5.0 D.

C MOTORS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
A machine that converts mechanical power into DC electrical power is
called a DC generator. The same machine when used to convert DC
electrical power into mechanical power, it known as a DC motor. From
construction point of view there is no difference between a DC
generator and motor.
The DC motors are very useful where wide range of speeds and
perfect speed regulation is required such as electric traction.

5.2 DC Motor
An electro-mechanical energy conversion device (electrical machine)
that converts DC electrical energy or power into mechanical energy or
power (ω T) is called a DC motor.
Electric motors are used for driving industrial machines, e.g., presses,
drilling machines, lathes, rollers in paper and steel industry, blowers
for furnaces, etc., and domestic appliances, e.g., refrigerators, fans,
water pumps, toys, mixers, etc.

The block diagram of energy conversion, when the electro-mechanical

device works as a motor, is shown in Fig. 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Block diagram of electromagnetic energy conversion

(motor action)

5.3 Working Principle of DC Motors

The operation of a DC motor is based on the principle that when a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical
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force is experienced by it. The direction of this force is determined by
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule and its magnitude is given by the relation:
F=Bilnewton
For simplicity, consider only one coil of the armature placed in the
magnetic field produced by a bipolar machine [Fig. 5.2(a)]. When DC
supply is connected to the coil, current flows through it which sets up
its own field as shown in Fig. 5.2(b). By the interaction of the two
fields (i.e., field produced by the main poles and the coil), a resultant
field is set up as shown in Fig. 5.2(c). The tendency of this is to come
to its original position i.e., in straight line due to which force is exerted
on the two coil sides and torque develops which rotates the coil.

Figure 5.2: Working principle of a motor

Alternately, it can be said that the main poles produce a field F m. Its
direction is marked in Fig. 5.3. When current is supplied to the coil
(armature conductors), it produces its own field marked as F r. This
field tries to come in line with the main field and an electromagnetic
torque develops in clockwise direction as marked in Fig. 5.3.
In actual machine, a large number of conductors are placed on the
armature. All the conductors, placed under the influence of one pole
(say, North pole) carry the current in one direction (outward).
Whereas, the other conductors placed under the influence of other
pole i.e., south pole, carry the current in opposite direction as shown
in Fig. 5.4. A resultant rotor field is produced. Its direction

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 is marked by the arrow-head F r. This rotor field F r tries to come in line
with the main field F m and torque (T e) develops. Thus, rotor rotates.
It can be seen that to obtain a continuous torque, the direction of flow
of current in each conductor or coil side must be reversed when it
passes through the magnetic neutral axis (MNA). This is achieved with
the help of a commutator.

Function of a Commutator
The function of a commutator in DC motors is to reverse the direction
of flow of current in each armature conductor when it passes through
the M.N.A. to obtain continuous torque.

5.4 Back emf

It has been seen that when current is supplied to the armature
conductors, as shown in Fig. 5.5(a), placed in the main magnetic field,
torque develops and armature rotates. Simultaneously, the armature
conductors cut across the magnetic field and an emf is induced in
these conductors. The direction
of this induced emf in the armature conductors is determined by
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule and is marked in Fig. 5.5(b).
It can be seen that the direction of this induced emf is opposite to the
applied voltage. That is why this induced emf is called back emf ( Eb ).
The magnitude of this induced emf is given by the relation;

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 PZϕN
Eb =
60 A
Where P = Number of poles of the machine.
ϕ = Flux per pole in Wb
Z = Total number of armature conductors.
N = Speed of armature in rpm
A = Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.
Or
ZP
Eb = ϕN ∨Eb ∝ ϕN
60 A
ZP
(Since are constant)
60 A
Eb
Also N ∝ shows that the speed of motor is inversely proportional to
ϕ
magnetic field of flux.

Fig. 5.5 Back emf

A simple conventional circuit diagram of the machine working as

motor, is shown in Fig. 5.6. In this case, the supply voltage is always
greater than the induced or back emf (i.e., V > Eb). Therefore, current
is always supplied to the motor from the mains and the relation
among the various quantities will be;
Eb =V – I a R a .

