e.

Prefixes
Standard prefixes are used for very large or very small quantities. The most
common ones are shown in the tab le below:

10 - 12 10 - 9 10 ... 10 - 3 10 3 10 ' 10 9
pico (p) nano (n) mi cro ijl) m illi (m) kilo (k) mega (M) giga (G)

For example, the frequency of an FM radio band, 102.8}( 1()6 Hertz, is abbreviated
Figure 1,1 A honeybee flaps its wings as 102.8 MHz (mega -hert2). A honey bee Raps its wings once every 0.004 s or
almost 250 times in one second. In 4x 10--3 s, which can be abb reviated as 4 rns (milliseconds .)
other words, it flaps its wings once
every 4 milliseconds .
1.2 VECTORS
Science is based on experime nts and measurements. Th erefore the results of these
sca la rs vectors
measurements should be stated in a definit e and dear way. For example, let's say
moss weight that the air temperature is 24 "C. This is satisfying because it expresses a numerical
value with a proper unit. However, let's say that a plane has travelled a distance of
speed velocity
100 km and then landed. Th is is an incomplete expression because the direction of
d ista nce displ acem ent travel is not given. It is unclear at what city it has landed.
ene rgy fo rce Hence, ph ysical qu antities are divided int o two main groups. One grou p of
tem perature acceleration quantiti es has only magnitude (a numerical value) along with the ir un it. Th ese are
called scalars. Th e seco nd gro up of quantitie s are describ ed by bo th ma gn itude
charge elect ric fi eld and direction. These are called v ectors.

Ta ble 1.• Somc examples of scalar Table 1.4 gives exampl es of some common scalar and vector qu antities.
and vector quantities.

Figure 1.2 The mass of a 2 kg apple is scalar and the velocity ot the plane
900 kmfh to the west. is a vector.

-"
1 rn/s -
a . Representing Vectors

- '.
2m'. Vectors are drawn as arrows. Th e direction of the arrow, not surprisingly, shows the
direction of thevector. The length of the arrow is usually drawn proportional in size
to the size (magnitude) of th e vector. Veloc ity vectors of various m agni tu des are
sketched in Figu re 1.3 . In th is book, vecto rs are expressed with an arrow over the
top of th eir sym bo ls.
Figure 1.3 Vectors are represented by
arrows, the magnitude of the vector is The m agnitude of a vector A is den ot ed either by A Of 1A I. By defini tion, the
proportional to the size of tile arrow. m agn itude of a vector is always positive.

12
 b. Equality of Vectors
Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction. That is also
to say tha t a vecto..! can Ee moved pa rallel to itself without changing its size and
direction . Vectors A and B in figure 1.4 are eq ual.

c. Adding Vectors
Fig ure 1.4 Two equal vectors .
Physical quantities, both scalars and vectors. should have the same units in order Addition of scalar s
to be added. In addition to this. vectors are added and subtracted differently than 7kg
scalars since they have a direction as well as a magnitude.
For instance, ma ss is a scalar quantity. If you add 3 kg of app le to 4 kg of apple,
the total mass is always 7 kg. However. two force vectors, 3 Nand 4 N don't always
add up to 7 N. See Fig ure 1.5.
+
The re are different methods to add and subtract vectors:
1) Triangle Method 5N

When two vectors, A and B are add ed togethe r, the tail of the second vector S, is
placed at the head of the fi rst vector. The sum is called the resultant or effect ive
vecto r, R, and ~ drawn from the free tail (the tail of vecto r A) to the free head (the
head of vecto r B). This is shown as Figure 1.5 Vector addit ion is different
to scalar addition
Addition or subtraction of vectors
.j
A

See also how to add two parallel vectors in Figure 1.6 (a) a nd (b)

2) Polygon Method .j
The method used above can also be applied to add more than two vectors. Draw all
The method
vectorsused
one above
by onecawith thebe
n also applied
head to add
of each more
at the tail than two
of the vectors.
next one, andDraw
allcomplete
vectors one by one with the head of each at the ta il of the next
the polygon by joining the tail of the rst vector to the head of the one. andlast
co mplete thewill
one. This polygon by joining
give you the tailvector.
the resultant of the See
first Figure
vector 1.7.
to the
Notehead
thatofthe last
theresult
o ne. This will doesn't
give youchange
the resultant vector. See Figure 1.7. Note that the result Figure 1.6 Adding parallel vectors
when the order of construction changes
doesn't change when the order of co nstruction c han ges. a) wh en they point in the sam e
direction b) when they point in
R=A +B+C opposite directions.
R"'A -l-B+C
Aj /c• .7c ;0
fi
B
Al
B B
Figu re 1.7 Adding vectors using the polygon method is
ind ependent of the order of construction.

