down into availability of water. During winter and spring, the
the soil. groundwater level usually rises. In drier months, the
groundwater level drops.
The tube is carefully withdrawn, hopefully with the soil
inside it. Soil disturbances occur from several sources
during sampling, such as friction between the soil and
the sampling tube, the wall thickness of the sampling Soil Laboratory Tests
tube, the sharpness of the cutting edge, and the care Samples are normally taken from the field for
and handling of the sample tube during transportation. laboratory tests to characterize the physical and
To minimize friction, the sampling tube should be mechanical (strength and deformation) properties.
pushed instead of driven into the ground. These parameters are used to design foundations and to
determine the use of soils as a construction material.
Disturbed samples such as from a standard sampler
Groundwater conditions are usually used for visual inspection and for tests to
determine the physical properties such as plasticity
and grain size and shape. Undisturbed samples such as
from a thin-walled sampler are used for both
physical and mechanical properties. Test results,
especially those that relate to the mechanical
properties, are strongly affected by sampling, handling,
transportation, and sample preparation disturbances.
Care must therefore be exercised to protect the intact
condition of the soil samples. Wax is often used to coat
the soil samples to prevent moisture losses.

Types of In Situ or Field Tests

Over the years, several in situ testing devices have

emerged to characterize the soil and to measure
strength and deformation properties. The most popular
devices are:

1. Vane shear test (VST)

2. Standard penetration test (SPT)
3. Cone penetrometer test (CPT)
4. Pressure meter test (PMT)
If you dig a hole into a soil mass that has all the voids 5. Flat plate dilatometer (DMT)
filled with water (fully saturated), you will observe
water in the hole up to a certain level. This water level
is called groundwater level or groundwater table. The
top of the groundwater level is under atmospheric
pressure and is sometimes called the free surface. We
will denote groundwater level by the symbol ▼. Many
construction failures, court battles, and construction
cost overruns are due to the nonidentification or
nondisclosure of groundwater conditions at a site. The
water table invariably fluctuates depending on
environmental conditions (e.g., rainfall patterns, winter
rains, monsoons, drought), human activities (e.g.,

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 39