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 Figure 5.6: Circuit diagram ( Eb <V )

Significance of Back emf

The current flowing through the armature is given by the relation:
V −E b
I a=
Ra
When mechanical load applied on the motor increases, its speed
decreases which reduces the value of Eb . As a result, the value (V – E b)
increases which consequently increases I a. Hence, motor draws extra
current from the mains.
Thus, the back emf regulates the input power as per the extra load.

5.4 Electro-magnetic Torque Developed in DC Motor

The electrical power which is supplied to a DC motor is converted into
mechanical power. The conversion of power takes place in the
armature as stated below:
The power developed in the armature is given as
2 πN
E I a=ω T e ∨E I a= x Te
60
ϕZNP 2 πN ϕZP I a
¿ x I a= x T e ∨T e = Nm
60 A 60 2 πA
For a particular machine, the number of poles (P), number of
conductors per parallel path (Z/A) are constant.
ϕ Ia PZ
∴T =K where K = is a constant
2π A

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 The constant K for a given machine is the same for the emf equation
as well as the torque equation.
PZ
As well as, T =K 2 ϕ I a where K 2= is another constant or T ∝ ϕ I a
2 πA

Thus, it is concluded that torque produced in the armature of a DC

machine is directly proportional to flux per pole and armature current.
Moreover, the direction of electromagnetic torque developed in the
armature depends upon the direction of flux or magnetic field and the
direction of flow of current
in the armature conductors. If either of the two is reversed the
direction of torque produced is reversed and hence the direction of
rotation. But when both are reversed the direction of torque (or
rotation) does not change.

5.5 Shaft Torque

In DC motors whole of the electromagnetic torque (T e ) developed in
the armature is not available at the shaft. A part of it is lost to
overcome the iron and mechanical (friction and windage) losses.
Therefore, shaft torque (T sh ) is somewhat less than the torque
developed in the armature.
Thus, in case of DC motors, the actual torque available at the shaft for
doing useful mechanical work is known as shaft torque.

1. Comparison of Generator and Motor Action

It has been seen that the same machine can be used as a DC
generator or as a DC motor. When it converts mechanical energy (or
power) into electrical energy (or power), it is called a DC generator
and when it is used for reversed operation, it is called a DC motor.

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The comparison of generator and motor action is given below:

1. In generating action, the 1. In motoring action, the

rotation is due to mechanical rotation is due to
torque, therefore, T m and ω electromagnetic torque,
are in the same direction. therefore, T e and ω are in the
2. The frictional torque T f acts in same direction.
opposite direction to rotation 2. The frictional torque T f acts in
ω. opposite direction to rotation
3. Electromagnetic torque T e ω.
acts in opposite direction to 3. Mechanical torque T m acts in
mechanical torque T m so that opposite direction to
ω T m=ω T e +ω T f . electromagnetic torque T e so
4. In generating action, an emf that ω T e =ω T m +ω T f .
is induced in the armature 4. In motoring action, current is
conductors which circulates impressed to the armature
current in the armature against the induced emf (e),
when load is connected to it. therefore current flows in
Hence, e and i both are in opposite direction to that of

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 the same direction. induced emf.
5. In generator action, E > V
6. In generating action, the 5. In motor action, E < V
torque angle T is leading. 6. In motoring action, the
7. In generating action, torque angle T is lagging.
mechanical energy is 7. In motoring action, electrical
converted into electrical energy is converted into
energy. mechanical energy.

Example
A 50 HP, 400 V, 4 pole, 1000 rpm, DC motor has flux per pole equal to
0.027 Wb. The armature having 1600 conductors is wave connected.
Calculate the gross torque when the motor takes 70 amperes.

Solution:
PϕZ I a
Torque developed, T =
2 πA
Where P=4 ; ϕ=0.027 Wb ; Z =1600; I a =70A; A = 2 (wave connected)
4 x 0.027 x 1600 x 70
T= =962 Nm
2 x πx 2
Example
The induced emf in a DC machine is 200 V at a speed of 1200 rpm.
Calculate the electromagnetic torque developed at an armature
current of 15 A.