_ >
3) Parallelogram Method
Two vectors can also be added by a n alternative method: Vectors a re reo-drawn with
the ir tails joined to eac h oth e r, and a parallelogram is obtained by drawing their
parallel sides. The resultant vecto r is the diagonal of this para llelog ra m. See Figure
1.8. .
15 B
c.../

Fig ure 1.8 Adding vectors using the

parallelogram method
 Example 1.6 Addin g two ve c t o rs u sin g a d ia gra m ,

Vectors S and f have the sam e magnitude, as shown in the figure. Fmd the resultant
5 . ~;.,
........ ,
vector R::: S+f using a diagra m.
Sc tuttcn

r:
a) Triangle Method b) Parallelog ram Method
Vectors S a nd T a re re- Vectors are d rawn by joining th eir

~
drawn . as sh own in the ta ils . Parallel sides are dra wn in.
fig ure. Vector R is d rawn .=s+
U- i' The diagonal of this parallelogram T R=S -+-T
fro m the tail of vecto r S to "" ::I120" . is the resultant vector. ..,
the hea d of vector T S Note th at both methods result in S
......................................................................................
th e sam e answer.

d. The Negative of a Vector

A vector and its nega tive have the sam e magnitude bu t o pposite directions. as
shown in Figure 1.9 . To obtain the negative of a vector, re-draw the o riginal with
the same size but in the op posite direction .
e. Subtraction of Vectors

Figure 1.9 Negative of a vector

Vector subtraction is a special case of vector addition. Let us consider two vectors A
and B. The vector difference A- Bis the sam e as adding vector Ato the nega tive of
vector B. That is,
A- B = A+(- B)
The lJiangle or para llelogram method can be a pplied to find the resu ltant R.
(Figure 1.10)

•
A
FIrSt, draw the o-
nega~ofB the paralldogram

Figure 1.10 Subtraction of vectors

""""'"
' " Example 1.7 Su b trac tio n o f p e rpe nd ic .u lar vec to rs,

Vectors Eand Fof magnitudes 12 units and 5 units, respectively, are shown in the
figure. Find the mag nitude and direction of the resulta nt vector R = E- F.

•
14 M ech anic s
 Soluhon
Since E- F E +(- F), the negative of vector F can be Using the Pythagorean theorem;
found.
R2 = E2 + F2 = 122 + 52
I ~the triangle m.:thod is applied by adding vector
E with vector - F the following diagram is obtai ned R2 = 169 ~ R = 13 units
F 5

', :1
1
From tan8= E =:} teou = - =:} ta n e= 0.42
12

1- , B = 23 °.

As a result, Rhas a magnitude of 13 units at an angle of 23 0

with the horizontal.

......................................................................................
'- ---.J

f. Multiplic ati on and Division of Vectors by Scalars

Vector quantities can be multiplied by scala rs. The resultant is also a vector.
Assume a vector A is rnultlplied by a scalar k. The direct ion of the resultant vector
alters, depending on the sign of k. If k is positive, the direction of vector Adoesn't
change, but if k is negative, the resultant vector will be in the opposite direction to
vector A. See some examples in Figure 1.1 1.

•
•
_ -L A
2
• r --

-
-- ···· A - - ~

1-
- ZA
I
2A 2A

Figure 1.11 Multiplication and division of vector Aby scalars.

Example 1.8 Mu lt ipli c a t io n a t ve c t o rs by sca lars

-. - B -
Vectors A, B and C are shown in the figure. Draw the resultant vector R=2A + - -C

Sol u tion
To obtain the solution, the vectors
3

I
- B -
21\, - and - C can be added using The refore the resultant vect or Ris in the + x direction with
3
a magnitude of 4 units.
the polygon method.

