POWER SYSTEMS I MRCET UNIT –II PERF.

OF TRANSMISSION LINES

UNIT II
PERFORMANCE OF SHORT, MEDIUM AND LONG TRANSMISSION LINES

CLASSIFICATION OF LINES - INTRODUCTION

The important considerations in the design and operation of a transmission line are the
determination of voltage drop, line losses and efficiency of transmission. These values are
greatly influenced by the line constants R, L and C of the transmission line. For instance the
voltage drop in the line depends upon the values of above three line constants. Similarly, the
resistance of transmission line conductors is the most important cause of power loss in the line
and determines the transmission efficiency. In this chapter, we shall develop formulas by which
we can calculate voltage regulation, line losses and efficiency of transmission lines. These
formulas are important for two principal reasons. Firstly, they provide an opportunity to
understand the effects of the parameters of the line on bus voltages and the flow of power.
Secondly, they help in developing an overall understanding of what is occurring on electric
power system.

CLASSIFICATION OF OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES

A transmission line has *three constants R, L and C distributed uniformly along the
whole length of the line. The resistance and inductance form the series impedance. The
capacitance existing between conductors for 1-phase line or from a conductor to neutral for a 3-
phase line forms a shunt path throughout the length of the line. Therefore, capacitance effects
introduce complications in transmission line calculations. Depending upon the manner in which
capacitance is taken into account, the overhead transmission lines are classified as :

(i) Short transmission lines. When the length of an overhead transmission line is up to
about 50 km and the line voltage is comparatively low (< 20 kV), it is usually considered as a
short transmission line. Due to smaller length and lower voltage, the capacitance effects are
small and hence can be neglected. Therefore, while studying the performance of a short
transmission line, only resistance and inductance of the line are taken into account.

(ii) Medium transmission lines. When the length of an overhead transmission line is
about 50-150 km and the line voltage is moderately high (>20 kV < 100 kV), it is considered as a
medium transmission line. Due to sufficient length and voltage of the line, the capacitance
effects are taken into account. For purposes of calculations, the distributed capacitance of the line
is divided and lumped in the form of condensers shunted across the line at one or more points.

(iii) Long transmission lines. When the length of an overhead transmission line is more
than 150 km and line voltage is very high (> 100 kV), it is considered as a long transmission line.
For the treatment of such a line, the line constants are considered uniformly distributed over the
whole length of the line and rigorous methods are employed for solution.
It may be emphasized here that exact solution of any transmission line must consider the
fact that the constants of the line are not lumped but are distributed uniformly throughout the
length of the line.

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However, reasonable accuracy can be obtained by considering these constants as lumped

for short and medium transmission lines.
Important Terms
While studying the performance of a transmission line, it is desirable to determine its
voltage regulation and transmission efficiency. We shall explain these two terms in turn.
(i) Voltage regulation. When a transmission line is carrying current, there is a voltage drop in
the line due to resistance and inductance of the line. The result is that receiving end voltage ( VR)
of the line is generally less than the sending end voltage ( VS ). This voltage drop ( Vs −V R) in
the line is expressed as a percentage of receiving end voltage V and is called voltage regulation.
The difference in voltage at the receiving end of a transmission line **between conditions of no
load and full load is called voltage regulation and is expressed as a percentage
of the receiving end voltage.

(ii) Transmission efficiency. The power obtained at the receiving end of a transmission line is
generally less than the sending end power due to losses in the line resistance.
The ratio of receiving end power to the sending end power of a transmission line is
known as the transmission efficiency of the line

PERFORMANCE OF SINGLE PHASE SHORT TRANSMISSION LINES

As stated earlier, the effects of line capacitance are neglected for a short transmission
line. Therefore, while studying the performance of such a line, only resistance and inductance of
the line are taken into account. The equivalent circuit of a single phase short transmission line is
shown in Fig.
Here, the total line resistance and inductance are shown as concentrated or lumped
instead of being distributed. The circuit is a simple a.c. series circuit.
Let
I = load current
R = loop resistance i.e., resistance of both conductors
XL= loop reactance
VR = receiving end voltage
cos φR = receiving end power factor (lagging)
VS= sending end voltage
cos φS= sending end power factor

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The *phasor diagram of the line for lagging load power factor is shown in Fig. From the right
angled traingle ODC, we get,

An approximate expression for the sending end voltage Vs can be obtained as follows. Draw S
perpendicular from B and C on OA produced as shown in Fig. Then OC is nearly equal to OF