Solution:
Here, Eb = 200 V; N = 1200 rpm; I a= 15 A
Now power developed in the armature,
ω T e =Eb I a
E b I a Eb I a
¿ T e= = x 60
ω 2 πN

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 200 x 15
¿ x 60=23.87 Nm
2 πx 1500

5.7 Types of DC Motors

On the basis of the connections of armature and their field winding,
DC motors can be classified as;
1. Separately excited DC motors: The conventional diagram of a
separately excited DC motor is shown Fig. 5.8. Its voltage equation
will be;
Eb =V −I a R a−2 V b ( where v b is voltage drop per brush)
2. Self-excited DC motors: These motors can be further classified
as;
(i) Shunt motors: Their conventional diagram is shown in Fig. 5.9.
Important relations:
I sh =V / Rsh
I a=I L −I sh
Eb =V −I a R a−2 v b (where v b is voltage drop per brush)

(ii) Series motor: Its conventional diagram is shown in Fig. 5.10.

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 Important relations:
I L =I a=I sc
Eb =V −I a (R a+ R sc )−2 v b
(iii) Compound motor: Its conventional diagram (for long
shunt) is shown in Fig. 5.11.
V
I sh = ; I =I −I ; E =V −I a (R a+ R sc )−2 v b
R sh a L sh b
In all the above voltage equations, the brush voltage drop v b is
sometimes neglected since its value is very small.

The compound motor can be further subdivided as;

(a) Cumulative compound motors: In these motors, the flux
produced by both the windings is in the same direction, i.e.,
ϕ r =ϕ sh +ϕ se
(b)Differential compound motors: In these motors, the flux
produced by the series field winding is opposite to the flux
produced by the shunt field winding, i.e.,
ϕ r =ϕ sh −ϕ se
Example
The armature resistance of a DC shunt motor is 0.5 ohm, it
draws 20 A from 220 V mains and is running at a speed of 80
radian per second. Determine
(i) Induced emf
(ii) Electromagnetic torque
(iii) Speed in rpm.

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 Solution:
Induced emf, E=V – I a Ra =220 – 20 ×0.5=210 V

Electromagnetic torque,

E I a 210 x 20
T= = =52.5 Nm
ω 80

60 ω 60 x 80
Speed in rpm, N = = = 764 rpm
2π 2xπ

Example

A 400 V DC motor takes an armature current of 100 A when its speed is

1000 rpm If the armature resistance is 0.25 ohm, calculate the torque
produced in Nm.

Solution:

Here, V =400 V ; I a=100 A ; Ra =0.25 ; N=1000 rpm

Induced emf , E=V – I a R a (motor action)

¿ 400 – 100× 0.25=375 V

Using the relation, ωT = E I a

2 πNT
=E I a
60

60 E I a 60 x 375 x 1000
∴Torque produced ,T = = =358.1 Nm
2 πN 2 πx 1000

Example

The armature and shunt field resistance of a four-pole, lap wound DC

shunt motor is 0.05 ohm and 25 ohms respectively. If its armature
contains 500 conductors, find the speed of the motor when it takes 120 A
from a DC mains of 100 V supply. Flux per pole is 2 ×10 – 2 Wb .

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 Solution:

The circuit is shown in Fig. 5.12;

V 100
I sh = = =4 A
R sh 25

I a=I L −I sh=120−4=116 A

Eb =V −I a R a=100−116 x 0.05=94.2V

Figure 5.12 Circuit diagram

PϕZN
Now, Eb =
60 A

6 x 2 x 10−2 x 500 xN
Or 94.2=
60 x 4

Or N=565.2 rpm

5.8 Characteristics of DC Motors

The performance of a DC motor can be easily judged from its

characteristic curves, known as motor characteristics. The characteristics
of a motor are those curves which show relation between the two

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 quantities. On the basis of these quantities, the following characteristics
can be obtained:

5.8 Speed and Armature current i.e., N – I a Characteristics: It is the

curve drawn between speed N and armature current Ia. It is also known
as speed characteristics.
6.8 Torque and Armature current i.e., T – I a Characteristics: It is the
curve drawn between torque developed in the armature T and armature
current Ia. It is also known as electrical characteristic.
7.8 Speed and Torque i.e., N–T characteristics: It is the curve drawn
between speed N and torque developed in the armature T. It is also
known as mechanical characteristics.