......................................................................................
Uuns and Ph y~IC ;J 1 Quanutivs 15~
~
 , g. Components of a Vector
So far vectors have been added using a scale d rawing o r using the properties o f
right angled triangles. Scale dr awing has som e limitations, and calculations using
x right angled triangles (the use of the Pythagor ean th eorem) is on ly app licable to
perpendicular vectors . This method would be too co mplicated for more than two
vect ors with an angle other tha n 90°. Therefore a simple but m ore general m ethod
is required for th e additio n (and subtraction) of vect ors. An alterna tive method is
th e use of co mponents.
Figure 1,1 2 Vecto r Ais resolved into its
Generally speaking. each vector can be said to be th e sum of two perpe ndicu lar
two perpend icular components ~ and
vectors. The se vector s, called components. are the projections o f the original
vecto r alon g the x and y axes of a rectangul ar coordinate system . In other words.

, each vector can be resolved into its x and y compo nents. whi ch are perpe ndicular
to each other.

A - -
Examine vector A in Figure 1.12. To find its components, the tail of vector A is first
placed at the origin of an x-y coordinate system . Th e projections along th e
e x
horizontal (x-axis) and vertical (y-axis) are obta ined by drawing horizontal and
vertical lines from th e tip of th e vector to the x and y axes.

The projectio n onto the x-axis is called the x component and denoted by Px.
Fig ur e 1.13 The vect or triangle sho ws
thai A is the addition of A..
and ly. whereas the projectio n onto the y-axis is called the y co mpo nent and denoted by 1y
Using the trigon o metric relationship in The vector sum o f these co m po nents is equal to A.
this right angled tria ngle, the
com pon ents can be calcul ated. A~A,+A,

See Figure 1.13. Applying th e Pythagor ean Theorem to this rig ht angled tria ngl e,
the relatio nship between th e magnitudes of A. ~ and Ay can be written as;

a}
.
AZ= A l +A l ,
Remember we said that the magnitud e of a vector is always defined to be posit ive.
T he com po nents of a vector, on the other hand, may be positive or negative
numbers. If th e x component of vector A points in the +x-di rection, ~ is defined
to be th e ma gnitude of ". If " po ints in th e -x direction, ~ is defined to be th e
neg ative of that magnitude. Exami ne Figure 1.14.a which describes a vector with
a negative x-compo nent, Figu re 1.14.b shows a vector with both of its
components negative.
b}
Trlqon orn etry can be used to calculate the co m ponents .
C.H e Exam ine Figure 1. 13 again. If the an gle between vecto r Aand vector A,. is 0;
cosO= - '
A
and . e = -A,
c C,H A
SIO
A

Hen ce. A. = Acos e A, = AsinO '

Figure 1.14 a) and b) The magnitude
of a vector is always positive. How ever, r;:s Note that these equations are valid when the angle 0 is measured anti-clockwise
its components may have negative from the + x axis. For instance, the cosine of the angle B in Figure l. 14.a is negative,
values since the angle is measured therefore the component Bx of this vector, which is along the -x axis, is also
ann-clockwise fro m the » x-axe. negative.

16 Mechanics
 Let's now look at how to use compon e nts to find the resultant of several vectors.
In Agure 1.15 the vector sum Rof two vectors A and 8 are found by using the
components of each vector along the x and y directions . It's dear from the figure
that the x-component of R. R•. is the addition of A. +8", and similarly the y-
R /
component Ry is the addition of ~ + By- That is ; / B
R,.=A,+ B,
The same procedure can be applied to add any number of vectors. -X??;I B. = +"
~

If R is the resultant of A+B+C+D+..... Then.

1\;'" "+B.+c.,+D.+ . Fig ure 1.15 A is the vector sum 01 A
and B. The x-component of R is the
'\'" '\+By+Cy+Dy+ ..
sum of Ihe x-compo nenls of A and B.
Note that using the components, all problems involving vecto r add ition can be Similarly Ihe y-component of R is the
reduced to the addition of ~ and ~ . sum of the v-components of A and B.