OC = OF = OA + AF = OA + AG + GF

= OA + AG + BH

Vs= VR + IR cos φR + I XL sin φR

THREE-PHASE SHORT TRANSMISSION LINES

For reasons associated with economy, transmission of electric power is done by 3-phase
system. This system may be regarded as consisting of three single phase units, each wire
transmitting one-third of the total power. As a matter of convenience, we generally analyze 3-
phase system by considering one phase only. Therefore, expression for regulation, efficiency etc.
derived for a single phase line can also be applied to a 3-phase system. Since only one phase is
considered, phase values of 3-phase system should be taken. Thus, Vs and VR are the phase
voltages, whereas R and XL are the resistance S and inductive reactance per phase respectively.

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Fig (i) shows a Y-connected generator supplying a balanced Y-connected load through a
transmission line. Each conductor has a resistance of R Ω and inductive reactance of X Ω. Fig. (
ii) shows one phase separately. The calculations can now be made in the same way as for a
single phase line.

Effect of Load p.f. On Regulation and Efficiency

The regulation and efficiency of a transmission line depend to a considerable extent upon
the power factor of the load.
1. Effect on regulation.
The expression for voltage regulation of a short transmission line is given by :

The following conclusions can be drawn from the above expressions:

(i) When the load p.f. is lagging or unity or such leading that I R cos φR > I XL sin φR , then
voltage regulation is positive i.e. , receiving end voltage VR will be less than the sending end
voltage VS .
(ii) For a given VR and I, the voltage regulation of the line increases with the decrease in p.f. for
lagging loads.
(iii) When the load p.f. is leading to this extent that I XL sin φR > I cos φ R, then voltage
regulation is negative i.e. the receiving end voltage VR is more than the sending end voltage VS .
(iv) For a given VR and I, the voltage regulation of the line decreases with the decrease in p.f.
for leading loads.

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2. Effect on transmission efficiency.

The power delivered to the load depends upon the power factor.

It is clear that in each case, for a given amount of power to be transmitted ( P) and receiving end
voltage Power Factor Meter ( V R), the load current I is inversely proportional to the load p.f. cos
φ R. Consequently, with the decrease in load p.f., the load current and hence the line losses are
increased. This leads to the conclusion that transmission efficiency of a line decreases with the
decrease in load Power Factor Regulator p.f. and vice-versa,

ABCD PARAMETERS
A major section of power system engineering deals in the transmission of electrical power from
one particular place (eg. Generating station) to another like substations or distribution units with
maximum efficiency. So its of substantial importance for power system engineers to be thorough
with its mathematical modeling. Thus the entire transmission system can be simplified to a two
port network for the sake of easier calculations.
The circuit of a 2 port network is shown in the diagram below. As the name suggests, a 2 port
network consists of an input port PQ and an output port RS. Each port has 2 terminals to
Connect itself to the external circuit. Thus it is essentially a 2 port or a 4 terminal circuit, having
Supply end voltage = VS and Supply end current = IS given to the input port P Q.
And there is the Receiving end Voltage = VR and Receiving end current = IR
Given to the output port R S. As shown in the diagram below.
Now the ABCD parameters or the transmission line parameters provide the link between the supply
and receiving end voltages and currents, considering the circuit elements to be linear in nature.
Thus the relation between the sending and receiving end specifications are given using
ABCD parameters by the equations below.
VS = A VR + B IR ———————-(1)
IS = C VR + D IR ———————-(2)
Now in order to determine the ABCD parameters of transmission line let us impose the required
circuit conditions in different cases.

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ABCD parameters, when receiving end is open circuited

The receiving end is open circuited meaning receiving end current IR = 0. Applying this condition to

equation (1) we get.

Thus its implies that on applying open circuit condition to ABCD parameters, we get parameter A as
the ratio of sending end voltage to the open circuit receiving end voltage. Since dimension wise A is a
ratio of voltage to voltage, A is a dimension less parameter.
Applying the same open circuit condition i.e IR = 0 to equation (2)

Thus its implies that on applying open circuit condition to ABCD parameters of transmission line, we
get parameter C as the ratio of sending end current to the open circuit receiving end voltage. Since
dimension wise C is a ratio of current to voltage, its unit is mho.
Thus C is the open circuit conductance and is given by C = IS ⁄ VR mho.