The following important relations must be kept in mind while discussing

the motor characteristics:

Eb
Eb ∝ Nϕ∨N ∝ ∧T ∝ ϕ I a
ϕ

5.9 Characteristics of Shunt Motors

The conventional diagram of this motor is shown in Fig. 5.13. In these

motors, the shunt field current I sh =V / Rsh remains constant since the
supply voltage V is constant. Hence, the flux in DC shunt motors is
practically constant (although at heavy loads, somewhat flux decreases
due to armature reaction).

1. N – I acharacteristics

Eb
We know that, N ∝
ϕ

Since flux is constant; N ∝ E b∨N ∝V −I a Ra

If the armature drop (I a R a) is negligible, the speed of the motor will

remain constant for all values of load as shown by the dotted line AB in

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 Fig. 5.14. But strictly speaking, as the armature current increases due to
the increase of load, armature drop I a Ra increases and speed of the
motor decreases slightly as shown by the straight-line AC in Fig. 5.14
(neglecting armature reaction). Moreover, the characteristic curve does
not start from a point of zero armature current because a small current,
no-load armature current I a 0, is necessary to maintain rotation of the
motor at no-load.

Since there is no appreciable change in the speed of a DC shunt motor

from no-load to full load that is why it is considered to be a constant
speed motor. This motor is best suited where almost constant speed is
required and the load may be thrown off totally and suddenly.

Fig 5.13: Circuit for shunt motor Fig 5.14: N−I a characteristics of
shunt motor

2. T – l a Characteristics

We know that, T ∝ ϕ I a

Since flux is constant, T ∝ I a

Hence, the electrical characteristic (i . e . ,T – I a) is a straight line passing

through the origin as shown in Fig. 5.15. It is clear from the characteristic
curve that a large armature current is required at the start if machine is on
heavy load. Thus, shunt motor should never be started on load.

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3. N – T Characteristics

The N – T characteristic is derived from the first two characteristics. When

load torque increases, armature current I a increases but speed decreases
slightly. Thus, with the increase in load or torque, the speed decreases
slightly as shown in Fig. 5.16.

5.10 Characteristics of Series Motors

The conventional diagram a series motor is shown in Fig. 5.17. In these

motors, the series field winding carries the armature current. Therefore, the
flux produced by the series field winding is proportional to the armature
current before magnetic saturation, but after magnetic saturation flux
becomes constant.

1 N – I a Characteristics

Eb
We know that N ∝
ϕ

Where Eb =V −I a (R a+ R se )

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When armature current increases, the induced emf (back emf) Eb decreases,
due to I a ( Ra + Res ) drop whereas flux ϕ increases as ϕ ∝ I a before magnetic
saturation. However, under normal conditions I a ( Ra + R se ) drop is quite small
and may be neglected.

Considering Eb to be constant,

1 1
N∝ ∝
ϕ Ia

Thus, before magnetic saturation, the N – I a curve follows the hyperbolic path
as shown in Fig. 5.18.

In this region, the speed decreases abruptly with the increase in load or
armature current. After magnetic saturation, flux becomes constant, then

N ∝ E b ∝ V −I a ( Ra + R se )

From this characteristic, it is concluded that the series motor is a variable

speed motor, i.e., its speed changes when the armature current (or load)
changes. As the load on this motor decreases, speed increases. If this motor
is connected to the supply without load, armature current will be very small
and hence speed will be dangerously high which may damage the motor due
to heavy centrifugal forces.

