Vyasa IAS

(REFER RESPECTIVE PAGES FOR DETAILED CONTENTS OF EACH SECTION)

SECTION SECTION NAME PAGE

NUMBER NUMBER
1 GEOMORPHOLOGY 2

2 CLIMATOLOGY 24

3 CLIMATIC REGIONS 45

4 OCEANOGRAPHY 54

5 INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 63

6 ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY 90
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1. GEOMORPHOLOGY

CHAPTER CHAPTER NAME PAGE

NUMBER NUMBER
1 INTERIOR OF THE EARTH 3
2 GEOMORPHIC PROCESSS 4
3 ROCKS 22
4 LAKES AND PLATEAUS 23
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INDIRECT SOURCES SOURCES OF

 Pressure, density and temperature EARTH’S
increases with depth INTERIOR DIRECT SOURCES
 Core of Meteors similar to core of  Deep mining &
earth drilling e.g. Mponeng
 Gravity anomaly – gravity Earth’s interior used to Gold mine in South
differences due to uneven understand Africa - deepest
distribution of mass of materials  Endogenic process  Volcanic eruption –
 Shift in Magnetic field & geo-  Internal structure shows that earth
dynamo effect  Evolution of earth. interior is very hot
 Seismic waves (detailed below)  Geophysical phenomena
 Atmospheric Composition

SEISMIC WAVES
TYPES OF BODY WAVES
 Seismic waves – due to
P WAVES S WAVES
earthquake.
 Primary waves  Secondary waves
 Earthquake due release of  Compressional waves  Distortional waves
energy at focus of an  Longitudinal nature  Transverse nature
earthquake (hypocentre)  Moves faster (arrives first)  Cannot pass through liquid or
during a fault  Travel in all medium gases (hence do not pass
 Point on surface nearest to  Velocity order – through liquid outer core)
Solids>liquid> gases  Shadow zone – 1030 - 1800
focus is called the epicentre.
 Shadow zone (area where  Propagation – vibrates
 Earthquake waves – recorded
earthquake waves are not perpendicular to direction of
by seismograph. reported in instrument) propagation
 Two types of earthquake 0
– 103 - 142 0

waves – Body Waves (due to Propagation – vibrates

release of energy that travels parallel to wave’s direction
through body of earth) and SURFACE WAVES
Surface Waves (L waves – due  Low frequency, long wavelength and transverse vibration
 Most destructive of all the waves and recorded last.
to interaction of body waves
 Propagation –vibrates perpendicular to direction of propagation
with surface rocks) By observing the changes in direction of waves (due to reflection
and rebounding of waves) different layers can be identified
LAYERS OF EARTH
CRUST (Outermost layer) MATLE ASTHENOSPHERE CORE
(astheno - weak)
 Forms 0.5-1.0 per cent  Forms 83 per cent of  Upper portion of  Accounts for 16 per cent
of the earth’s volume the earth's volume. mantle of the earth's volume.
 30-50 kms thick  The crust and the  Extends up to 400  Lies between 2900 km
normally (oceanic crust uppermost part of the kms and 6400 km below the
thinner than continental mantle are called  Main source of earth's surface.
crust) lithosphere magma  Outer core – liquid and
 ‘sial ’ layer – silica  Extends from Moho’s  Mohorovicic inner core – solid
+Aluminum (continents) discontinuity (35 km) (Moho)  ‘nife ’ layer – nickel +iron
 ‘sima’ layer – silica + to a depth of 2,900 km discontinuity –  Gutenberg Discontinuity
magnesium (ocean) (Moho-Discontinuity to between crust and - lies between the mantle
 70-100 kms in the outer core). asthenosphere and the outer core
Himalayan region
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LAYERS OF EARTH COMPOSITION OF EARTHS’S CRUST

GEOMORPHIC PROCESS
Relating to the form of the landscape

Climatic Factors

Tectogenesis –
Force crustal plate Movement within earth due to
due to movements energy emanating from within
rotation Isostacy – the earth (radioactivity.
of earth movement due primordial heat, tidal and
to variation in rotational friction)
density

Movement outside earth due to

Heat generated due to radioactive
stress induced in earth materials
elements in earth’s interior due to sun’s heat
ENDOGENETIC PROCESS/ENDOGENIC PROCESS
Divided into Diastrophism and sudden movements--
 DIASTROPHISM - term applied to slow bending, folding, warping and fracturing. Types are-
 OROGENIC PROCESS – mountain building process through severe folding
 Tension produces fissures ; Compression produces folds
 EPIROGENIC PROCESS – continent building process (either upheavals or depressions of land)
 Uplift - Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea caves and fossiliferous beds above sea level.
For example, Coringa near the mouth of the Godavari
 Subsidence - Submerged forests and valleys as well as buildings are evidences of subsidence. The
Andamans and Nicobars is isolated from the Arakan coast by submergence of the intervening land.
Presence of peat and lignite beds below the sea level in Thirunelveli is due to subsidence.
o Plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates (discussed in next page)
 SUDDEN MOVEMENTS - cause considerable deformation over a short span of time.
 Earthquakes occurs when the surplus accumulated stress in rocks in the earth's interior is relieved through
the weak zones over the earth's surface in form of kinetic energy of wave motion causing vibrations (at
times devastating) on the earth's surface.
 Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock (magma) onto or toward the earth’s surface and also
formation of many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms
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PLATE TECTONICS
DEFINITION
Plate tectonics is the large scale movement of lithospheric plates due to force emanating from earth’s interior.
‘THEORIES PRIOR TO PLATE TECTONICS’ – WHICH EXPLAINS LARGE SCALE MOVEMENTS ARE DISCUSSED BELOW
CONTINENTAL DRIFT (CD) THEORY – ALFRED WEGENER IN 1922
WHAT??  There existed one big landmass (Pangaea)which was covered by one big ocean (Panthalassa)
 Tethys Sea divided Pangaea into two huge landmasses: Laurentia (Laurasia) to the north and
Gondwanaland to the south of Tethys.
 Drift started around 200 million years ago (Mesozoic Era), and the continents began to break
up and drift away from one another.
 Wegener says the drift is still continuing
FORCES OF  Equator wards drift due to the interaction of forces of gravity, pole-fleeing force (related to
CD AND ITS rotation of earth) and buoyancy (ship floats in water due to buoyant force offered by water)
CRITICISM  Westwards due to tidal currents because of the earth’s motion (tidal force due to attraction of
moon and sun)
 CRITICISM - These factors to be able to cause a drift of such a magnitude, they will have to be
millions of times stronger.
EVIDENCES EVIDENCES CRITICISMS
OF CD  S. America, Africa seems to fit each other  Coastlines are temporary
THEORY AND  Poles drifted constantly (Polar wandering)  Doesn’t means movement of continents
ITS  Glossopteris vegetation in India, Australia  Also found in Afghanistan, Iran
CRITICISM  Belts of ancient rocks from Brazil matches  Rocks of same age found in other parts also
with Southern Africa DRAWBACKS OF CDT
 Tillite deposits (sedimentary rock out of  No explanation why drift began in
glaciers) found in Africa, Australia besides Mesozoic era
India  Doesn’t take ocean into consideration
 Placer deposits of gold are found on the  Assumption are presented as proofs
Ghana coast but the source are in Brazil  Weak forces e.g. tidal force
 Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar and
Africa (Lemuria)
CONVECTIONAL CURRENT THEORY – ARTHUR HOLMES IN 1930s
WHAT??  The intense heat generated by radioactive substances in the mantle (100-2900 km below the
earth surface) seeks a path to escape, and gives rise to the formation of convention currents in
the mantle.
 Rising limbs of these currents form oceanic ridges and falling limbs form trenches
FORCES  Radioactive elements causing thermal differences in mantle.
SEA FLOOR SPREADING – HARRY HESS
WHAT??  Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is
formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge.
 Basaltic magma rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form new sea floor.
EVIDENCES  SEA FLOOR MAPPING - Revealed that ocean floor is full of relief with mountain ranges etc.
 PALEOMAGNETIC STUDIES revealed that following facts.
o Volcanic eruptions are common all along the mid-oceanic ridges and they bring huge
amounts of lava to the surface in this area.
o The rocks equidistant on either sides of the crest of mid-oceanic ridges show remarkable
similarities
o Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges are normal polarity and are the youngest.
o The age of the rocks increases as one moves away from the crest.
o The deep trenches have deep-seated earthquake occurrences while in the mid-oceanic
ridge areas, the quake foci have shallow depths.
(Paleomagnetism is the study of the record of the Earth's magnetic field in rocks, sediment etc)
PLATE TECTOINCS – McKENZIE, PARKER AND MORGAN IN 1967 & 1968
WHAT??  Paleomagnetists led the revival of the continental drift theory leading to plate tectonics.
 The theory says - Lithospheric plates move horizontally over asthenosphere as rigid units
 Plate tectonics is the large scale movement of lithospheric plates due to force emanating
from earth’s interior
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RATES OF  The Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5 cm/yr), and the East Pacific Rise in the
PLATE South Pacific [about 3,400 km west of Chile], has the fastest rate (more than 15 cm/yr).
MOVEMENTS  Indian plate’s movement during its journey from south to equator was one of the fastest
plate movements.
FORCE OF  Slow movement of hot, softened mantle
PLATE  Heat within the earth comes from two main sources: radioactive decay and residual heat.
MOVEMENT
MAJOR AND 7 MAJOR TECTONICS PLATES MINOR TECTONIC PLATES
MINOR  Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate  Cocos plate: Between Central
PLATES LIST  North American plate America and Pacific plate
 South American plate  Nazca plate: Between South
 Pacific plate America and Pacific plate
 India-Australia-New Zealand plate  Arabian plate: Saudi Arabian
 Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate landmass
 Eurasia and adjacent oceanic plate  Philippine plate: Between the
Asiatic and Pacific plate
 Caroline plate: Between the
Philippine and Indian plate
(North of New Guinea)
 Fuji plate: North-east of
Australia.
 Turkish plate,
 Aegean plate (Mediterranean
region),
 Caribbean plate
 Juan de Fuca plate (between
Pacific and North American
plates)
 Iranian plate.
INTERACTION CONSTRUCTIVE EDGE DESTRUCTIVE EDGE TRANSFORM
OF PLATES  Two plates diverge from  Two plates converge with each FAULT
each other other  Two plates move
 E.g. Mid oceanic ridges and past each other
East Africal Fault  E.g. San Andreal
Fault along west
coast of USA
 E.g. Himalyan boundary fault

Convergence can happen three

ways – b/w
o two oceanic plates
o two continental plates
(Himalayas)
o oceanic plate and
continental plate (Andes,
Rockies mountain)

EVIDENCE FOR  Evidence of Sea floor spreading and Plate tectonics are complementary to each other.
PLATE  Paleomagnetic rocks - Older rocks form the continents while younger rocks are present on the
TECTONICS ocean floor
 All plate boundary regions are areas of earthquake and volcanic disturbances goes to prove
the theory of plate tectonics.
SIGNIFICANE  Interpretation of landforms
OF PLATE  Economically valuable materials are found near plate boundaries
TECTONICS  Shape of landmasses in future can be guesses
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COMPARISON

TAKE YOUR NOTES

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MOVEMENT OF INDIAN PLATE

INDIAN PLATE BOUNDARIES
North - Subduction zone along
Himalayas(Continent – Continent)
Convergence)
West – Follow kirthar mountain of Pakistan East – extends through Rakinyoma mountains.
and joins spreading site from Red sea drift INDII It is a spreading site lying east of Australia

South - Divergent boundary between India and

Antarctica merging into the spreading site

INDIAN PLATE MOVEMENT

 Till 225 million years ago – Tethys Sea separated Indian

plate from Asian Continent
 200 million years ago – India start to move northwards
 140 million years ago – Subcontinent located at 500S
latitude
 60 million years ago – Formation of Deccan Traps
 40 million years ago – India collided with Asia and rapid
uplift of Himalayas
 Now – Process still continuing – Himalayas rising even
today

EVIDENCE FOR RISING HIMALAYAS

---Himalayan rivers in youthful stage
---Frequent tectonic activity
---Findings from satellites

OROGENIC PROCESS
Orogenic movements are ‘Tectonic movements’ of the earth which involve the folding of sediments, faulting and
metamorphism. So it is a mountain building process. Formation of mountains explained below.
FORMATION OF MOUNTAINS
FOLD MOUNTIANS
FORMATION  Formed when two or more earth’s tectonic plates are pushed together
 Formed when sedimentary rock strata in geosynclines are subjected to compressive
forces
 They are created at convergent plate boundaries
 They are the loftiest mountains and generally concentrated in continental margins
 E.g. Rockies and Andes
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CHARACTERISTICS CHARACTERISTICS TYPES

AND TYPES  Group of youngest BASIS OF NATURE OF FOLDS
mountains  Simple Fold Mountains –well developed system of syncline and
 Extends for great anticline
lengths  Complex fold Mountains – intensely compressed rock strata
 Width is (nappe folds)
considerably small BASIS OF PERIOD OF ORIGIN
 Along continental  Very Old Fold Mountains – more than 500 million years old.
margins facing E.g. Ural Mountains in Russia and Appalachians in North
oceans America
 Granite intrusions  Old Fold Mountains –Origin before 70 million years ago. E.g.
 Recurrent Aravali Range in India – oldest fold mountains in India
seismicity  Alpine or Young Fold Mountains-originated in tertiary period.
 Volcanic activity E.g. Rockies, Andes.