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ABCD parameters when receiving end is short circuited

Receiving end is short circuited meaning receiving end voltage VR = 0 Applying this condition to
equation (1) we get

Thus its implies that on applying short circuit condition to ABCD parameters, we get parameter B as
the ratio of sending end voltage to the short circuit receiving end current. Since dimension wise B is a
ratio of voltage to current, its unit is Ω. Thus B is the short circuit resistance and is
given by
B = VS ⁄ IR Ω.
Applying the same short circuit condition i.e VR = 0 to equation (2) we get

Thus its implies that on applying short circuit condition to ABCD parameters, we get parameter D as
the ratio of sending end current to the short circuit receiving end current. Since dimension wise D is a
ratio of current to current, it’s a dimension less parameter. ∴ the ABCD parameters of transmission
line can be tabulated as:-
Parameter Specification
Unit A = VS / VR Voltage ratio
Unit less B = VS / IR
Short circuit resistance Ω
C = IS / VR Open circuit conductance mho
D = IS / IR Current ratio Unit less

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SHORT TRANSMISSION LINE

The transmission lines which have length less than 80 km are generally referred as short transmission lines.
For short length, the shunt capacitance of this type of line is neglected and other parameters like
resistance and inductance of these short lines are lumped, hence the equivalent circuit is represented
as given below,

Let’s draw the vector diagram for this equivalent circuit, taking receiving end current Ir as reference.
The sending end and receiving end voltages make angle with that reference receiving end current, of
φs and φr, respectively.

As the shunt capacitance of the line is neglected, hence sending end current and receiving end current
is same, i.e. Is = Ir.

Now if we observe the vector diagram carefully, we will get, Vs is approximately equal to
Vr + Ir.R.cosφr + Ir.X.sinφr that means,
Vs ≅ Vr + Ir.R.cosφr + Ir.X.sinφr as the it is assumed that φs ≅ φr
As there is no capacitance, during no load condition the current through the line is considered as zero,
hence at no load condition, receiving end voltage is the same as sending end voltage As per dentition
of voltage regulation,

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Here, vr and vx are the per unit resistance and reactance of the short transmission line.
Any electrical network generally has two input terminals and two output terminals. If we consider
any complex electrical network in a black box, it will have two input terminals and output terminals.
This network is called two – port network. Two port model of a network simplifies the network
solving technique. Mathematically a two port network can be solved by 2 by 2 matrixes.
A transmission as it is also an electrical network; line can be represented as two port network. Hence
two port network of transmission line can be represented as 2 by 2 matrixes. Here the concept of
ABCD parameters comes. Voltage and currents of the network can represented as ,
Vs= AVr + BIr… (1)
Is= CVr + DIr… (2)
Where A, B, C and D are different constant of the network. If we put Ir = 0 at equation (1), we get
Hence, A is the voltage impressed at the sending end per volt at the receiving end when receiving end
is open. It is dimension less.
If we put Vr = 0 at equation (1), we get

That indicates it is impedance of the transmission line when the receiving terminals are short circuited. This
parameter is referred as transfer impedance.

C is the current in amperes into the sending end per volt on open circuited receiving end. It has the
dimension of admittance.

D is the current in amperes into the sending end per amp on short circuited receiving end. It is
dimensionless.

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Now from equivalent circuit, it is found that,

Vs = Vr + IrZ and Is = Ir Comparing these equations with equation 1 and 2 we get,
A = 1, B = Z, C = 0 and D = 1. As we know that the constant A, B, C and D are related for passive
network as

Here, A = 1, B = Z, C = 0 and D = 1

AD − BC = 1.
⇒ 1.1 − Z.0 = 1
So the values calculated are correct for short transmission line. From above equation (1),
Vs = AVr + BIr
When Ir = 0 that means receiving end terminals is open circuited and then from the equation 1, we
get receiving end voltage at no load

and as per definition of voltage regulation,

Efficiency of Short Transmission Line

The efficiency of short line as simple as efficiency equation of any other electrical equipment, that
means

MEDIUM TRANSMISSION LINES

In short transmission line calculations, the effects of the line capacitance are neglected
because such lines have smaller lengths and transmit power at relatively low voltages (< 20 kV).
However, as the length and voltage of the line increase, the capacitance gradually becomes of greater
importance.
Since medium transmission lines have sufficient length (50-150 km) and usually operate at
voltages greater than 20 kV, the effects of capacitance cannot be neglected. Therefore, in order to
obtain reasonable accuracy in medium transmission line calculations, the line capacitance must be
taken into consideration.
The capacitance is uniformly distributed over the entire length of the line. However, in order
to make the calculations simple, the line capacitance is assumed to be lumped or concentrated in the
form of capacitors shunted across the line at one or more points. Such a treatment of localising the

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line capacitance gives reasonably accurate results. The most commonly used methods (known as
localised capacitance methods) for the solution of medium transmissions lines are:

(i) End condenser method

(ii) Nominal T method

(iii) Nominal π method.