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 Therefore, a series motor is never started on no-load. However, to start a
series motor, mechanical load (not belt driven load because belt slips over
the pulley) is put on it first then started.

2 T – I a Characteristics

We know that, T ∝ ϕ I a

In series motors, before magnetic saturation ϕ ∝ I a

Hence, before magnetic saturation the electromagnetic torque produced in

the armature is proportional to the square of the armature current.
Therefore, this portion of the curve (OA) is a parabola passing through the
origin as shown in Fig. 5.19.

However, after magnetic saturation, the flux ϕ becomes constant.

∴T ∝ I a

Hence, after magnetic saturation, the curve (AB) becomes a straight line.

It is seen that before magnetic saturation T ∝ I 2a. When load is applied to this
motor at start, it takes large current and heavy torque is produced which is
proportional to square of this current. Thus, this motor is capable to pick up
heavy loads at the start and best suited for electric traction.

3 N – T Characteristics

This characteristic is derived from the first two characteristics. At low value
of load, I a is small, torque is small but the speed is very high. As load
increases, I a increases, torque increases but the speed decreases rapidly.
Thus, for increasing torque, speed decreases rapidly as shown in Fig. 5.20.

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5.11 Characteristics of Compound Motors

There are two types of compound wound DC motors namely; cumulative

compound motors and differential compound motors. Cumulative compound
motors are most common. The characteristics of these motors lies between
the shunt and series motors. The N – I a characteristics, T – I a characteristics
and N – T characteristics are shown in Figs. 5.21(a), (b) and (c), respectively.

However, the N – I a ,T – I a∧N – T characteristics of a differentially compound

motor are shown in Figs. 5.22(a), (b) and (c), respectively.

5.12 Applications and Selection of DC Motors

5.12.1 Applications of DC Motors

As per the characteristics of DC motors, different types of DC motors are

applied for different jobs as explained below:

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1 Separately excited motors: Very accurate speeds can be obtained by
these motors. Moreover, these motors are best suited where speed
variation is required from very low value to high value. These motors are
used in steel rolling mills, paper mills, diesel – electric propulsion of ships,
etc.
2 Shunt motors: From the characteristics of a shunt motor we have seen
that it is almost constant speed motor. It is, therefore, used;
(i) Where the speed between no-load to full load has to be maintained
almost constant.
(ii) Where it is required to drive the load at various speeds (various speeds
are obtained by speed control methods) and any one of the speed is
required to be maintained almost constant for a relatively long period.
As such the shunt motors are most suitable for industrial drives such as
lathes, drills, grinders, shapers, spinning and weaving machines, line
shafts in the group drive, etc.
3 Series motors: The characteristics of a series motor reveal that it is
variable speed motor i.e., the speed is low at higher torques and vice-
versa. Moreover, at light loads or at no-load, the motor attains
dangerously high speed. It is, therefore, employed:
(i) Where high torque is required at the time of starting to accelerate
heavy loads quickly.
(ii) Where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations and speed is
required to be adjusted automatically.
As such the series motors are most suitable for electric traction, cranes,
elevators, vacuum cleaners, hair driers, sewing machines, fans and air
compressors, etc.

Note: The series motors are always directly coupled with loads or
coupled through gears. Belt loads are never applied to series motor,
because the belt may slip over the pulley or it may break. Then the

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 motor will operate at light loads or at no-load and will attain dangerously
high speed which may damage the motor.

4. Compound motors: The important characteristic of this motor is that

the speed falls appreciably on heavy loads as in a series motor, but at
light loads, the maximum speed is limited to safe value. It is, therefore,
used;
(i) Where high torque is required at the time of starting and where the load
may be thrown off suddenly.
(ii) Where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations. As such the
cumulative compound, motors are best suited for punching and
shearing machines, rolling mills, lifts and mine - hoists, etc.