Example 1.9 Compon ents o f a vec to r,

Fi nd the magnitud e of the components R,. and i\. of vector K which has a magnitud e o f 10 units
a nd makes an angle of 53° with the boruoruet. as shown in the figure. (cos 53°=0.6; sin 53°"'0.8)

So lution
y
Using the angle that vector K ma kes with the x axis, the magnitudes of components K", and K y
can be found;
K,. '" K cos 53° t\, '" K sin 53°
K" '" 10 .0.6 K, = 10 ,0.8
K" '" 6 units t\ '" 8 units
Note that according to the Pythagorea n theo rem

K2 "'K~+~

......................................................................................
Units and Physical Quannue....
Problem S o lving Strategy
In general, two or more vectors can be added with no .. The Pythagorea n theorem is used to find the
difficulty using the following procedure which includes the magnitude of the resultant vector.
Pythagorean theo rem, and simple trigonometric functions: ~ The angle that the resultant vector makes with an axis

.. Each vector is placed on the coordinate system . is found using a suitable trigonometric function.
.. The x and y components of all vectors are foun d. This strategy is usually sufficient to calculate answers to most
problems. There are also alternative methods for adding
• The resultant components are calculated. (Making a
vectors. For example, Cosine and Sine Rules are some other
table for the algebraic sum of the components is
powerful mathemat:i<:al tools used in vector addition. See
useful. See Example 1.10)
Appendix A to review these rules and study Example 1.11.

Example 1 .10 A dd ition 01 vector s us ing the com ponent metho d

Vect ors A. B, C and B are shown in the figure. Find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant vector
R = A + B + C +D

Solution
- - - -- - - -
Place the vectors on the same coord inate system to fi nd The mag nitude of vector R is Found From the equation
their components.
y R' ~Ri +~
A 3 o R2 = 22+ 32
-2 -2
1
R2 = 3.6 units.
5
4 And its direction is given by,
r-""~""-3 R 3
tena =.-.L =_
R. 2

R,.=A,.+B_ +~ + D_ From the trigono metric ta ble

R,.= 3 - 2 -3 + 4 = 2 units S = 56 .30

R, ~ A, + By + c,. + Dy So the resultant vector R. has a magnitude of 3.6 units, and

makes an angle of 56.3 with the + x axis.
0

......................................................................................
f\=O -2+ I + 4 = 3units

Example 1.11 Addi tio n o f in t e rsec t in g ve ct ors,

Vectors S andT having the same magn itude of 8 units are drawn in the figure.
A nd the magnitude and direction of the resulta nt vector R = S + T.

18
\
Mecharucs

-- - - - - - - -
Solution
- -
Let us redraw the vectors T and S by joining th e head of S If the angle th at vector Rm akes with the + x axis is denoted
as 0, from the sine rule;
to the tail of T.
T R
sinO sin 50 °
8 8
sin El sin 60°
El = 60°

Th e m agnitude of vec to r R, that is drawn from the free tail Thus, the resultant vector Rhas a m agnitude of 8 units and
to th e free head , can be found using the cosine rule ; makes an ang le of 60° with th e + x axis.
R2 = S2 + T2 _ 2ST cos 60°
R2 = 8 2 + 82 _ 2 . 8 . 8 . 0.5
R = 8 units

Summary
Each measured physical quantity consists of There are various methods to add or subtract two
two parts; a number (numerical value) and a vectors.
st andar d unit. Th e qroup of internationally They can be p laced he ad -to -tail triangle and
accepted standa rd units is called th e metric Polygon methods or they can be joined to each
system, abbreviate d as SI. other fro m th e ir ta ils and a parallelogram
constructed from the m. The diagonal of this
In this system ,
parallelogram is the res ultant vector.
kilogram (kg) for m ass; The negative of a vector is drawn with the same
size but in the opposite direction to the vector.
metre (m) for length;
Vector subt ract ion is a specia l case of vect or
second (s) for time ; addition .
are 3 base units th at are used to de rive ot her units A -B =A.+(-B)
in m echanics.
Vectors can be multiplied by sc alars. Th e resultant
Each physical qu a nt ity is represented by its vector depends on th e magnitude and the sign of
dimension. A te chn iq ue ca lled dimensional that scalar.
analys is can be used to check whether a n A vec tor can be resolved into its rectangular
eq uation is in the correct form . components by finding their projections on the x
and y exes. Using the Pythagorean theorem ,
The num ber of significant figures implies how
precisely a quantity has been m easured . A2 =~+~

Standard prefixe s are used for very large or From th e triangle formed by th e vector and its
ve ry small num bers . components,
Vectors ar e physical quantities described by A,.=A cos a and >\=AsinEl
both magnitude and also direction. They
can be rep resented by arrows. where 0 is the angle betw een A. and ~.

Units an d phvstcnl QU<lntiliC's 19~