Although the above methods are used for obtaining the performance calculations of medium
lines, they can also be used for short lines if their line capacitance is given in a particular problem.

i) End Condenser Method

In this method, the capacitance of the line is lumped or concentrated at the receiving or load
end as shown in Fig. This method of localising the line capacitance at the load end overestimates the
effects of capacitance. In Fig, one phase of the 3-phase transmission line is shown as it is more
convenient to work in phase instead of line-to-line values.

Let
I R= load current per phase
R = resistance per phase
XL= inductive reactance per phase
C = capacitance per phase
cos φR= receiving end power factor ( lagging)
VS= sending end voltage per phase

The *phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Fig Taking the receiving end voltage VR as the
reference phasor,

The sending end current Is is the phasor sum of load current IR and capacitive current IC i.e.

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Thus, the magnitude of sending end voltage VS can be calculated.

Limitations
Although end condenser method for the solution of medium lines is simple to work out
calculations, yet it has the following drawbacks:
(i) There is a considerable error (about 10%) in calculations because the distributed
capacitance has been assumed to be lumped or concentrated.
(ii) This method overestimates the effects of line capacitance.

ii) Nominal T Method

In this method, the whole line capacitance is assumed to be concentrated at the middle point
of the line and half the line resistance and reactance are lumped on its either side as shown in Fig.
Therefore, in this arrangement, full charging current flows over half the line. In Fig. one phase of 3-
phase transmission line is shown as it is advantageous to work in phase instead of line-to-line values.

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Let
IR = load current per phase; R =
resistance per phase
XL = inductive reactance per phase;
C = capacitance per phase
cos φR = receiving end power factor ( lagging) ; VS=
sending end voltage/phase
V1 = voltage across capacitor C

The *phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Fig. Taking the receiving end voltage V R as the
reference phasor, we have,

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iii) Nominal π Method

In this method, capacitance of each conductor ( i.e., line to neutral) is divided into two halves;
one half being lumped at the sending end and the other half at the receiving end as shown in Fig. It is
obvious that capacitance at the sending end has no effect on the line drop. However, its charging
current must be added to line current in order to obtain the total sending end current.

Let
IR = load current per phase R = resistance per phase
XL = inductive reactance per phase C = capacitance per phase
cos φR = receiving end power factor (lagging) VS= sending end voltage per phase

The *phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Fig. Taking the receiving end voltage as the
reference phasor, we have,

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MEDIUM TRANSMISSION LINE

The transmission line having its effective length more than 80 km but less than 250 km is generally
referred to as a medium transmission line. Due to the line length being considerably high,
admittance Y of the network does play a role in calculating the effective circuit parameters, unlike in
the case of short transmission lines. For this reason the modelling of a medium length transmission
line is done using lumped shunt admittance along with the lumped impedance in series to the circuit.
These lumped parameters of a medium length transmission line can be represented using two
different models, namely.
1) Nominal Π representation.
2) Nominal T representation.
Let’s now go into the detailed discussion of these above mentioned models.

Nominal Π representation of a medium transmission line

In case of a nominal Π representation, the lumped series impedance is placed at the middle of
the circuit where as the shunt admittances are at the ends. As we can see from the diagram of the Π
network below, the total lumped shunt admittance is divided into 2 equal halves, and each half with
value Y ⁄ 2 is placed at both the sending and the receiving end while the entire circuit impedance is
between the two. The shape of the circuit so formed resembles that of a symbol Π, and for this
reason it is known as the nominal Π representation of a medium transmission line. It is mainly used
for determining the general circuit parameters and performing load flow analysis.

As we can see here, VS and VR is the supply and receiving end voltages respectively, and Is
is the current flowing through the supply end.
IR is the current flowing through the receiving end of the circuit.