BLOCK MOUNTIANS
FORMATION  Tension and compression leads to the formation of Block Mountains
 When the earth’s crust cracks, faulting takes place
 Tension cause the central portion to be let down between two adjacent fault
blocks forming a graben or rift valley, which will have steep walls. E.g. East
African Rift Valley
 Compressional forces may produce a thrust or reverse fault and shorten the
crust. A block may be raised or lowered
in relation to surrounding areas.

VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS
FORMATION  Formed due to volcanic activity
 Built up from material ejected from fissures in earth’s crust
 Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa
 Called as Mountains of Accumulation
RESIDUAL MOUNTAINS
FORMATION  These are mountains evolved by denudation when the general level of land was lowered.
 e.g. Mt.Manodnock in U.S.A.
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CLASSIFICATION OF MOUNTIANS
ON THE BASIS OF LOCAITON
 Continental Mountains – e.g. Rockies,  Oceanic Mountains – e.g. Mauna Kea
Appalachians, Vosges
ON THE BASIS OF PERIOD OF ORIGIN
 Precambrian mountains – e.g. Himalayas  Hercynian Mountains e.g. Vosges
 Caledonian mountains – e.g. Aravali  Alpine System e.g. Rockies
ON THE BASIS OF FORMATION PROCESS
 Fold Mountain
 Block Mountain
 Volcanic Mountain
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VOLCANISM
A volcano is a vent (fissure vent) in the earth's crust from which molten rock material (magma),
explosive bursts of gases and volcanic ashes erupt.
TWO MAIN TYPES OF VOLCANOES

CAUSES OF
VOLCANISM
 Residual heat
within earth
 Temperature
difference
leading to
convectional
currents –
creates
magma
 Reactions of
radioactive
substances
within the
LAVA TYPES IN VOLCANISM EFFECTS OF VOLCANOES
ACIDIC/COMPOSITE BASIC/BASALTIC POSITIVE DESTRUCTIVE
 Highly viscous  Highly Fluid  Create new landforms  Natural disaster
 Rich in Silica  Poor in Silica  Volcanic ash and dust are  Lava may engulf whole
 Flow slowly  Flow readily fertile cities
 Loud explosions  Not very explosive  Mineral resources brought to  Damage to life
 Seldom travel  Affect extensive surfaces  Volcanic earthquakes
before areas as thin  Gives rise to springs and  Mudflows of volcanic ash
solidifying sheets (Deccan geysers (refer below)  In coastal areas seismic
 Form spine/ Traps)  Geothermal electricity e.g. sea waves are additional
plug(Mt. Crater)  Greatly sloping Puga Valley in Ladakh danger
GEYSERS AND HOT SPRING

VOLCANIC TYPESBASED ON MODE

OF ERUPTION-
 Hawaiian Eruption
 Strombolian Eruption
 Vulcanian Eruption
 Polean eruption
 Icelandic Volcano

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES ACROSS THE WORLD

PACIFIC RING OF  Accounts for two-third of world volcanoes – greatest concentration of active volcanoes.
FIRE  E.g. Pacific Islands of Solomon, Aleutian Islands (Japan)
ALONG ATLANTIC  Have comparatively few active volcanoes, but many dormant or extinct volcanoes
COAST  E.g. St. Helena, Canary Islands
 Volcanoes of Iceland and Azores are active.
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GREAT RIFT  Along East African Valley

REGION  e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro
WEST INDIAN  Have experienced some violent explosions
ISLANDS  E.g. Mt. Pelee
MEDITERRANEAN  Mainly associated with Alpine folds
VOLCANISM  E.g. Vesuvius, Stramboli
OTHER REGIONS  Active volcanoes are rare in the interior of continents – Asia, North America, Europe and
Australia (no volcanoes in Australia)

VOLCANOES IN INDIA
 Himalayan region- No
Volcanoes
 Barren Island – North East of
Port Blair – become active in
1991 and 1995
 Narcondam island – North East
of Barren Island – probably
extinct.

SOME SIGNIFICANT
VOLCNIC ERUPTIONS
 Mt. Vesuvius violent
eruption in A.D. 79 VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
 Mt.Krakataru
explosion in 1883
 Mt. Pelee eruption EXTRUSIVE LANDFORMS INTRUSIVE LANDFORMS
in 1902

Formed from materials Formed when magma

thrown out during cools within the crust
volcanic activity

 CONICAL VENT – narrow cylindrical vent through which

magma flows out violently (common in composite
volcano) BATHOLITHS - large rock masses formed due
 MID-OCEANIC RIDGES – 70,000 km long ridges that to cooling down and solidification of hot
stretches through all ocean basins magma inside the earth.
 COMPOSITE TYPE – lava accumulate in the vicinity of LACCOLITH– large dome shaped intrusive
vent openings leading to formation of various layers bodies connected by pipe like conduit from
 SHIELD TYPE VOLCANO – mostly made up of basalt e.g. below
Hawaiian volcano. PHACOLITH– A wavy mass of intrusive rocks,
 FLOOD BASALT – lava flows over a long period is found at the base of synclines or at the top
spreading over a vast area e.g. Deccan Traps of anticline in folded igneous country
 CALDERA LAKE - After the eruption of magma has LAPOLITH -saucer shaped lava intrusion in
ceased the crater frequently turns into a lake at a later horizontal direction
time. SILLS – solidified horizontal lava layer inside
 CINDER CONE - steep conical hill of loose pyroclastic the earth
fragments, such as either volcanic clinkers, cinders, DYKES – Wall like structure inside the earth
volcanic ash that has been built around a volcanic vent. almost perpendicular to ground
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FOUR TYPES OF VOLCANISM

EXHALATIVE EFFUSIVE EXPLOSIVE SUB-AQUEOUS
 Discharge of materials  Abundant outpouring  Fragmentation and  This type of volcanic
in gaseous form of lava from vent or ejection of solid activity takes place
 Indicates that volcano fissure material through below the surface of
is reaching its  Deccan Traps vents water
extinction
HOTSPOT VOLCANISM
WHAT?? Hotspot Volcanism occurs not at margin but at interior parts of lithospheric plates
HOT SPOT A hot spot is a region within the Earth’s mantle from which heat rises through the process of
convection.
MANTLE PLUMES  Hotspot Volcanism occurs at abnormally hot centers known as mantle plumes.
 Mantle plumes are exceptionally hot areas fixed deep below the Earth’s crust
HOTSPOT VOLCANIC  Submarine mountains known as seamounts
LANDFORMS  Reunion Islands near Madagascar
EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is the shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface, caused by the sudden movement of a
part of the earth’s crust. They result from the sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates
seismic waves or earthquake waves.
TERMS/FEATURES EXPLANATION
FOCUS The place of origin of an earthquake inside the earth.
EPICENTER Point on the earth’s surface vertically above the focus
CAUSES OF  Compressional or tensional stresses
EARTHQUAKE  Slipping of rock formation along faults and fractures in earth’s crust
 Volcanic Activity
 Deep mining
 Underground Nuclear tests
 Groundwater extraction
EFFECT OF  Landslides
EARTHQUAKES  Damming of rivers
 Cause submergence and emergence of landforms
 Formation of cracks or fissures
SEISMIC WAVES Refer Page No. 1 for detailed explanation

EARTHQUAKES A WADATI–BENIOFF ZONE

BASED ON THE It is a zone of seismicity corresponding with the downgoing slab in a subduction zone
DEPTH OF FOCUS SHALLOW FOCUS EARTHQUAKES (CRUSTAL EARTHQUAKE)
 Most common at submarine ridges. Hardly felt
 Occurs at depth less than 70 kms
 Found within the earth’s outer crustal layer
 Smaller magnitude of a range of 1 to 5
DEEP FOCUS EARTHQUAKES (INTRA PLATE EARTHQUAKE)
 Occurs at trenches – convergent boundary. Very powerful.
 Japan lies along trench line. Hence it faces devastating earthquakes
 Occur at greater focal depths of 300 – 700 km.
 Occur within the deeper Subduction zones of earth
 Higher magnitude of 6 to 8 OR more
INTERMEDIATE EARTHQUAKE - These are somewhat severe
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DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES ACROSS THE WORLD

CIRCUM-PACIFIC  Regions around Pacific Ocean
BELT (PACIFIC  E.g. Japan , Alaska, New Zealand etc.
RING OF FIRE)  Accounts for 68% of all earthquakes
ALPINE BELT  Accounts for 15% of the world earthquakes
(HIMALAYAS  Extends parallel to the equator from Mexico across the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean
AND ALPS) Sea from Alpine-Caucasus ranges' to the Caspian, Himalayan mountains and the adjoining
lands.
OTHER ZONES  There also are striking connected belts of seismic activity, mainly along oceanic ridges—
including those in the Arctic Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the western Indian Ocean—and
along the rift valleys of East Africa
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
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TSUNAMI
Tsunamis are long-wavelength water waves in oceans or seas. They are commonly referred to as tidal
waves because of long wavelengths, although the attractions of the Moon and Sun play no role.
CAUSES  Disturbance that displaces large mass of water from equilibrium position
 Sudden displacement in seabed due to submarine earthquakes
 Volcanic eruption along shorelines
 Submarine landslide
 Fall of extra-terrestrial objects on to the earth
PROPERTIES  Waves of very long wavelength
 Shallow water waves because of longer wavelength
 Travel at high speeds in deep waters and travel great distances as well losing little energy.
PROPOGATION OF  When Tsunami propagates from deep to shallow waters it transforms.
TSUNAMI WAVES  As depth of water decreases, speed of Tsunami remains constant.
 With decrease in depth height of Tsunami wave grows

2004 INDIAN  Indian plate went under the Burma plate, there was a sudden movement of the sea
TSUNAMI floor, causing the earthquake.
 The ocean floor was displaced by about 10 – 20m and tilted in a downwardly direction.
INDIA’S  The Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting System (DOARS) was set up in the Indian
PREPAREDNESS Ocean post 2014.
 National Tsunami Early Warning System inaugurated in 2007 in INCOIS
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EXOGENETIC PROCESS/EXOGENIC PROCESS

All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general term, denudation.
WEATHERING
DEFINITION - Mechanical
disintegration and
chemical decomposition of
rocks through actions of
elements of weather and
climate. It is an in-situ or
onsite process (no motion
of materials in the place of
weathering).
THREE TYPES OF WEATHERING
 CHEMICAL WEATHERING - Water and air (oxygen and CO2) along with heat speed up all chemical reactions.
 SOLUTION – When something is  OXIDATION AND REDUCTION –
dissolved in water or acids, the water or  Oxidation means a combination of
acid with dissolved contents is called a mineral with oxygen to form
solution. E.g. Soluble rock forming oxides. E.g. Red soils
minerals like nitrates,  When oxidized minerals are placed
 CARBONATION –Reaction of carbonate in an environment where oxygen
and bicarbonate with minerals. Carbon is absent, reduction takes place.
di oxide absorbed by water to form Red colour of iron upon reduction
carbonic acid (weak acid) turns to greenish or bluish grey.
 HYDRATION – Minerals take up water
and expand; Helps in exfoliation and
granular disintegration
 BIOLOGICLAL WEATHERING – Removal of minerals and ions from the weathering environment and physical
changes due to growth or movement of organisms. Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms,
rodents etc. are examples.
 PHYSICAL/MECHANICAL WEATHERING - Depend on some applied forces like (i) gravitational forces (ii)
expansion forces due to temperature changes, crystal growth or animal activity; (iii) water pressures controlled
by wetting and drying cycles.
 Unloading and Expansion – Removal of  Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging –
overlying rock due to continued erosion.  During the cold season, the water
Produce massive sheets or exfoliation slabs of freezes into ice and its volume expands
rock as a result.
 Granular disintegration - Rocks composed of  During warm season, water penetrates
coarse mineral grains commonly fall apart pores and creates fractures
grain by grain or undergo granular  Frost weathering occurs due to growth
disintegration of ice in pores
 Exfoliation - With rise in temperature, every  Salt weathering - Salts in rocks expand due
mineral expands and pushes against its to thermal action, hydration and
neighbour and as temperature falls, a crystallisation. E.g. Salts like calcium and
corresponding contraction takes place. sodium. Cause splitting of individual grains
Results in smooth rounded surface in rocks within rocks
 Block Separation - takes place in rocks with  Mass wasting - Since gravity exerts its force
numerous joints acquired by mountain- on all matter, both bedrock and the products
making pressures or by shrinkage due to of weathering tend to slide, roll, flow or
cooling. creep down all slopes in different types of
 Shattering – Huge rock undergo earth and rock movements grouped under
disintegration along weak zones the term ‘mass wasting’.
EFFECTS OF WEATHERING
 Level down irregularities – create peneplane  Enhances ‘degradation’ and ‘aggradation’
 Create inselberg – whale-back shaped rock.  First step in soil formation
 Differential weathering of soft strata exposes  Soil enrichment
the domelike hard rock masses, called tors.  Enrichment and concentration of ores
 Vyasa IAS