5.12.2 Selection of DC Motors

While selecting a DC motor for a particular work, one is to consider the
following points:
1. Selection of power rating: If the size (HP or kW capacity) of a motor is
more than the load to be picked-up by it then it will operate at lighter
load than its rating. Hence, there will be more losses (i.e., motor will
operate at poor efficiency) and unnecessarily there will be wastage of
power. Thus extra expenditure will incur during operation. At the same
time its initial cost will be more.
On the other hand, if the size of the motor is less than the load to be
picked-up by it, then it will be over loaded and it will be heated-up
beyond its limits. Hence the motor may be damaged if operated
continuously. Otherwise, also the protective devices will disconnect the
motor under over-load conditions and this affect the production.
Thus, a motor should be chosen of a size for its maximum power
utilisation. During operation, it should be heated-up within the
permissible temperature limits and it should never be over-heated. But

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 at the same time it should be capable to take-up the over-loads
temporarily.
2. Characteristics of the motor: For satisfactory operation, selection of
power rating of a motor is not only the criteria, rather one should know
the characteristics of a motor (i.e., behaviour of a motor under
different load conditions) so that a work can be done quickly and
efficiently without any breakdown. Therefore, before selection of
motor, one should know the following particulars of the work
(i) Torque requirement during starting and running at different loads.
(ii) Requirement of accelerating and braking torque
(iii) Frequency of switching
(iv) Temperature at the work place
(v) Environmental conditions, etc.
After knowing the above particulars at the work place, a suitable
motor (with proper enclosures) to meet with the requirements is
selected.

5.13 Starting of DC Motors

To start a DC motor, when it is switched–ON to the supply with full

rated voltage, it draws heavy current during starting period (more
than its rated value). This excessive current overheats the armature
winding and may even damage the winding insulation. Therefore,
during starting period a resistance called starter in connected in
series with the armature circuit to limit the starting current.

5.14 Necessity of Starter for a DC Motor

Under normal operating conditions, the voltage equation for a motor is
given as
Eb =V −I a R a∨I a R a=V −Eb
The armature current is given by the relation;

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 V −E b
I a=
Ra
When the motor is at rest, the induced emf Eb in the armature is zero (
Eb ∝ N ¿ . Consequently, if full voltage is applied across the motor

terminals, the armature will draw heavy current (I a=V /R a) because

armature resistance is relatively small. This heavy starting current has
the following effects:
(i) It will blow out the fuses and prior to that it may damage the
insulation of armature winding due to excessive heating effect if
starting period is more.
(ii) Excessive voltage drop will occur in the lines to which the motor is
connected. Thus, the operation of the appliances connected to the
same line may be impaired and, in some cases, they may refuse to
work.
To avoid this heavy current at start, a variable resistance is connected
in series with the armature, as shown in Fig. 5.23, called a starting
resistance or starter, and thus the armature current is limited to

V
safe value I a= ( )
Ra + R
. Once the motor picks up speed, emf is built up

V −E bl
and current is reduced I a= ( Ra + R ). After that the starting resistance is

gradually reduced. Ultimately, whole of the

resistance is taken out of circuit when the motor attains normal speed.
Another important feature of a starter is that it contains protective
devices such as overload protection coil (or relay) which provides
necessary protection to the motor against over loading and no-volt
release coil.

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 Figure 5.23: DC Shunt motor starter
5.15 Starters for DC Shunt and Compound Wound Motors
The basic function of a starter is to limit the current in the armature
circuit during starting or accelerating period. Starters are always rated
on the basis of output power and voltage of the motor with which they
are to be employed, e.g., 10 HP, 250 V shunt motor starter). A simplest
type of starter is just a variable resistance (a rheostat) connected in
series with the armature alone (not with
the motor as a whole) as shown in Figs. 5.24(a) and (b).