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I1 and I3 are the values of currents flowing through the admittances. And I2 is the current
through the impedance Z.
Now applying KCL, at node P, we get. IS = I1 + I2 —————(1)

Similarly applying KCL, to node Q. I2 = I3 + IR —————(2)

Now substituting equation (2) to equation(1)

IS = I1 + I3 + IR

Now by applying KVL to the circuit, VS = VR + Z I2

Comparing equation (4) and (5) with the standard ABCD parameter equations
VS = A VR + B IR
IS = C VR + D IR
We derive the parameters of a medium transmission line as:

NOMINAL T REPRESENTATION OF A MEDIUM TRANSMISSION LINE

In the nominal T model of a medium transmission line the lumped shunt admittance is placed in
the middle, while the net series impedance is divided into two equal halves and and placed on either
side of the shunt admittance. The circuit so formed resembles the symbol of a capital T, and hence is
known as the nominal T network of a medium length transmission line and is shown in the diagram
below.

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Here also Vs and Vr is the supply and receiving end voltages respectively, andIs is the current flowing
through the supply end. Ir is the current flowing through the receiving end of the circuit. Let M be a
node at the midpoint of the circuit, and the drop at M, be given by
Vm. Applying KVL to the above network we get

Now the sending end current is

Is = Y VM + IR ——————(9)
Substituting the value of VM to equation (9) we get,

Again comparing Comparing equation (8) and (10) with the standard ABCD parameter
equations
VS = A VR + B IR
IS = C VR + D IR
The parameters of the T network of a medium transmission line are

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LONG TRANSMISSION LINES

It is well known that line constants of the transmission line are uniformly distributed over the
entire length of the line. However, reasonable accuracy can be obtained in line calculations for short
and medium lines by considering these constants as lumped. If such an assumption of lumped
constants is applied to long transmission lines (having length excess of about 150 km), it is found
that serious errors are introduced in the performance calculations. Therefore, in order to obtain fair
degree of accuracy in the performance calculations of long lines, the line constants are considered as
uniformly distributed throughout the length of the line. Rigorous mathematical treatment is required
for the solution of such lines. Fig shows the equivalent circuit of a 3-phase long transmission line on
a phase-neutral basis. The whole line length is divided into n sections, each section having line
constants 1 /n th of those for the whole line. The following points may by noted :
(i) The line constants are uniformly distributed over the entire length of line as is actually the case.
(ii) The resistance and inductive reactance are the series elements.
(ii) The leakage susceptance ( B) and leakage conductance ( G) are shunt elements.
(iii) The leakage susceptance is due to the fact that capacitance exists between line and neutral. The leakage
conductance takes into account the energy losses occurring through leakage over the

insulators or due to corona effect between conductors. Admittance

(iv) The leakage current through shunt admittance is maximum at the sending end of the line and
decreases continuously as the receiving end of the circuit is approached at which point its value is
zero.

ANALYSIS OF LONG TRANSMISSION LINE (RIGOROUS METHOD)

Fig. shows one phase and neutral connection of a 3-phase line with impedance and shunt
admittance of the line uniformly distributed.
Consider a small element in the line of length dx situated at a distance x from the receiving
end.
Let
z = series impedance of the line per unit length y
= shunt admittance of the line per unit length
V = voltage at the end of element towards receiving end
V + dV = voltage at the end of element towards sending end I
+ dI = current entering the element dx

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I = current leaving the element dx

Then for the small element dx,
z dx = series impedance y
dx = shunt admittance
Obviously, dV = I z dx

Now, the current entering the element is I + dI whereas the current leaving the element is I. The
difference in the currents flows through shunt admittance of the element i.e.,
dI = Current through shunt admittance of element = Vy dx

Equations (iv) and (v) give the expressions for V and I in the form of unknown constants k1 and K2
. The values of k1 and k2 can be found by applying end conditions as under

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LONG TRANSMISSION LINE (ABCD PARAMETERS)

A power transmission line with its effective length of around 250 Kms or
above is referred to as a long transmission line. Calculations related to circuit
parameters (ABCD parameters) of such a power transmission is not that simple, as
was the case for a short or medium transmission line. The reason being that, the
effective circuit length in this case is much higher than what it was for the former
models(long and medium line) and, thus ruling out the approximations considered
there like.

a) Ignoring the shunt admittance of the network, like in a small transmission line model.
b) Considering the circuit impedance and admittance to be lumped and concentrated
at a point as was the case for the medium line model.
Rather, for all practical reasons we should consider the circuit impedance and
admittance to be distributed over the entire circuit length as shown in the figure
below.
The calculations of circuit parameters for this reason is going to be slightly more
rigorous as we will see here. For accurate modeling to determine circuit parameters
let us consider the circuit of the long transmission line as shown in the diagram
below.