DIFFERENT LANFORMS DUE TO EROSIONAL ACTIVITY ARE DISCUSSED BELOW

FLUVIAL LANDFORMS
WHAT?? Fluvial landforms are landforms that are created by erosional (erosional landforms) or
depositional (depositional landforms) activity of rivers
FLUVIAL Hydration. Attrition, down-cutting, corrosion and abrasion are some aspects of Fluvial erosional
EROSIONAL landforms
LANDFORMS IMPORTANT EROSIONAL LANFORMS
RIVER VALLEY FORMATION

RIVER COURSE

Youth Stage - Closer to source and steep V-

shaped valleys
Mature Stage – Erosion occurs on outside of
bends and deposition occurs on inside of bends
Old age – sediment is deposited and velocity of
river slows down

WATERFALLS – mostly seen in youth POT HOLES – boulders and rocks move in circular
stage of river due to relative manner, grinds and drills the rock bed to form pot-
resistance of rocks, fall in sea levels holes
and related rejuvenation TERRACES – Stepped benches along the river course
in a flood plain
GULLY/RILLS – incised water-worn
channel, which is particularly common MEANDERS – pronounced
in semi-arid areas. E.g. ravines of curve or loop in the course of a river channel.
chambal valley OX-BOW LAKE – Meander becomes accentuated
and get cut off to form a loop
PENEPLANE – undulating featureless curve or loop in the course of a river channel.
plain punctuated with low-lying
residual hills of resistant rocks. It is
considered to be an end product of an
erosional cycle.
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DRAINAGE
 Dendric or Pinnate – tree branch
PATTERNS
shaped pattern. E.g. Indus, Godavari
 Trellis – short streams join main stream
at right angles. E.g. Paris Basin
 Rectangular – Main stream bend at
right angles and tributaries join at right
angles e.g. Colorado river
 Angular – Tributaries join main stream
at acute angles. E.g. Himalayan foothill
regions
 Parallel – Tributaries running parallel to
each other. E.g. rivers of lesser
Himalayas
 Radial – Tributaries follow slope
downwards in all directions e.g. streams
of Saurashtra region
 Annular – Tributaries try to follow a
circular drainage around summit. E.g.
Black hill Streams
 Centripetal – Streams converge from all
sides in a low lying basin e.g. streams of
Ladakh
FLUVIAL When the stream velocity reduces, the stream leave some load to settle down leading to
DEPOSITIONAL depositional landforms
LANDFORMS  Alluvial Fans and Cones – Materials deposited acquire a conical shape and appears a series of
continuous fans. These are alluvial fans e.g. Himalayan foothills
 Natural Levees – These are narrow ridges of low height on both sides of river due to
deposition. They act as a natural protection against floods
 Delta - A delta is a tract of alluvium at the mouth of a river where it deposits more material
than can be carried away. Some types of delta are – fan-shaped delta, Bird’s foot delta,
estuaries, cuspate delta, High constructive deltas and high destructive deltas
ESTUARIES – Mouth of rivers appeared to be submerged. These are ideal sites for fisheries,
ports and industries
KARST LANDFORMS
WHAT?? Karst is a landscape which is underlain by limestone which has been eroded by dissolution,
producing towers, fissures, sinkholes, etc.
CONDITIONS  Presence of soluble rocks, preferably limestone at the surface or sub-surface level.
 These rocks should be dense, highly jointed and thinly bedded.
VARIOUS  Cavern – Underground cave by water action in a limestone
LANDFORMS  Arch/Natural Bridge – Cavern CollapsesRemaining portion forms the arch
 Sink Hole/Swallow hole – funnel shaped depressions due to continuous action of rain water
 Karst Window – due to collapse of number of adjoining sink holes
 Sinking Creeks/Bogas – Water gets lost through cracks and fissures in bed.
 Stalactite and Stalagmite - The water containing limestone in solution, seeps through the roof
in the form of a continuous chain of drops. Portion of this hangs on the roof leads to
stalactite. Remaining portion drops to floor leading to stalagmite
 Vyasa IAS

MARINE LANDFORMS
WHAT?? Sea waves, aided by winds, currents, tides and storms carry on the erosional and depositional
processes. Size and strength of waves plays a greater role
MARINE  Chasms - narrow deep indentations due to head-ward erosion
EROSIONAL  Wave cut platform – due to lateral erosion and retreat of cliff by sea waves
LANDFORMS  Sea cliff – Shoreline marked by a steep bank
 Sea caves – due to differential erosion by sea waves
 Sea Arches – differential erosion of rocks leaves a bridge like structure
 Hanging Valleys – If the fluvial erosion at the shore doesn’t match the retreat of the sea, the
rivers appears hanging
 Blow holes/Spouting Horns - The burst of water through a small hole on a sea cave
 Peneplain – Agents of weathering converts the plain of marine erosion into Peneplain

HANGING VALLEYS
CHASMS

MARINE  Beach – temporary covering of rock debris on or along a wave-cut platform

DEPOSITIONAL  Bar – Currents and tidal currents deposit rock debris leads to submerged bars
LANDFORMS  Barrier – overwater counterpart of a bar
 Spit and Hook – Spit is a projected deposition and hook is a shorter spit with one end curved
towards the land
 Tombolos - islands are connected to each other by a bar called tombolo

COASTLINES The boundary between the coast (the part of the land adjoining or near the sea) and the shore
(the land along the edge of a sea) is known as the coastline.
DIFFERENT COASTLINES
 Coastlines of Emergence and Submergence – Emergent coast due to uplift of land or
lowering of seal level. Submerged coast due to subsidence of land or rise in sea level e.g. East
coast of India; West coast – both emergent and submerged (Kerala coast – emergent; Konkan
coast - submerged). Coastlines of submergence include Rio, Fjord (due to glacial action),
Dalmatian. Drowned lowland
 Neutral Coastlines - formed as a result of new materials being built out into the water
 Compound Coastlines – coastlines of Norway and Sweden
 Fault Coastlines - result from the submergence of a downthrown block along a fault such that
the uplifted block has its steep side standing against the sea forming a fault coastline.
 Vyasa IAS

GLACIAL LANDFORMS
WHAT?? A glacier is a moving mass of ice at speeds averaging few meters a day. Landforms due to work of
glaciers are called as Glacial landforms
GLACIAL
Cirque – hollow basin cut into
EROSIONAL
a mountain ridge. Steep sided
LANDFORMS
slope on three sides and open
end on one side
Glacial trough – ‘U’ shaped
valley at mature stage of valley
formation
Hanging Valley – Smaller
valley remains hanging at
higher level than main valley.
Arete – Steep sided summit
Horn – horn shaped ridge
D-Fjord – Steep sided narrow
entrance like feature at the
coast. E.g. Fjords common in
Norway

GLACIAL
DEPOSITIONAL Outwash Pains – Glacier leave
LANDFORMS behind stratified deposition
material
Esker – Winding ridge of un-
assorted depositions of rock,
gravel, clay etc.
Kame Terraces – Broken
ridges looking like hump
Drumlin – Inverted boat
shaped deposition
Kettle holes – Deposited
material depressed locally and
forms a basin
Moraine – General term
applied to gravel, sand etc.
 Vyasa IAS

ARID LANDFORMS
DEFINITION Arid regions are regions with scanty rainfall. Deserts and Semi-arid regions fall under arid
landforms
WATER
Rill – narrow channel in soil
ERODED ARID
LANDFORMS Gully –valleys in tens of
metres
Ravine –narrower than
canyon
Bandland Topography – e.g.
Chambal rivers
Bolsons–Inter-montane
basins
Playas–temporary lakes
Pediments – rock cut surface
at roof of mountians
Bajadas – moderately sloping

WIND ERODED
ARID  Deflation basins – hollows formed by removal
LANDFORMS of particles by wind
 Mushroom rocks – Naturally occurring rock
whose shape resembles mushroom
 Inselberg – isolated hill that rises abruptly
from a virtually level surrounding plain
 Demoiselles – Rock pillars which stand as
resistant rocks above soft rocks
 Zeugen – table shaped area of rock
 Yardang – Ridge of rock parallel to wind
direction
 Wind brides and windows – Formed when
holes in rock are widened to form arch-like feature

ARID  Ripple marks – depositional feature

DEPOSITINAL on small scale by saltation
LANDFORMS  Sand dunes – heaps or mounds of
sand found in deserts
 Loess - In some parts of the world,
windblown dust and silt blanket the land.
This layer of fine, mineral-rich material is
called loess.

Types of Sand dunes

 Longitudinal dunes – Formed
parallel to wind movement
 Transverse dunes – Perpendicular
to wind direction
 Barchans – Crescent shaped dunes
 Parabolic dunes – U shaped; longer
and narrower than barchans
 Star dunes – Have a high central
peak; radically extending three or more
arms
 Vyasa IAS

Chief
Source of coal, oil.
source of
Form richest soils IGNEOUS ROCKS (PRIMARY ROCKS)
metals, SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 Formed out of lava or magma
ores &
Source of marble  Cooling slowly at greater depths –
minerals
rocks in Rajasthan large mineral grains
 Sudden cooling at surface – small
grains
IGNEOUS METAMORPHIC TYPES (BASED ON COOLING OF
ROCKS THREE TYPES OF ROCKS
ROCKS LAVA)
 Plutonic (Intrusive) Rocks – Cools
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS down slowly at greater depths e.g.
 Formed as a result of denudation through lithification granite
(compaction of deposits)  Volcanic (Extrusive) Rocks – Rapid
 Contains number of layers and has fossils of plants and cooling of thrown out lava e.g.
animals basalt
 Found in alluvial deposits, coastal plains, river basins etc.  Dyke (Hypabyssal) Rocks –
TYPES (BASED ON MODE OF FORMATION) intermediate between deep seated
 Mechanically formed through agents like running water plutonic bodies and surface lava
wind, ice etc. e.g. sandstone, shale flows
 Chemically formed through evaporation of water containing TYPES (BASED ON PRESENCE OF
minerals e.g. chert, limestone ACID FORMING RADICAL, SILICON)
 Organically formed through remains of plants and animals  Acid Rocks – high silica content;
buried under heat and pressure e.g. coal, chalk forms sial portion of crust; e.g.
feldspar
 Basic Rocks – poor in silica; Forms
METAMORPHIC ROCKS plateaus and Deccan Traps; e.g.
 Formed under Pressure, Volume and gabbro
Temperature (PVT) changes
 Metamorphism is a process by which Petrology is
ROCK CYCLE
already consolidated rocks undergo the science
recrystallization and reorganization of of rocks
materials within original rocks.
 Metamorphic rocks are commonly found
in Himalayan, Assam, West Bengal etc.
CAUSES OF METAMORPHISM
 Mountain building movements
 Geo-dynamic forces such as Plate
Tectonics
TYPES (ON THE BASIS OF AGENCY OF
METAMORPHISM)
 Thermal Metamorphism –
recrystallization under the influence of
temperature
 Dynamic Metamorphism –
recrystallization under the stress of
pressure

 Some rock forming minerals are feldspar, quartz,

Bauxite, Cinnabar, Dolomite, Gypsum etc.
 Feldspar and quartz are the most common mineral
found in rocks
 Vyasa IAS

LAKES
A lake is a body of water of considerable size, localized in a basin, that is surrounded by land apart from
a river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake

CLASSIFICATION OF LAKES AND EXAMPLES

 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION
o Temporary lake – Small lakes of deserts
o Permanent lake – East African Rift Lakes
o Fresh-water lake – Great lakes of North America
o Saline lake – Aral Sea
 LAKES FORMED BY EARTH MOVEMENTS
o Tectonic lakes – Lake Titicaca
o Rift Valley lakes – Dead Sea
 LAKES FORMED BY EARTH MOVEMENTS
IMPORTANCE OF LAKES
o Cirque lake
 Communication
o Rock-hollow lakes – Finland (lakes of lakes)
 Industrial development
o Lakes due to morainic damming
 Water Storage
 LAKES FORMED BY EROSION
 Hydro-electric power generation
o Karst lakes
 Agriculture
o Wind-deflated lakes – Great Basin of Utah, USA
 Regulating river flows
 LAKES FORMED BY DEPOSITION
 Moderation of Climate
o Lakes due to river deposits – Ox-bow lake
 Source of food
o Lakes due to marine deposits – Lake Chilka
 Source of minerals
o Lakes due to damming of water – Lakes in Shiwaliks
 Tourist Attraction
o Man-made lakes – Lake Mead in USA
 LAKES FORMED BY VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
o Crater and caldera lakes – Lonar in Maharastra
o Lava-blocked lakes