It may be noted that shunt field is kept independent of starting

resistance. It is because when supply is connected, it receives normal
rated voltage and sets-up maximum (rated) flux. A higher value of flux
results in a low operating speed and a higher motor torque for a
particular value of starting current since speed is inversely proportion

1
(
to flux per pole N ∝
ϕ)whereas motor torque is proportional to

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 product of flux per pole and armature current (T ∝ ϕ I a ) . Hence, for a
given load torque, the motor will accelerate quickly and reduces the
starting period. Thus, the heating effect to armature winding is
reduced.
For all practical application, this starter is further modified which
includes protective devices such as over-load release and no-volt
release. The over-load release protects the motor against over-loading
i.e., when the motor is over-loaded (or short circuited) this relay brings
the plunger to its OFF position. On the other hand, the no-volt release
brings the plunger to its OFF position so that
the motor may not start again without starter. For shunt and
compound motors there are two standard types of starters named as
(a) three point starter and (b) four point starter.

5.16 Three-point Shunt Motor Starter

The schematic connection diagram of a shunt motor starter is shown in
Fig. 5.25. It consists of starting resistance R divided into several
sections. The tapping points of starting resistance are connected to
number of studs. The last stud of the starting resistance is connected
to terminal A to which one terminal of the armature is connected. The
+ ve supply line is connected to the line terminal L
through main switch. From line terminal, supply is connected to the
starting lever SL through over load release coil OLRC. A spring S is
placed over the lever to bring it to the off position, when supply goes
off. A soft iron piece SI is attached with the starting lever which is
pulled by the no volt release
coil under normal running condition. The far end of the brass strip BS is
connected to the terminal Z through a no volt release coil NVRC. One
end of the shunt field winding in connected to Z terminal of the starter.
An iron piece is lifted by OLRC under abnormal condition to short
circuit the no-volt release coil. The negative supply line is connected

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directly to the other ends of shunt field winding and armature of the
DC shunt motor.

Operation
First of all the main switch is closed with starting lever resting in off
position. The handle is then turned clockwise to the first stud and brass
strip. As soon as it comes in contact with first stud, whole of the
starting resistance R is inserted in series with the armature and the
field winding is directly connected across the supply through brass
strip. As the handle is turned further the starting
resistance is cut out of the armature circuit in steps and finally entire
starting resistance is cut out of armature circuit.

No-volt Release Coil and its Function

A no-volt release coil is a small electromagnet having many turns of
fine wire. It is connected in series with shunt field winding and
therefore, carries a small field current. When the handle is turned to on

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 position, the no-volt release coil is magnetised by the field current and
holds the starting lever at on position. In case of failure or
disconnection of the supply, this coil is demagnetised and the lever
comes to the off position due to spring tension. Consequently. The
motor is disconnected from the supply. If the spring with the no-volt
release coil is not used the lever would remain in ON-position in case of
supply failure. And again, when the supply comes, the motor would be
connected directly to the lines without starter.
The other important advantage of connecting the no-volt release coil in
series with the shunt field winding is that due to an accident if the
circuit of field winding becomes open, the NVRC will be demagnetised
and the starting lever is immediately pulled back to off position by the
spring. Otherwise the motor would have attained dangerously high
speed.

Over-load Release Coil and its Function

An over-load release coil is an electromagnet having small number of
turns of thick wire. It is connected in series with the motor and carries
the line current. When the motor is over loaded (or short circuited), a
heavy current more than predetermined value will flow through it.
Then, the iron piece (armature or plunger) is lifted and short circuits
the no-volt release coil. Hence the starting lever is released and pulled
back to the off position due to spring tension. Thus the motor is
disconnected from the supply and is protected against over loading.

5.17 Four-point Starter

For speed control of DC shunt or compound motors, a rheostat
(variable resistor Rh) is connected in series with the field winding, as
shown in Fig. 5.26. In this case, if a three-point starter is used and the
value of Rh is so adjusted that the current flowing through the shunt
field winding is very small. It may be seen that the same current flows
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through the no-volt release coil, then the magnetic strength of the coil
may be insufficient to hold the plunger at its ON position. This is an
undesirable feature of a three-point starter. This feature makes a
three-point starter unsuitable for such applications. Accordingly, a four-
point starter is designed, as shown in Fig. 5.26, in which the current
flowing through the no-volt release coil is made independent of the
shunt field circuit. Figure 5.26(a) shows
a four-point starter used with a shunt wound motor whereas Fig.
5.26(b) shows a starter used with a compound wound machine.