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Here a line of length l > 250km is supplied with a sending end voltage and current of VS
and IS respectively, where as the VR and IR are the values of voltage and current
obtained from the receiving end. Lets us now consider an element of infinitely small
length Δx at a distance x from the receiving end as shown in the figure where.
V = value of voltage just before entering the
element Δx. I = value of current just before
entering the element Δx. V+ΔV = voltage leaving
the element Δx.
I+ΔI = current leaving the
element Δx. ΔV = voltage drop
across element Δx. zΔx = series
impedence of element Δx yΔx =
shunt admittance of element Δx
Where Z = z l and Y = y l are the values of total impedance and admittance of
the long transmission line.
∴ The voltage drop across the infinitely small element Δx is
given by ΔV = I z Δx
Or I z = ΔV ⁄ Δx
Or I z = dV ⁄ dx —————————(1)
Now to determine the current ΔI, we apply KCL to
node A. ΔI = (V+ΔV)yΔx = V yΔx + ΔV yΔx

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Since the term ΔV yΔx is the product of 2 infinitely small values, we can ignore it for
the sake of easier calculation.
∴ We can write dI ⁄ dx = V y ————
—–(2) Now derevating both sides of
eq (1) w.r.t x, d2 V ⁄ d x2 = z dI ⁄ dx
Now substituting dI ⁄ dx = V y from
equation (2) d2 V ⁄ d x2 = zyV
or d2 V ⁄ d x2 − zyV = 0 ————(3)
The solution of the above second orders differential equation is
given by. V = A1 ex√yz + A2 e−x√yz ————–(4)
Derivating equation (4) w.r.to x.
dV/dx = √(yz) A1 ex√yz − √(yz)A2 e−x√yz ————
(5) Now comparing equation (1) with equation (5)

Now to go further let us define the characteristic impedance Zc and propagation

constant δ of a long transmission line as
Zc =
√(z/y
)Ωδ
=
√(yz)
Then the voltage and current equation can be expressed in terms of characteristic
impedance and propagation constant as
V = A1 eδx + A2 e−δx ———–(7)
I = A1/ Zc eδx + A2 / Zc e−δx —————(8)
Now at x=0, V= VR and I= Ir. Substituting these conditions to equation (7)
and (8) respectively. VR = A1 + A2 —————(9)
IR = A1/ Zc + A2 / Zc —————(10)
Solving equation (9)
and (10), We get
values of A1 and A2

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as,
A1 = (VR + ZCIR)
⁄ 2 And A1 = (VR
− ZCIR)
Now applying another extreme condition at x=l, we have V = VS and I = IS.
Now to determine VS and IS we substitute x by l and put the values of A1 and A2 in
equation (7) and (8) we get
VS = (VR + ZC IR)eδl ⁄ 2 + (VR − ZC IR)e−δl/2 ————– (11)
IS = (VR ⁄ ZC + IR)eδl/2 − (VR / ZC − IR)e−δl/2————— (12)
By trigonometric and exponential operators we
know sinh δl = (eδl − e−δl) ⁄ 2
And cosh δl = (eδl + e−δl) ⁄2
∴ equation (11) and (12) can be re-
written as
VS = VRcosh δl + ZC IR
sinh δl IS = (VR sinh
δl)/ZC + IRcosh δl
Thus comparing with the general circuit parameters equation, we get the ABCD
parameters of a long transmission line as,
C = sinh δl ⁄ ZC A = cosh δl D = cosh δl B = ZC sinh δl

CIRCLE DIAGRAMS

Transmission line problems often involve manipulations with complex numbers,

making the time and effort required for a solution several times greater than that needed for a
similar sequence of operations on real numbers. One means of reducing the labor without
seriously affecting the accuracy is by using transmission-line charts. Probably the most
widely used one is the Smith chart. Basically, this diagram shows curves of constant
resistance and constant reactance; these may represent either input impedance or load
impedance. The latter, of course, is the input impedance of a zero-length line. An indication
of location along the line is also provided, usually in terms of the fraction of a wavelength
from a voltage maximum or minimum. Although they are not specifically shown on the chart,
the standing-wave ratio and the magnitude and angle of the reflection coefficient are very
quickly determined. As a matter of fact, the diagram is constructed within a circle of unit

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POWER SYSTEMS - I MRCET UNIT 4 PERF.OF TRANSMISSION LINES
radius, using polar co-ordinates, the basic relationship upon which the chart is constructed is

The impedances which we plot on the chart will be normalized with respect to the characteristic
impedance. Let us identify the normalized load impedance as zL

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