PLATEAUS
A Plateau is a flat-topped table land. They occur in every continent and take up 1/3rd of the Earths land.
PLATEAU FORMATION
Tectonic plateaus are formed from processes that PLATEAU TYPES
create mountain ranges – Dissected Plateau – Colorado Plateau (USA)
 Volcanism (Deccan Plateau) Volcanic Plateau – Columbia Plateau
Inter-montane Plateau – Tibetan Plateau
o Plateau can form where extensive lava flows (called flood
Continental Plateau
basalts or traps) and volcanic ash bury pre-existing terrain.
 Crustal shortening (Tibetan Plateau)
o Thrusting of one block of crust over another, and folding
occurs.
o Crustal shortening, which thickens the crust as described
above, has created high mountains along what are now the
margins of such plateaus
 Thermal expansion (Ethiopian Highlands).
o Means the replacement of cold mantle lithosphere by hot
asthenosphere).
IMPORTANCE OF PLATEAUS
 In India huge reserves of iron, coal and manganese are
found in the Chotanagpur plateau.
 Lava Plateaus like Deccan traps are rich in black soil –
fertile and good for cultivation
 Vyasa IAS

2. CLIMATOLOGY

CHAPTER CHAPTER NAME PAGE

NUMBER NUMBER
1 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 25
2 MOTIONS OF EARTH 25
3 ATMOSPHERE 26
4 TEMPERATURE 27
5 PRESSURE SYSTEM 29
6 GENERAL CIRCULATION OF 32
ATMOSPHERE
7 HYDROLOGICAL (WATER) 33
CYCLE
8 THUNDERSTORMS, CYCLONES 35
& EL NINO
 Vyasa IAS

Latitudes and Longitudes are imaginary lines used to determines the location of a place on earth

LATITUDE LONGITUDE International Date Line (IDL)

Latitude is the angular Longitude is an angular distance  IDL in mid-Pacific curves from
distance of a point on the measured in degrees along the the normal 180° meridian at the
earth’s surface, measured in equator east or west of the Prime Bering Strait, Fiji, Tonga and
degrees from the center of Meridian (00) (semi-circles). From other islands to prevent
the earth Prime Meridian all other meridians confusion of day and date in
Important parallels of radiate eastwards and westwards up some of the island groups that
latitude to 1800 are cut through by the meridian.
 Tropic of Cancer -230N Longitude and Time  If the dateline was straight,
 Tropic of Capricorn -230S  Earth rotates 150 in 1 hour then two regions of the same
 Arctic Circle – 660N  The earth rotates from west to Island Country or Island group
 Antarctic Circle – 660S east, so every 15° we go would fall under different date
Latitudinal heat zones eastwards, local time is advanced zones. Thus to avoid any
 Torrid Zone – b/w 230N by 1 hour. confusion of date, this line is
&230S  In larger countries such as drawn through where the sea
 Temperate Zone – b/w Canada, U.S.A., China, and lies and not land. Hence, the IDL
230N & 660N and 230S & U.S.S.R, it would be inconvenient is drawn in a zig zag manner.
660S to have single time zone. So these
 Frigid Zone – b/w Arctic countries have multiple time zones
Circle and N. Hemisphere Indian Standard Time
and b/w Antarctic Circle  82.50E longitude – 5hrs 30min
and S. Hemisphere ahead of Greenwich Mean time.

ROTATION REVOLUTION
 Earth rotates along its axis from west to east at  Earth revolves around the sun and it takes 365 ¼ (1
tilted axis – makes an angle of 66.50 with orbital year) to revolve around the sun – leads to seasons
plane  Surplus day of every year added at the end of 4 years
 Earth takes 24 hours to complete one rotation and leads to leap year every 4 years (366 days)
 Day and nights due to rotation of earth.
 Days are longer than night at equator as sun’s
rays get refracted due to atmosphere.
Temperature falls with increasing latitude because -
 Geoid (spherical) shape of earth and sun’s position
 Energy received per unit area decreases from
equator towards poles
 Poles receive slant rays from the sun
 Vyasa IAS

COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE

 Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%) - nearly 99% of the clean

dry air
 Carbon di oxide - important factor in heat energy budget
 Ozone – between 20-25 kms altitude  high concentration
 Water Vapour – b/w 0.02% to 4% of total volume in cold dry
and humid tropical climates respectively.
 Solid Particles – sand, pollen, soot etc. Selective scattering
by dust particles leads to blue colour of sky.
 Major Greenhouse Gases – Carbon di oxide, Ozone, Water
vapour, methane

 Uppermost layer of atmosphere – beyond 400kms

 Temperature increases with height

 80-400km layer
 Electrically charged layer – ionization of atoms
 Temperature increases with height
 Helps in radio transmission
 Also called thermosphere

 Layer beyond the ozone layer and up to 80 kms

 Temperature falls to -1000C at 80 kms
 Meteorites burn up in this layer

 Beyond troposphere upto 50 kms from earth’s surface

 Temperature rises through the ozonosphere
 Free from clouds – ideal for aero planes
 Ozone layer between 30km and 60km of earth’s surface

 Upto 8 kms at poles and 18 km at equator from earth’s

surface
 All weather phenomenon like cyclones, precipitation,
storms happen here.
 The layer ends with Tropopause where the temperature
is constant
 Vyasa IAS

Radiation – Heat transfer b/w 2 bodies without actual contact HEAT TRANSFER

Conduction – Heat transfer through matter by molecular activity

INSOLATION
 Proportion of Solar
Convection – Transfer of heat energy by actual transfer of matter
Energy received or
intercepted by Earth.
 Angle of incidence of Sun’s Rays  Earth intercepts only one
 Duration of Sunshine in two billion parts of
 Transparency of Atmosphere – solar radiation
Aerosols affect transparency
 Land-Sea differential – Albedo of
land > Albedo of oceans
 Prevailing Winds e.g. Oceanic
winds take moderating influence
of sea to coastal areas
 Altitude – Normal lapse rate is
10C for every 165 mts of ascent
 Earth’s distance from sun –
Annual temperature during
perihelion>Annual temperature
during aphelion

ISOTHERMS
Isotherms is an imaginary line LONGITUDINAL HEAT BALANCE
joining places having equal
temperatures
General Characteristics
 Close correspondence with
latitude parallels
 Sudden bends at ocean-
continent boundaries
 Narrow spacing between
isotherms – indicate rapid
change in temperature
 Wide spacing between
isotherms – indicate small
or slow change in
temperature
 Vyasa IAS

GENERAL TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

 Highest temperature in tropics and sub-tropics  Low temperature gradient over tropics and high
 Lowest temperature in polar and sub-polar regions. temperature gradient over middle and higher
 Diurnal and annual range of temperatures are latitudes
highest in interiors of continent due to  Temperature gradient is low in eastern margin of
continentiality(no moderating influence of sea) continents due to warm ocean currents and high in
 Diurnal and annual range of temperatures are least western margin due to cold ocean currents
in oceans

SEASONAL TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

JANUARY JULY
 Winter in Northern Hemisphere and Summer in  Summer in Northern Hemisphere and winter in
Southern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere
 Western margins of continents are warmer than  Isotherm behaviour opposite to what it is in January
eastern counterparts (Westerlies carry high NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
temperature into landmasses)  Highest range of temperature is more than 600C
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE over north-eastern part of Eurasian continent due to
 Isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean and continentiality
to the south over the continent.  Highest temperature belt runs through northern
 Presence of warm ocean currents make North Africa, West Asia, north-west India and
Atlantic Ocean Warmer – isotherms show pole-ward southeastern USA
shift SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE  The gradient becomes regular over the southern
 Effect of ocean is well pronounced in southern hemisphere but shows a slight bend towards the
hemisphere equator at the edges of continents.
 High temperature belt runs in southern hemisphere  Thermal equator now lies to the north of the
somewhere along 300S latitude geographical equator
LAPSE RATE
 Lapse rate is rate of change in temperature ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE
observed while moving upward through the  Adiabatic Lapse Rate is the rate of fall in
Earth’s atmosphere temperature of a rising or a falling air parcel
 Temperature falls with elevation because – adiabatically. Adiabatic or adiabatically means
o Atmospheric Pressure falls heat doesn’t enter or leave the system. All
o Concentration of Greenhouse gases temperature changes are internal.
decrease  Adiabatic change refers to change in temperature
 The lapse rate is of prime importance to with pressure
meteorologists in forecasting certain types of  Adiabatic Lapse rate is governed by Gas law.
cloud formations, the incidence of thunderstorms, According to gas law Pressure ‘P’ is directly
and the intensity of atmospheric turbulence. proportional to Temperature ‘T’ when Volume ‘V’
is a constant
LATENT HEAT OF CONDENSATION
 Latent heat is the heat released or absorbed  Latent heat condensation is the driving force
during phase change behind all tropical cyclones
VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE
 At the Tropopause, the lapse rate stops at zero i.e. there is no change in temperature there.
 In the lower stratosphere, the lapse rate remains constant for some height, while higher temperatures exist
over the poles because this layer is closer to earth at the poles.
TEMPERATUR ANAMOLY
 The difference between the mean temperature of a place and the mean temperature of its parallel (latitude) is
called the temperature anomaly or thermal anomaly.
 The largest anomalies occur in the northern hemisphere and the smallest in the southern hemisphere
 Vyasa IAS

TEMPERATURE INVERSION
 Temperature inversion, is a reversal of the normal behaviour of temperature in the troposphere, in which a layer
of cool air at the surface is overlain by a layer of warmer air
ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF
TEMPERATURE INVERSION

TYPES OF TEMPERATURE INVERSION

AIR DRAINAGE TYPE OF INVERSION GROUND INVERSION

SUBSUDENCE INVERSION FRONTAL INVERSION

Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This results in variations in the atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column of air at any given place and time. It is measured by means of an
instrument called barometer
VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE

 In lower atmosphere, pressured decreases with

height
 Vertical Pressure gradient force > Horizontal
Pressure gradient force
 Vyasa IAS

NHORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE

 This is studied by drawing isobars i.e. lines connecting places having equal pressure. Space of isobars
expresses the rate and direction of pressure changes
 There are distinctly identifiable zones of homogeneous horizontal pressure regimes or ‘pressure belts’. The
seven pressure belts are :
o equatorial low, o the sub-polar lows and(N&S)
o the sub-tropical highs (N&S) o the polar highs(N&S)
EQUATORIAL LOW PRESSURE BELT OR DOLDRUMS
 Between 00N and 100S latitude.  Only vertical currents are found.
 Zone of convergence of trade winds.  Zero-Coriolis force – cyclones are not formed.
 Extremely low pressure with calm conditions.
SUB-TROPICAL HIGH PRESSURE BELTS OR HORSE LATITUDES
 Extends from near tropics to about 350N and S  Frequently invaded by tropical and extra-tropical
 High Pressure due to air coming from the equatorial disturbance.
region.
SUB POLAR LOW PRESSURE BELT
0
 Located between 45 N and S latitudes  These are dynamically produced due to Coriolis Force
 The area of contrast between cold and warm air and Ascent of air as a result of convergence of
masses produces polar jet stream. Westerlies and polar easterlies
POLAR HIGH PRESSURE BELT
 They lie around poles between 80-900N and S  The lowest temperatures are found over the poles
latitude
POLAR HIGH PRESSURE IN JULY
Apparent northward shift to the Sun – thermal equator is located
north of the geographical equator.
POLAR HIGH PRESSURE IN JANUARY
During winter, these conditions are completely reversed and the
pressure belts shift south of their annual mean locations.
FACTORS CONTROLLING PRESSURE SYSTEMS –TWO MAIN CAUSES
 Thermal Factors – Formation of equatorial low and polar highs
are examples of thermal lows and thermal highs, respectively.
 Dynamic Factors –
o Pressure belts may be explained by dynamic controls arising
out of pressure gradient forces and rotation of earth (Coriolis
force)
o The formation of sub-tropical high and sub-polar low
Wind – horizontal movement of air pressure belts are due to dynamic factors like pressure
Currents – vertical movement of air gradient forces, apparent movement of sun and rotation of
the earth (Coriolis force)
FACTORS AFFECTING WIND MOVEMENT
 Sun – Ultimate force that drives wind (Pressure difference caused by unequal solar radiation)
 Coriolis force –force due to rotation of earth.
 Combined effect of Pressure Gradient Force, Coriolis Force and Frictional Force
 Gravitational force acts downwards
 Centripetal acceleration produces a circular pattern of flow around centres of high and low pressure
 Frictional Force – Friction of wind with ground affects the speed of wind
PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE
 Pressure Gradient force is due to difference in atmospheric pressure
 Closely spaced gradient  Steep Pressure Change  Strong Wind Speed
CORIOLIS FORCE
 Due to this winds in the northern hemisphere get deflected to the right of their path and those in the southern
hemisphere to their left, following Farrell’s law.
 Coriolis Force acts perpendicular to the Pressure Gradient Force
 As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to each other, in the low pressure areas the wind blows
around it (cyclonic conditions). At equator, Coriolis force is zero and hence low pressure gets filled instead of
gets intensified. Hence no tropical cyclones at the equator
 Vyasa IAS

CORIOLIS EFFECT CYCLONIC CONDITIONS

GEOSTROPIC WIND
 Vyasa IAS

CLASSIFICATION OF WINDS
PREVAILING/PERMANENT/PRIMARY WINDS
SECONDARY/PERIODIC WINDS
These winds change their direction with change in season
 Monsoon are seasonal reversal of wind direction
 Land Breeze and Sea Breeze
o Dayland heats faster  becomes warmerlow
pressure in landwind blows from sea to land (land
breeze)
o Nightland loss heat fasterhigh pressure on
landwind blows from land to sea (sea breeze)
 Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze
o Day(mountain)slope heated upair moves upslope
from valley and fills the gapValley Breeze
o Night(mountain)slope gets cooleddense air descends
into valleymountain wind (In high plateaus and ice
fields this is called as Katabatic Wind)

Primary winds are planetary winds that blow TERTIARY/LOCAL WINDS

extensively over continents and oceans. These winds Local differences of temperature and pressure produce
are as follows- local winds.
 Trade winds blow from subtropical high pressure  Loo – Harmful wind in plains of north Indiahigh
belt to equatorial low pressure belt temperaturecause sunstroke to people
 The Westerlies are the winds blowing from the  Fohn – Beneficial hot wind in Alps
sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the sub  Chinook – Beneficial winds in USA and Canada
polar low pressure belts.  Mistral – Harmful winds that blow from Alps towards
 Polar easterlies blow from the polar high-pressure Mediterranean Sea
areas of the sub-polar lows.  Sirocco – Mediterranean winds from Sahara
 Vyasa IAS

Water Cycle is a continuous exchange of water between

the atmosphere, the oceans and the continents through
the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation
and precipitation.