Operation
The working of a four-point starter is similar to a three-point starter
with slight changes. In this case, when the plunger touches the first
stud, the line current is divided into the following
three parts:
(i) First part passes through starting resistance and armature (as well
as in series field for compound motors).
(ii) Second part passes through the field winding (and speed control
resistance if applied) and
(iii) The third part passes through no-volt release coil and protective
resistance connected in series with the coil.

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It is evident that is a four-point starter, the no-volt release coil circuit is
independent of the field circuit. Therefore, the change of current in the
field circuit do not affect the pull exerted by the holding coil which remains
always sufficient to prevent the spiral spring from restoring the plunger to
its OFF position.
While starting a motor with a four-point starter it is necessary to ensure
that the field circuit is closed and the rheostat connected in series with the
shunt field winding must be at zero resistance position. Moreover, whole of
the starting resistance must come in series with the armature.
Whenever a shunt motor is required to be stopped, it must be stopped by
opening the line switch. In fact this switch can be opened without any
appreciable arc since the motor develops back emf nearly equal to applied
voltage and the net voltage across the switch contacts is very small. The
electromagnetic energy stored in the field does not appear at the switch
but it gradually discharges through the armature. The motor should never
be stopped by bringing the plunger (starting arm)

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 back to the OFF position, because in such cases, when the field circuit
breaks at the last stud placed near the OFF position, a heavy spark occurs
owing to the inductive nature of the field. Usually, this sparking burns the
contact.
Moreover, while stopping the motor, the value of resistance connected in
the field circuit should always be reduced to zero so that speed of motor
falls to its normal value. This ensures that, when the motor is started next
time, it must start with a strong field and higher starting torque.

5.18 Series Motor Starter

A series motor starter is also called a two-point starter. Its internal and
external connections are shown in Fig. 5.27.
Here, for starting the motor, the control arm or plunger is moved in
clockwise direction from its OFF position to ON position against the spring
tension. In the beginning, all the sections of the starting resistance are
connected in series with the armature to limit the current to
predetermined value. As the starting arm moves, various steps of the
starting resistance are cut out of circuit and ultimately whole of the
starting resistance is cut-out and the control arm is held in the ON position
by
an electromagnet. The hold-on (no-volt release) coil is connected in series
with the armature circuit.
If the motor loses its load, current drawn by the motor decreases which
decreases the strength of the hold-on coil. Immediately the arm goes back
to the OFF position due to strong spring tension; thus, preventing the
motor from over-speed. The control arm or plunger also goes back to the
OFF position when supply goes OFF or when the supply voltage decreases
appreciably. L and Y are the two points
of the starter through which supply line terminal and the motor (series
field) terminal is connected.

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For stopping the motor, the line switch should always be opened rather
than bringing the control arm back to its OFF position. If it is done a heavy
sparking occurs at the last stud placed near the OFF position. This sparking
occurs due to dissipation of energy stored in the magnetic field of series
field winding.

Figure 5.27: Two-point series motor starter

Example
A 240 V series motor takes 40 A when giving its rated output at 1500 rpm.
Its armature and series field resistance is 0.18 : and 0.12 : respectively.
Find the external resistance which must be added to obtain rated torque
(i) at starting and (ii) at 1000 rpm.

Solution:

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Since torque remains the same in both the cases, the current drawn by the
motor remains constant at 40 A, because T ∝ Φ I .
V −Eb
We know, current drawn by the motor, I =
R a + Rse + R
where R is external resistance connected in series with motor at start
240−0
∴ 40=
0.18+ 0.12+ R
240
¿ R= −0.3=5.7 Ω
40
Back emf, Eb 1=V −I ( Ra + R sc )=240−40 x (0.18+0.12)=228 V
N2 1000
Back emf, Eb 2 =Eb 1 x =228 x =152 V
N1 1500
V −Eb 240−152
I= , 40=
R a + Rse + R 0.18+0.12+ R
88
Or R= −0.3=1.9 Ω
40

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