EVAPORATION
Evaporation is a process by which water is transformed
from liquid to gaseous state. Some factors affecting
evaporation are temperature, air pressure, wind speed,
relative humidity, amount of water available etc.

HUMIDITY It is the water vapour present in air

Absolut Humidity – Actual amount of water vapour
present in the atmosphere
Relative Humidity - The percentage of moisture present
in the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity at a
given temperature – determines the amount and rate of
evaporation and hence RH is an important climatic factor
Specific Humidity - It is expressed as the weight of water
vapour per unit weight of air.
CONDENSATION
FORMS OF CONDENSATION
Transformation of water vapour into
 Dew – Deposition of moisture in the form of water droplets on
water caused by the loss of heat.
cooler surfaces – ideal conditions are clear sky, calm air, high
relative humidity and cold and long nights
 White Frost - Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation
takes place below freezing point (0° C), i.e. the dew point is at or
below the freezing point.
 Fog – When the temperature of an air mass containing a large
quantity of water vapour falls all of a sudden, condensation takes
place within itself on fine dust particles.
 Mist – The difference between the mist and fog is that mist
contains more moisture than fog.
 Haze – Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where
PRECIPITATION dust, smoke and other dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky
The process of continuous condensation  Smog - (discussed below)
in free air helps the condensed particles to  Clouds - Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals
grow in size. When the resistance of the of ice formed by the condensation of the water vapour in free air
air fails to hold them against the force of at considerable elevations (discussed below)
gravity, they fall on to the earth’s surface.
FORMS OF PRECIPITATON
SMOG
 Smoke + fog (smoky fog)- by the burning of large amounts of
coal, vehicular emission and industrial fumes (10 pollutants).
 Sulphurous and photochemical smog – two types of smog
 Sulphurous smog results from high concentration of sulphur
oxides.
 Photochemical (summer smog) forms when pollutants such as
nitrogen oxides (primary pollutant) and organic compounds
(primary pollutants) react together in the presence of Sunlight
 Atmospheric Pollution, accentuation for temperature inversions,
reduction of precipitation, reduced visibility are the effects
 Vyasa IAS

TYPES OF CLOUDS
TYPES OF RAINFALL

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL

 Coastal areas – greater rainfall than interiors
 Rainfall more over oceans than on landmasses
 350N & S – rain heavier on eastern coast – decreases towards the west
 450-650N & S – rainfall first received on western margins of continents due to Westerlies
Major Precipitation regimes –
 The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains along the western coasts in
the cool temperate zone and the coastal areas of the monsoon land receive heavy
rainfall of over 200 cm per annum.
 Interior continental areas receive moderate rainfall varying from 100 - 200 cm per
annum.
 The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and interior parts of the temperate
lands receive rainfall varying between 50 - 100 cm per annum.
 Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the continents and high latitudes
receive very low rainfall –less than 50 cm per annum.
 Vyasa IAS

THUNDERSTORM
It is a storm with thunder and lightning and typically also heavy rain or hail

TYPES OF THUNDERSTORMS
 Thermal thunderstorms duet to intense heating of ground during summer
 Orographic thunderstorm - Forceful upliftment of warm moist air parcel when it passes over a mountain barrier
creates cumulonimbus cloud causing heavy precipitation on the windward side.
 Frontal thunderstorm – Thunderstorms along cold fronts

 Single cell thunderstorm - Single-cell thunderstorms are small,

brief, weak storms that grow and die within an hour or so. They
are typically driven by heating on a summer afternoon
 A multi cell thunderstorm- A multi-cell storm is a thunderstorm
in which new updrafts form along the leading edge of rain-
cooled air (the gust front).
 A super-cell thunderstorm - A super-cell is a long-lived (greater
than 1 hour) and highly organized storm feeding off an updraft
(a rising current of air) that is tilted and rotating.

LIGHTNING AND THUNDER

FORMATION  Water vapour moves upward  beyond zero degrees water droplets change into small ice
OF crystals continue to gather mass  becomes heavy and starts to fall  result in collisions 
LIGHTNING trigger the release of electrons (ionization)  moving free electrons cause more collisions and
more electrons as a chain reaction ensues  top layer gets positively charged and middle layer
gets negatively charged  this leads to huge current flow  this heated air column expands
and produces shock waves that result in thunder
 Vyasa IAS

FORMATION  Lightning creates plasma (ionized gas medium) [30,000 °C].

OF  The channel pressure greatly exceeds the ambient (surrounding) pressure, and the channel
LIGHTNING expands at a supersonic rate (speed of sound).
 The resultant shock wave decays rapidly with distance and is eventually heard as thunder once
it slows to the speed of sound.
TORNADO
FORMATION  From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiraling wind descends like a trunk of an elephant
with great force, with very low pressure at the center, causing massive destruction on its way.
Such a phenomenon is called a tornado.
DISTRIBUTION  Generally occur in middle latitudes
 Rare in polar regions and infrequent at latitudes higher than 500N and 500S
 All continents except Antarctica
 Indian sub-continent Bangladesh is the most prone country to tornadoes.
GEOSTROPHIC WIND

The wind will be blowing parallel to the isobars

(perpendicular to Pressure Gradient Force).

When this happens, the wind is referred to as

geostrophic wind.
 Vyasa IAS

JET STREAMS
JET STREAMS

PERMANENT JET STREAMS

 Two permanent Jet Streams – Subtropical jets at lower latitudes and polar front jets at mid-
latitudes
 The sub-tropical jet stream is produced by the earth’s rotation (Coriolis force) and
temperature contrast between tropical and sub – tropical regions.
 The polar front jet is produced by a temperature difference and is closely related to the polar
front
 Temporary Jet Streams –Important ones are Somali Jet and African Easterly Jet
 The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature of the northern hemispheric summer over southern
Asia and northern Africa. The TEJ is found near between 5° and 20°N.
 The Somali jet occurs during the summer over northern Madagascar and off the coast of
Somalia. The jet is most intense from June to August
INFLUENCE OF JET STREAMS IN WEATHER
 Maintenance of latitudinal heat balance
 Severe storms when jet streams interfere with surface wind systems
 Influence on distribution of precipitation by the temperate cyclones
 May cause prolonged drought or flood conditions
 The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature of the northern hemispheric summer over southern
Asia and northern Africa. The TEJ is found near between 5° and 20°N.
 The Somali jet occurs during the summer over northern Madagascar and off the coast of
Somalia
 Jet streams are used by aviators if they have to fly in the direction of the flow of the jet
streams, and avoid them when flying in opposite direction
AIR MASSES
DEFINITION  The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an air
mass.
 It is a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture.
TYPES AIR MASSES BASED ON SOURCE REGIONS
Following types of air masses are recognised-
 Maritime tropical – warm, humid and
unstable
 Continental tropical – dry, hot and
stable
 Maritime Polar – cool, moist and
unstable
 Continental Polar – dry, cold and
stable conditions
 Continental Arctic

Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are cold
 Vyasa IAS

FRONTS
DEFINITION  Mid-latitude cyclones or temperate cyclones or
 Fronts are the typical features of mid-latitudes extra-tropical cyclones occur due to frontogenesis
weather (temperate region – 30° - 65° N and S). GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FRONST
 They are uncommon (unusual) in tropical and  Two air masses with higher temperature
polar regions. difference do not merge readily
FRONT FORMATION (FRONTOGENESIS)  Change in pressure also
 Convergence of two distinct air masses  Front experiences wind shift
 In northern hemisphere frontogenesis happens in
anti-clockwise direction and occurs in clockwise
direction in southern hemisphere
CLASSIFICATION OF FRONTS
 Stationary Front  Warm Front –
o Two air masses unable to push against each o Movement of warm air over cold air takes
other place
o Cumulonimbus clouds are formed o Cirrostratus clouds are formed
o Can dump heavy amounts of precipitation o Hierarchy of clouds – cirrus, stratus and
results in significant flooding nimbus formed
 Cold Front –  Occluded Front –
o Cold air mass replace a warm air mass by o Cold front of a rotating low pressure system
advancing it into it catches up the warm front, so that warm air
o Severe storms can occur. During summer between them is forced upwards
months thunderstorms are common. o Mixture of cold front type and warm front
o Appearance of cirrus clouds, denser type
altocumulous and altostratus o Combination of clouds at warm front and
cold front

TROPICAL CYCLONES
 Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in
tropical areas.
 They move over to the coastal areas – brings about large scale
destruction
 The cyclonic wind movements are anticlockwise in the northern
hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere (This is due to
Coriolis force).
 Vyasa IAS

 The above condition occurs only in western tropical oceans because of warm ocean currents. Hence tropical
cyclones mostly form in western margins and don’t form in eastern margins
 Vyasa IAS

CATEGORIES OF TROPICL CYCLONE

CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL CYCLONE

 Symmetrical elliptical shape  Cyclones start with westward movement but turn
 Wind velocity is more in pole-ward margins than northwards
at centre  Tropical cyclones follow a parabolic path
 Tropical cyclones die at 300 latitude.

TEMPERATE/EXTRA-TROPICAL/MID-LATITUDE/FRONTAL CYCLONES
 The systems developing in the mid and high latitude (35° latitude and 65° latitude in both hemispheres), beyond
the tropics are called the temperate cyclones.
 Polar Front theory

 According to this theory, the warm-humid air masses from the tropics meet the dry cold air masses from the
poles and thus a polar front is formed as a surface of discontinuity.
 Such conditions occur over sub-tropical high, sub-polar low pressure belts and along the Tropopause
 FORMATION
o In the northern hemisphere, warm air blows from the south and cold air from the north of the front.
o When the pressure drops along the front, the warm air moves northwards and the cold air move towards
south setting in motion an anticlockwise cyclonic circulation (northern hemisphere). This is due to
Coriolis Force
CHARACTERISTICS OF TEMPERATE CYCLONE
 Inverted ‘V’ shape  Jet stream plays a major role in temperate
 Wind strength is more in eastern and southern cyclogenesis
portions
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POLAR VORTEX

EL NINO
 El Niño is the name given to the occasional development of warm ocean surface waters along the coast of
Ecuador and Peru.
 Vyasa IAS

 El Niño is the warming of sea waters in Central-east Equatorial Pacific that occurs every few years (Warm phase
off the coast of Peru).
o During El Niño, surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific rise
o This weakens the trade winds — east-west winds that blow near the Equator.
o Due to El Niño, easterly trade winds that blow from the Americas towards Asia change direction to turn
into Westerlies.
o It thus brings warm water from the western Pacific towards America
 IMPACTS OF EL NINO
o Warmer water have devastating effect on marine life of Peru and Ecuador
o El Nino and Indian Monsoon are inversely related. Monsoon takes a hit during El Nino.
ENSO
 Vyasa IAS

LA NINA

COMPARISON OF TROPICAL CYCLONES AND TEMPERATE CYCLONES

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 Vyasa IAS

3. CLIMATIC REGIONS

CHAPTER CHAPTER NAME PAGE

NUMBER NUMBER
1 KOEPPEN’S SCHEME OF 46
CLASSIFICATION
 Vyasa IAS

 It is the most widely used classification of climate

 Koeppen identified a relationship between natural vegetation and Climate. He selected temperature and
precipitation and related them to distribution of vegetation

TROPICAL HUMID CLIMATE

 Between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn
 Annual range of temperature is very low and Annual rainfall is high
 The tropical group is divided into three types-
o Tropical wet climate
o Tropical monsoon climate
o Tropical wet and dry climate
 Vyasa IAS

TROPICAL WET CLIMATE

WHAT
 Also known as ‘The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate’
 The regions are generally referred as ‘Equatorial Rainforests’, ‘Equatorial Evergreen Forests’, ‘Tropical Moist
Broadleaf Forest’, ‘Lowland Equatorial Evergreen Rainforest’.
DISTRIBUTION
 Mostly between 5° N and S of Equator.
 Its greatest extent is found in the lowlands of the Amazon, the
Congo, Malaysia and the East Indies.

EQUITORIAL CLIMATE
 Dominated by maritime tropical air mass
TEMPERATURE
 Uniform throughout the year
 Mean monthly temperature – 270C
 There is no winter
PRECIPITATION
 Heavy and well distributed throughout the year
 Annual Average – above 150 cm
 No month without rain
 Double rainfall peaks coincides with the equinoxes
NATURAL VEGETAION
 Tropical Rain Forests
 Amazon rainforests – Selvas
 Growing season is all year around
 Multiple Species
LIFE AND ECONOMY
 Agriculture
 Shifting Cultivation
 Plantation boom
 Mineral Resources – e.g. Gold mining in Peruvian
Amazon
TROPICAL MONSOON CLIMATE
WHAT
 Monsoons are land and sea breezes on a much larger scale.
 Monsoon climate is characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons associated with seasonal reversal of winds.
DISTRIBUTION

CLIMATE
 In Summer low pressure is created in Central Asia
 In winter the conditions are reversed
 Vyasa IAS

TEMPERATURE  Rainy season Mid June – September – With

 Monthly mean temperatures above 18 °C. burst of South West monsoon there is torrential
 Temperatures range from 30-45° C in summer downpour across the country
PRECIPITATION  Retreating Monsoon  The skies are clear again
 Annual mean rainfall ranges from 200-250 cm. and the cool, dry season returns in October, with
 Places like Cherrapunji & Mawsynram receive an the out blowing North-East Monsoon.
annual rainfall of about 1000 cm. NATURAL VEGETAION
SEASONS  Drought deciduous forests
 Cool dry Season October – February – North  Dry forest
East monsoon brings rain to southern tip of the  Dry deciduous forest
peninsula  Tropical deciduous forest
 Hot dry Season March – Mid June –Coastal AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN MONSOON LANDS
districts are little relieved by sea breezes – there is  Farming is the dominant occupation in Indian sub-
practically little rain continent
 Lowland cash crops and high plantation crops
such as coffee are grown
 Lumbering
 Shifting Cultivation

TROPICAL MARINE CLIMATE

 Outside the monsoon zone, the climate is modified by the influence of the on-shore Trade Winds all the year
round
 Evenly distributed rainfall
 It is experienced in Central America, West Indies, NE Australia, East Africa and Madagascar.
SAVANNA CLIMATE OR TROPICAL WET AND DRY CLIMATE OR SUDAN CLIMATE
WHAT
 Alternate wet and dry seasons.
 No distinct rainy season like in monsoon climate
DISTRIBUTION

SAVANNA CLIMATE
TEMPERATURE
 Mean, annual temperature greater than 180C
 Highest temperature occurs just before the onset of any rainy season
PRECIPITATION
 Mean annual rainfall ranges from 80-160 cm
 Days are hot and nights are cold
 Extreme diurnal range of temperature is another characteristic
feature
 Vyasa IAS

WINDS .
 Prevailing winds of the region are trade winds ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
 Strongest in the summer  Immense agricultural potential for plantation
NATURAL VEGETAION crops
 Tall grass and short trees. Grasslands are called  Farming
bush-welds  Cattle rearing
 Trees are deciduous
DESERT CLIMATE
 Evaporation exceeds precipitation  Two types – hot desert and Mid-Latitude desert

HOT DESERT CLIMATE (TRADE WIND DESERT)

 Aridity due to off-shore trade wind  E.g. Sahara desert, Great Indian desert, Mexican
 Located on the western coasts of continents desert, Atacama desert, Iranian desert etc.
between latitudes 15° and 30°N. and S
MID-LATITUDE DESERT CLIMATE
 Temperate deserts are rainless because of  The Patagonian Desert is more due to its rain-
continentiality or rain-shadow effect shadow position on the leeward side of the lofty
 E.g. Ladakh, Gobi deserts, Patagonian deserta Andes than to continentiality.
RAINFALL (HOT AND COLD DESERTS) TEMPERATURE OF HOT DESERTS CLIMATIC CONDITIONS IN MID-
LATITUDE DESERTS
 Annual precipitation - < 25 cm  Average temperature – 300C  Cut off from rain-bearing winds
 Violent thuderstorms of  No cold season in hot deserts  Annual range of temperature
convectional type. greater than the hot deserts due
to continentiality
DESERT VEGETATION LIFE IN DESERTS
 Xerophytic or drought –resistant plants  Different group of inhabitants e.g. Bedouin Arabs
 Trees are rare of Arabia, Tuaregs of Sahara
 Soils are deficient in humus  Settled cultivators – most important tree – date
 Seeds have thick, tough skins to protect them palm
 Mining settlers – e.g. In Mexico deserts silver is
mined

Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30 degree north and on the western side of the
continents because -
 Rain bearing trade winds blow off shore
 Westerlies that are on-shore blow outside desert limits
 Western coasts – Presence of cold currents leads to mist and fog – chills the on-coming air- air becomes less
warm and cause little rain
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STEPPE CLIMATE OR TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL CLIMATE

DISTRIBUTION
 Lies in interior of continents
 Lies in the westerly wind belt
 In Eurasia they are called Steppes
STEPPE CLIMATE
TEMPERATURE
 Climate is continental with extremes of temperature
 Summers are very warm over 18-20 0C
PRECIPITATION
 Average rainfall – 45 cm
 Maritime influence in southern hemisphere causes
more rainfall
 Chinook – local winds in Steppe region

NATURAL VEGETAION ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

 Grasses – they are treeless; Grasses are nutritious  Nomadic herding in Asian Steppes
 Trees – conifers  Extensive mechanised wheat cultivation
 Does not have animal diversity. Horses are  Pastoral farming
common in Asian Steppes
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MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE OR WARM TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN CLIMATE

DISTRIBUTION
 Entirely confined to western portion of continents (30 – 45 0)N&S of equator
MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE
TEMPERATURE LOCAL WINDS OF MEDITERRANEAN SEA
 Clear skies and high temperatures; hot, dry  Sirocco – hot, dry dusty winds which originates in
summers and cool, wet winters Sahara desert
 Mean annual temperature ranges from 35-90 cm  Mistral – Mistral is a cold wind from the north
 Climate is not extreme because of cooling from rushing down the Rhone valley in violent gusts
water bodies NATURAL VEGETAION
 A dry summer with off-shore trades  Trees – never very tall, small broad leaves
PRECIPITATION  Absence of shade is a distinctive feature
 Rainfall in winter with on-shore Westerlies  Xerophytic (drought tolerant)
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
 Orchard farming
 Sheep rearing
 Wine production
 Net exporter of citric fruits

WARM TEMPERATE EASTERN MARGIN CLIMATE

THREE VARIANTS AND DISTRIBUTION
 China Type – Temperate Monsoon – China and southern parts of Japan
 Gulf type – Slight monsoonal - South-eastern USA bordering Gulf of Mexico
 Natal type – Non - monsoonalNew South Wales (Australia), Natal (South Africa), Parana-Paraguay-Uruguay
basin (South America)
CLIMATE
TEMPERATURE
 Warm moist summer and a cool, dry winter (exception
– winters are also moist in Natal type)
 Mean Monthly temperature – 40C to 250C – strongly
modified by maritime influence
PRECIPITATION
 Rainfall range from 60 cm – 150 cm
 Adequate rainfall for all agricultural purposes
 Uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year
 Vyasa IAS

NATURAL VEGETAION ECONOMY

 Luxuriant vegetation  Agriculture in Gulf States
 Hardwood and softwoods  Farming in monsoon China
 Best for growing cotton
BRITISH TYPE CLIMATE OR COOL TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN CLIMATE
WHAT
 Under the influence of Westerlies all-round the  These are regions of frontal cyclonic activity
year (temperate cyclones)
DISTRIBUTION
 Most pronounced in and around Britain  Southern Chile, Southern Australia, Tasmania and
 Lowlands of North-west Europe most parts of New Zealand
 Coastlands of British Columbia
BRITISH TYPE CLIMATE
TEMPERATURE NATURAL VEGETAION
 Moderately mild summers and fairly mild winters  Deciduous forest - Trees shed their leaves in cold
 Mean annual temperature – 50C to 150C season
 Winters are abnormally mild  Oak, elm, ash, birch, beech and poplar
PRECIPITATION ECONOMY
 Rainfall occurs throughout the year with winter  Lumbering is quite profitable
maxima  Industrialisation
 Western margin have heaviest rainfall due to  Agriculture
Westerlies  Market gardening
SEASONS  Mixed farming
 4 distinct seasons  Dairying
 Winter, Dry spring, long sunny summer and  Beef cattle
Autumn  Sheep rearing
 Other agricultural activities
 Beet Sugar
TAIGA CLIMARE OR BOREAL CLIMATE
DISTRIBUTION
 Found only in northern hemisphere  Absent in Southern Hemisphere because of
 In regions just below Arctic Circle narrowness of southern continents in high latitude
 Stretches along belt of Central Canada, and strong oceanic influence reducing severity of
Scandinavian Europe, Central and Southern Russia winter
(500 to 700N)
TAIGA CLIMATE

TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS OF CONIFEROUS FORESTS

 Summers are brief and ward (200-250C)  Forests are of moderate density.
 Winters are long and brutally cold (30-40 0C below  Almost all conifers are evergreen
freezing point)  Leaves are small, thick to check excessive
PRECIPITATION transpiration.
 Maritime influence in interiors is absent  Soils of coniferous forests are poor
 Annual precipitation – 38cm – 63cm ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
NATURAL VEGETAION  Lumbering – most important occupation
 Evergreen coniferous forests  Agriculture most unlikely as few crops can survive
 Conifers require little moisture  Trapping of fur-bearing animals
 Vyasa IAS

LAURENTIAN CLIMATEOR COOL TEMPERATE EASTERN MARINE CLIMATE

WHAT
 Lowest Intermediate between British type and  Features of both maritime and continental
Taiga type of climate climates

DISTRIBUTION
 Found only in two regions – North American region (Eastern Canada, North-east USA and Newfoundland) and
Asiatic region (Siberia, North China, Manchuria, Korea and Northern Japan)
 Absent in Southern India because only small section of continent extends beyond 400S latitude – they aer
subjected to aridity rather than continentiality
LAURENTIAN CLIMATE
TEMPERATURE NATURAL VEGETAION
 Cold, dry winters and warm, wet summers  Cool temperate forest
 Snow fall is natural  Coniferous north of 500N latitude
 Summers are as warm as tropics ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
PRECIPITATION  Lumbering and associated timber industries
 Annual rainfall ranges from 75 to 150 cm  Dairy Farming in North America
 2/3rd of rainfall occurs in summer  Fishing in Newfoundland, Japan (continental
shelves around Japan are rich in plankton)
TUNDRA CLIMATE/POLAR CLIMATE/ARCTIC CLIMATE
DISTRIBUTION
 North of Arctic circle and South of Antarctic circle
 Antarctica – greatest single stretch of ice-cap
 Greenland, Canada, Alaska and Arctic seaboard of Eurasia
TUNDRA CLIMATE

TEMPERATURE  Mammals live in tundra region

 Low mean annual temperature – as low as 40-  Penguins live only in Antarctic regions
500C below freezing HUMAN ACTIVITEIS
 Frost occurs at any time  Confined to coast
 Summers are relatively warmer  Semi-nomadic life
PRECIPITATION  Live in compact igloos
 Snow and sleet mainly RECENT DEVELOPMENT – ARCTIC REGION
 Convectional rainfall generally absent  New settlements due to new mineral discovery
NATURAL VEGETATION  Gold mining
 No trees in tundra  Rich deposits of iron ore helped Sweden enjoy
 Lowest form of vegetation like mosses. prosperous export trade
 In summer, Arctic flowers blossom
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4. OCEANOGRAPHY

CHAPTER CHAPTER NAME PAGE

NUMBER NUMBER
1 OCEANS AND SEAS 55
2 OCEAN RELIEF 56
3 OCEAN MOVEMENTS 57
4 CORAL REEFS 59
5 TEMPERATURE 61
DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS
6 OCEAN SALINITY 62
7 MISCELLANEOUS 62
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Marginal sea is a sea

partially enclosed by
islands, archipelagos or
peninsula
For e.g. Adriatic sea and
Aegean sea are marginal
seas of Mediterranean
sea

OCEANS
PACIFIC OCEAN
 Largest and deepest oceans – covers 1/3rd of earth’s surface
 North and Central Pacific – Maximum depth; number of deep trenches and islands
 West and SW Pacific – Average depth of 4000 kms; Mariana Trench located here
 South East Pacific – Absence of Marginal seas; Tonga and Atacama trenches are prominent.
 Marginal seas are Bering Sea, Coral Sea, South China Sea, Sea of Japan etc.
ATLANTIC OCEAN
 Second largest ocean – roughly half the size of Pacific Ocean
 Prominent continental shelf with varying widths
 Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a remarkable feature of Atlantic Ocean
 Seamounts and Guyots present in significant number, but not as significant as Pacific Ocean
 Lacks significant trough and trenches, which are characteristic of Pacific ocean
 Marginal seas are North Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Norwegian Sea etc.
INDIAN OCEAN
 Third largest Ocean  Linear deeps are almost absent
 Submarine ridges includes – Seychelles Ridge,  Marginal seas include Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea,
Carlsberg Ridge etc. Andaman Sea etc.
 Most islands are Pacific Ocean  Straits are important trade routes – Strait of
 Narrow Pacific Ocean Malacca, Palk Strait etc
ARCTIC OCEAN
 Barents Sea and the Irish Sea are the Marginal seas of Arctic Ocean

Bay is a small body of water set off from a larger body generally where the land curves inward e.g. Hudson Bay
A Gulf is a large body of water with a narrower mouth, which is almost completely surrounded by land
Strait is a narrow passageway of water between continents or islands or between two larger bodies of water
Isthmus is the narrow strip of land connecting two large land masses

OCEANIC DEPOSITS
TERRIGENOUS  These are derived from the wear and tear of land and volcanic and organic products
DEPOSITS  Terrigenous deposits may be categorised into three classes—mud, sand and gravel
PALEGIC  Pelagic deposits are the most conspicuous of all deposits—covering about 75% of the
DEPOSTS total sea floor.
 This is because, except for fine volcanic ash, little terrigenous material is carried into the
deeps. The pelagic deposits consist of both organic (e.g. calcium carbonate) and
inorganic material (Silicon and Aluminium oxide)
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MAJOR OCEAN RELIEF FEATURES

CONTINENTAL  It is the gently sloping seaward extension  Average width of 70-80 kms (Siberian Shelf
SHELF of continental plate – 1500 km width – largest)
(e.g. Great  Covers 7.5% of total ocean area  Depth – as shallow as 30 mts in some areas
banks around  The shelf is formed mainly due to and as deep as 600 mts in some areas.
Newfoundland) o submergence of a part of a continent  Importance:
o relative rise in sea level o Source of marine food
o Sedimentary deposits by rivers o Richest fishing grounds
 Gradient is of 10 or even less o 20% of world production of petroleum
 Various types are glaciated shelf, coral reef  The shelf typically ends at a very steep
shelf etc. slope, called the shelf break.
CONTINENTAL  Connects continental shelf and ocean basins  Depth varied between 200-3000mts
SLOPE  Gradient varies between 20 to 50  Indicates the end of the continents
CONTINENTAL  Seaward edge of the continental slope loses  When the slope reaches a level of between
RISE gradient and gives rise to continental rise. 0.5° and 1°, it is called the continental rise.
ABYSSAL /DEEP  Gently sloping areas of ocean basins  Covered with sediments like clay and silt
SEA PLAINS  Flattest and smoothest regions of world  Covers nearly 40% of ocean floor
MINOR OCEAN RELIEF FEATURES
OCEAN DEEP/  Steep sided, narrow basins (depressions)  Mariana Trench in P. Ocean is the deepest.
TRENCHES  3-5 kms deeper than ocean floor  Related with active volcanoes, earthquakes.
MID OCEANIC  Two chains of mountains separated by a  Tectonic origin and provide evidence for
RIDGES divergent boundary Plate tectonics
 Runs for length of 75000 kms and has peaks  Iceland – part of mid Atlantic Ridge – is an
of 2500 mts. example
OTHERS  Seamount – mountain with pointed summits; does not reach surface of ocean.
 Guyots – Flat topped mountains (seamounts); Common in Pacific Ocean
 Submarine canyon – deep gorge with a river flowing through it. E.g. Hudson Canyon
 Atoll – low islands in tropical oceans with coral reef surrounding central depression
 Bank – Flat topped elevation located in continental margins
 Shoal – detached elevation with shallow depths
 Reefs – organic deposits made by living or dead organisms. Largest reef found in Queensland
coast of Australia
Significance of study of Oceanic relief – Understand motion of sea water, study variation due to oceanic movements
and understands the influence of ocean relief on navigation and fishing.
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 Movements occur in oceans – waves, tides and current

 Waves are formed due to friction between wind and surface water layer
OCEAN CURRENTS
FACTORS
TYPES OF OCEAN CURRENTS
INFLUENCING  Based on depth
OCEAN CURRENTS o Surface currents – upper 400 mts – 10% of all water
o Deep water currents - - 90% of ocean water
PRIMARY FORCE SECONDARY FORCES  Based on temperature
 Solar energy  Temperature o Cold Currents – bring cold water into warm areas
 Wind differences o Warm Currents – bring warm water into cold areas.
 Gravity  Salinity
 Coriolis Force – differences GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF OCEAN CURRENTS
causes water  General movement of currents in northern hemisphere is
to move right clockwise and in southern hemisphere, anti-clockwise
in Northern Influence of  Warm water move towards cold seas and cold water
hemisphere ocean currents in towards warm seas
and left in desert formation  Shape and position of coast play important role in
Southern getting direction of currents
hemisphere
EFFECT OF OCEAN CURRENTS
 Desert formation in west coast region of tropical and
subtropical regions
 Bring rain to coastal areas and even interiors
 Moderate temperature at coasts
 Mixing of warm and cold water – richest fishing grounds
 Warm and rainy climates in tropical/subtropical regions
 Warm current helps in piling up of warm water in tropics
- major force in tropical cyclones
 Helps in Navigation
PACIFIC OCEAN CURRENTS
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ATLANTIC OCEAN CURRENTS

INDIAN OCEAN CURRENTS

TIDES

Tides- periodic rise and fall of sea level mainly due to attraction of the sun and moon- once or twice a day)

The tide generating force is the difference between the gravitational attraction of moon and the centrifugal force
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Tidal currents – When the tide is channelled between islands or into bays and estuaries they are called tidal currents
TYPES OF TIDES
Tides based on frequency Tides based Sun, Moon and Earth positions
 Semi-diurnal tide – two high tide and two low  Spring Tides – Sun, moon and earth in straight
tide each day (successive tides have same line – higher tides – occurs twice a month (on full
height) and new moon)
 Diurnal tide – one high tide and one low tide  Neap tide – Sun and moon are at right angles –
each day (successive tides have same height) Seven day interval between spring tide and neap
 Mixed tide – Tides have variations in heights tide – occurs twice a month
MAGNITUDE OF TIDES
Based on Perigee and Apogee of Moon Based on perihelion and Aphelion of Earth
 Perigee – Moon’s orbit closet to earth –  Earth closest to Sun – perihelion – tidal ranges
unusually high and low tides greater with unusually high and low tide (3rd
 Apogee – Moon farthest from earth – tidal January)
ranges are less than average height  Earth farthest from Sun – aphelion – tidal
ranges less than average (4th July)
IMPORTANCE OF TIDES

 Navigation – Kolkata and London are tidal ports

 High tides help in fishing
 Help in De-silting sediments
 Generate electrical power

TIDAL BORE

WHAT??  Coral reefs are built by and made up of thousands of tiny animals—coral “polyps”—that are
related to anemones and jellyfish.
 Corals and Zooxanthellae live in symbiotic relationships. They assist the coral in nutrient
production. Corals provides zooxanthellae with a protected environment
RELIEF FEATURES
Fringing reefs – grow directly from shore
and located very close to land e.g. reefs of
Florids
Barrier reefs – extensive linear reef
complexes that parallel a shore, and are
separated from it by lagoon.
Atoll - roughly circular (annular) oceanic reef
system surrounding a large (and often deep)
central lagoon.
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DEVELOPMENT
OF MAJOR
CORAL REEFS

IDEAL  Stable climatic conditions  Clear Salt water

CONDITIONS  Tropical waters (300N-300Slatitudes)  Abundant Plankton
FOR CORAL  Water temperature – 200C  Little or no pollution
GROWTH  Shallow water
DISTRIBUTION
OF CORAL REEFS
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VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

FACTORS AFFECTING
TEMPERATURE
DISTRIBUTION
 Insolation
 Heat loss
 Albedo
 Physical
characteristics of
sea surface
 Shape of ocean
 Enclosed seas
record higher
temperature
 Local Weather
Conditions
 Unequal
distribution of land THERMOCLINE – Rapid decrease in temperature with increasing depth
and water
 Prevalent winds
 Ocean currents
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE
 Temperature decreases from equator to poles
 Distribution shown by isothermal lines i.e. lines joining places
of equal temperature
GENERAL BEHAVIOUR
 Arctic and Antarctic Circle -  For example in February – isothermal lines are closely spaced
Only layer of cold water exists towards the west cost of Europe, because warm gulf stream
 Equatorial Regions – Surface proceeds through the west coast of Europe.
water lower temperature due RANGE OF OCEAN TEMPERATURE
to heavy rainfall; layers below  Highest temperature in surface water at 2 p.m.
have higher temperature  Lowest temperature in surface water, at 5 a.m.
 The enclosed seas in both the  North Pacific and North Atlantic have greater range of
lower and higher latitudes temperature than Southern counterpart
record higher temperatures at  The 11 year sun-spot cycle causes the sea temperature to
the bottom. rise after a 11 year cycle.
 The enclosed seas of low
latitudes like the Sargasso
Sea, the Red Sea and the Why warm water cold water convergence are productive
Mediterranean Sea have high fishing grounds??
bottom temperatures due to The mixing brings the nutrient rich deep waters up to the
high insolation sunlight zone where the phytoplankton can grow. This leads
 In the case of the high to significant fish population.
latitude enclosed seas, the
bottom layers of water are
warmer
 The presence of submarine
barriers may lead to different
temperature conditions on the
two sides of the barrier. For
example, at the Strait of Bab-
el-Mandeb.
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DEFINITION  Ocean salinity is the term used to define the total content of dissolved salts in sea water
 Salinity of 24.7 o/oo has been considered as the upper limit to demarcate brackish water
FACTORS  Evaporation and Precipitation  Wind – transfers water
AFFECTING  Fresh water flow  Ocean Currents
HORIZONTAL  Normal open ranges – b/w 33 and 37  Arabian Sea – high salinity due to
DISTRIBUTION  High Salinity high evaporation
OF SALINITY  Red sea (> 41)  North Sea – high salinity(due to North
 Hot and dry regions (70) Atlantic drift)
 Comparatively low Salinity  Baltic Sea - low salinity(influx of waters)
 Estuaries and Arctic (0-35)  Mediterranean Sea – High salinity due to
 Pacific Ocean – high salinity variation due high evaporation
to shape and large areal extent  Black sea – low salinity (influx of rivers)
 Atlantic Ocean – average salinity of 36-37
 Indian Ocean – average salinity of 35
 Bay of Bengal – low salinity due to
influx of Ganga

VERTICAL  In high latitudes salinity increase with  Salinity changes with depth
DISTRIBUTION depth  Salinity at surface increases by loss of water
OF SALINITY  In middle latitudes it increases up to 35 or decrease by influx of water
metres and then decrease  Salinity at depth more or less fixed
At equator surface salinity is lower  Halocline – Salinity increase sharply

ROLE OF SALINITY

Marine resources are those found in ocean waters -  Internal waters cover all water and
includes mineral resources and energy resources from waterways on the landward side of the
waves, tides and temperature. baseline.
Sea level Changes means the fluctuations in the mean  Coastal states exercise sovereignty over their
sea level. Rise in sea level leads to submergence of passing through waters
crops, shrinkage of drainage basins, submergence of  All States have the traditional freedoms of
coastal areas etc. navigation, over flight, fishing and scientific
The UN Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is an research on the high seas.
international agreement that defines the rights and  To regulate seabed mining, there is the
responsibilities of nations where use of the oceans’ International Seabed Authority which has
waters by them is concerned. Key features are – been established by the Convention
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5. INDIAN GEOGRAPHY

CHAPTER CHAPTER NAME PAGE

NUMBER NUMBER
1 MAJOR PHYSICAL DIVISIONS 64
2 DRAINAGE PATTERNS 70
3 INDIAN MONSOON AND 77
SEASONS
4 NATURAL VEGETATION 84
5 SOIL 87
6 MISCELLANEOUS 89
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HIMALAYAN RANGES
 Series of parallel or converging ranges.  Most ranges fall in India, Nepal, Bhutan
DIVISIONS OF HIMALAYAS
SHIWALIK RANGE (OUTER HIMALAYAS) MIDDLE/LESSER HIMALAYAS (HIMACHAL)
 Location – b/w great plains and lesser Himalayas  Location – b/w Shiwaliks in South and Great
 Altitude – 600-1500 metres Himalayas in North
 Length – 2400 kms from Potwar plateau to  Altitude – 3500-4500 metres
Brahmaputra Valley  Length – 2400 km in length
 Quantum of rainfall – decreases form east to west  Range – Pir Panjal is the most important range. Bidil
 Important feature – ‘duns’ in west and ‘duars ’ in and Banihal – important passes of Pir Panjal
east – These are plains e.g. Dehra Dun-Uttarkhand  Kashmir valley – b/w Pir Panjal and Zaskar is the
most important valley
GREAT/INNER HIMALAYAS (HIMADRI) TRANS HIMALAYAS (TIBETIAL HIMALAYAS)
 Altitude – 6100 metres above sea level  Location – Immediately North of Great Himalayan
 Average width – 25 kms Range.
 Formed of Central crystalline  Altitude – 3000 metres above the mean sea level
 Folds in this ranges are asymmetrical with step south  Main ranges– Zaskar, Ladakh, Kailas and Karakoram
slope and gentle north slope  Length – 1000 kms from east-west direction
 Some important passes are Burzil pass, Zoji la,  Important Peaks – K2 (8611 metres)
Thanga La, Lipu Lekh and Nathu La.  Nanga Parbhat – Important range in Zaskar Range

PURVANCHAL/EASTERN HILLS REGIONAL DIVISIONS OF HIMALAYAS

 Location – Southward extension of Himalayas  Punjab Himalayas – b/w Indus and Sutlej rivers
running along North-Eastern edge of India  Assam Himalayas – Spread over Sikkhim, Assam and
 At the Dihang Range – Himalayas took a sudden Arunachal Pradesh
southward bend  Western Himalayas – b/w Indus in the west and Kali
 Main hills–Patkai bum, Naga hills, Manipur hills, river in the east
Mizo hills / Lushai hills  Central Himalayas – b/w Kali in the west and Teesta
 Highest Point – Blue mountain in South in the East
 Eastern Himalayas – b/w Teesta in the west and
Brahmaputra in the east

IMPORTANT VALLEYS IN HIMALAYAS
 Valley of Kashmir and the
KAREWAS
Karewas
 Lacustrine deposits in the valley of Kashmir
 Kangra and the Kulu valley in  Due to endogenic forces Baramullah gorge was created and the lake was
Himachal Pradesh drained through this gorge. The deposits left are called as karewas.
 Dun Valley in Uttarkhand  Used in cultivation of saffron, Walnut, apple and orchards
 Kathmandu Valley in Nepal

SNOW AND GLACIERS IN HIMALAYAS

 In Eastern Himalayas and Kumaon Himalays the snowline is around 3,500 m above sea level whereas in western
Himalays snowline is about 2,500 m above sea level.
 Important Glaciers are – Siachen, Fedchenko, Sonapani, Zemu, and Kanchenjunga
SIGNIFICANCE OF HIMALAYAS
 Influence on Indian Climate  Hydro-electricity  Tourism
 Defense  Forest Wealth  Mineral Resources
 Source of Rivers  Agriculture
MAIN PASSES OF HIMALAYAS
 Banihal Pass – Connects Jammu and Srinagar  Bara lacha la – connects Himachal Pradesh and
 Khardung La – near Leh in Ladakh Range Kashmir
 Pir-Panjal Pass – across the Pir Panjal range  Rhotang Pass – link between Kulu and Lahul &
Spiti Valleys
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 Lipu lekh – trijunction of Uttarkhand, Tibet and  Bomdi-La – connects Arunachal Pradesh with
Nepal borders Bhutan
 Nathu La – connects Sikkhim with Tibet
INDO-GANGETIC BRAHMAPUTRA PLAIN
FORMATION OF THE PLAIN

Northern movement of India Plate created trough to the south of Himalayas

Rejuvenation by existing rivers and further erosion leads to deposition of conglomerates in the trough

Raising of Himalayas and subsequent formation of glaciers supplied more alluvium and the depression gets
completely filled – thus the plains formed

During recent times depositional work of three major rivers – Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra become predominant
– hence the name Indo-Gangetic Brahmaputra Plain
FEATURES OF THE PLAIN
 Largest alluvial tract of the world  Average elevation – 200 metres above sea level
 Stretches 3200 kms  Extreme horizontality of monotonous plain
 Indian sector of the plain accounts for 2400 km  Maximum depth of alluvium is about 6100 metres
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE PLAIN
 Bhabar  Bhangar
o Narrow, porous and northern most stretch of o Older alluvium along the river bed forming
the plain terraces higher than the flood plain
o Running in east-west direction along the o Bhangar contains fossils of animals like
foothills of the Shiwaliks (8-16 km wide) rhinoceros, elephants etc
o The belt is comparatively narrow in the east  Khadar
and extensive in the west o Newer alluvium and form flood plains along
 Terai river banks
o Ill drained, damp (marshy), and thickly o Most fertile soil of Ganges
forested narrow tract  Reh/Kollar
o About 15-30 km wide o Comprises saline efflorescences
o Terai is more marked in the eastern part o Spread in recent times with increase in
than in the west irrigation
REGIONAL DIVISIONS OF GREAT PLAIN
 Sindh Plain-formed of Bhangar Plains  Ganga Plain- largest unit of great plain
 Rajasthan Plain-Great Indian Desert  Brahmaputra Plain-Assam valley or Assam Plain
 Punjab Plain-5 rivers of Indus Systen  Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain-larges delta in world
REGIONAL DIVISIONS OF GREAT PLAIN
 Rohilkhand Plains  Mithila Plains
 Avadh Plains  Magadh Plains
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PLAIN
 Hosts half of Indian population  Close network of roads and railways
 Fertile alluvial soils  Cultural tourism
 Granary of India
PENINSULAR PLATEAU
FEATURES OF PENINSULAR PLATEAU
 Roughly triangular in shape  Average weight – 600-900 metres
 Base coincides with the southern edge of the  Most rivers flow from west to east (Narmada –
great plain of North India. Tapti is an exception)
 Apex of the triangular plateau is Kanniyakumari  Composed of Archaean gneisses and schists
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MINOR PLATEAUS OF PENINSULAR PLATEAU

MARWAR/MEWAR PLATEAU
 Plateau of eastern Rajasthan.
 Average elevation 250-500 metres
 Banas river starts from Aravalli Range and
flow toward north west into Chambal river
CENTRAL HIGHLAND
 East of Marwar uplands
 To the north are the ravines or badlands of
the Chambal river
BUNDELKHAND UPLAND
 Spreads over Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh
 Comprises of granite and gneiss
 Average 300-600 metres
MALWA PLATEAU
 Triangle based on Vindhyan hills, bounded by
Aravali range in west, Bundelkhand to the
east
 Composed of extensive lava flow and is
covered with black flows
BAGHELKHAND
 North of Maikal Range
 Made of limestones and sandstones on the west and DECCAN PLATEAU
granite in the east  Triangular in shape
 The region is uneven with general elevation varying  Average elevation is 600 metres
from 150 m to 1,200 m.  General slope is from west to east – indicated
CHOTANAGPUR PLATEAU by flow of major rivers
 Represents the North East projection of Indian Peninsula  Rivers have further sub divided this plateau
 Plateau composed mainly of Gondwana rocks into a number of smaller plateaus
 Rajmahal hills form the north eastern edge of
Chotanagpur plateau
 Rivers like Damodar, Subarnareka, South koel developed MAHARASTRA PLATEAU
drainage basins  In Maharashtra
 They run in North-South direction and rise to average  Forms the northern part of Deccan Plateau
elevation of400 metres. These hill have been dissected  They area looks like rolling plain due to
into separate plateaus weathering
MEGHALAYA PLATEAU KARNATAKA PLATEAU
 Peninsular plateau extends beyond the Rajmahal hills to  South of Maharashtra Plateau
from Meghalya or Shillong plateau  Average elevation  600-900 metres
 Garo-Rajmahal Gap separates this plateau from the  The plateau is divided into two parts –Malnad
main block and Maidan
 Shillong is the highest point of the plateau  The Plateau merges with the Niligiri hills
 Its western border more or less coincides with TELANGANA PLATEAU
Bangladesh border  Consists of Archaean gneisses
 Average elevation is 500-600 metres
SIGNIFICANCE OF PENINSULAR PLATEAU  Southern part is higher than northern
 Huge deposits of iron, manganese, copper etc counterpart
 99 percent of Gondwana coal deposits
 Cultivation of plantation
 Different types of forests
 Rivers provide opportunity for hydro-electricity and
irrigation
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HILLS OF PENINSULAR PLATEAU

Western Ghats
 Form the western edge of the Deccan table land
 Run from Tapi Valley to a little north of
Kanniyakumari
 Rise to an average elevation of 1000 metres from
the western coastal plain
 Northern section made of Deccan Traps
 Tal ghat and Bhor ghat are important passes in
the northern section
 Middle Sahyadri is covered with dense forest
 Palghat gap separates southern part of Western
Ghats from main Sahyadri range
 Anai mudi is the highest peak in the whole of
Southern India
 Konkan Coast =Moharastra Coast + Goa Coast

Eastern Ghats
 Runs almost parallel to east coast of India
 Chain of highly broken and detached hills starting
from Mahanadi to Vaigai
 Between Krishna and Godavari it is occupied by
Gondwana formations
 Southern part of this range is called the Palkonda
range
 Mahendragiri is the tallest peak her
 To the south, the hills and plateaus attain very
low altitudes

COASTLINE OF INDIA – INDIAN COASTLINE

 India has a coastline of 7516.6 Km
 As such the coast of India does not offer many sites for good natural harbours
EAST COAST OF INDIA WEST COAST OF INDIA
 Lies between Eastern Ghats and Bay of Bengal  Lies between Western Ghats and Arabian Sea
 Extends from Ganga delta to kaniyakumari  Extends form Gulf of Cambay to Cape Comorin
 Chilika lake and pulicat lake present here  Estuaries, Narmada and Tapi are the major ones
 Utkal plain, Andhra Plain, Tamil Nadu Plain  Kutch and Kathiawar plain, Gujarat plain, Konkan
plain, Karnataka plain, Kerala plain
SIGNIFICANE OF COASTAL PLAIN
 Fertile soils – Many crops can be grown
 Dotted with big and small ports
 Contain large deposits of mineral oil
 Large quantity of Monazite sand
 Fishing is an important occupation
 Kerala backwaters – tourist destinations
 Vyasa IAS

The east coast of India, especially its south-

eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast), appears to be
a coast of emergence.

The west coast of India, on the other hand, is

both emergent and submergent. The northern
portion of the coast is submerged as a result of
faulting and the southern portion, that is the
Kerala coast, is an example of an emergent
coast.
1. Coramandal coast (Tamil Nadu) ==>
Coastline of emergence
2. Malabar coast (Kerala Coast) ==>
Coastline of emergence
3. Konkan coast (Maharashtra and Goa
Coast) ==> Coastline of submergence.

INDIAN ISLANDS
Major island groups are Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands
ANDAMAN AND NOCOBAR ISLANDS
 Formed due to collision between Indian Plate and LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS
Burma minor plate  In the Arabian Sea, there are three types of
 Divided into North, Middle and South island islands.
 The Great Andaman group of islands in the north o Amindivi
is separated by the Ten Degree Channel from the o Laccadive Islands
Nicobar group in the south o Minicoy.
 Port Blair, the capital of Andaman Nicobar Islands  At present these islands are collectively known as
lies in the South Andaman. Lakshadweep.
 Among the Nicobar islands, the Great Nicobar is  The Lakshadweep Islands are a group of 25 small
the largest. It is the southernmost island and is islands.
very close to Sumatra island of Indonesia.  Most of the islands have low elevation and do not
 The Car Nicobar is the northernmost. rise more than five metre above sea level
 Saddle peak is the highest peak (Extremely Vulnerable to sea level change).
FOR NOTES
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DRAINAGE BASIN
 Include both rivers & streams as well as lands
 It acts as a funnel that collects all water within the
area covered by basin and channelling it to a single
point
DRAINAGE DIVIDE
 Adjacent drainage basins are separated from one
another by a drainage divide
 It is usually a ridge or high platform
SOME IMPORTANT DRAINAGE BASINS
RIVER BASIN WATER SHED
All water drains to larger Small area of land that
river drains to a smaller stream

DIFFERENT DRAINAGE PATTERNS

DISCORDANT DRAINAGE PATTERNS
River follows initial path irrespective of changes in
topography. Two main types – antecedent and
superimposed
ANTECEDANT OR INCONSEQUENT DRAINAGE
Cut through the newly formed landform and maintain
the same pathHimalayan rivers
SUPERIMPOSED DRAINAGE
Cut deeper through the existing landform and
maintain the same pathSome medium scale rivers
Watershed of (Yamuna+Ganga+Chambal)=Drainage
of the Northern and Eastern peninsular India
basin of Ganga
CONCORDANT DRAINAGE PATTERNS
Drainage pattern correlates to the topology and geology of the area. Path of the river is highly dependent on the
slope of the river and topography. There are many types as follows-
CONSEQUENT RIVERS SUBSEQUENT RIVERS
 Rivers which follow the general direction of slope  A tributary stream that is eroded along an
 E.g. Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery underlying belt of non-resistant rock after the main
drainage pattern (consequent) has been established
 E.g. Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa and Son
DENDRITIC PATTER TRELLIS DRAINAGE PATTERN
 Irregular tree branch shaped pattern  Short subsequent streams meet the main stream at
 E.g. Indus, Godavari right angles.
 E.g. Old folded mountains of Singhbum
 Vyasa IAS

ANGULAR DRAINAGE PATTERN RECTANGULAR DRAINGAE PATTERN

 Tributaries join main stream at acute angles  Main stream bends at right angles and the
 E.g. Himalayan foothill regions tributaries join at right angles creating rectangular
pattern
 E.g. Streams of Vindhyan Mountains

RADIAL DRAINGAGE PATTERN ANNULAR DRAINAGE PATTERN

 Tributaries from a summit follow the slope  When the upland has an outer soft stratum, the
downwards and drain down in all directions radial streams develop subsequent tributaries which
 E.g. Streams of Saurashtra region try to follow a circular drainage around the summit.
 E.g. Black hill streams of South Dakota

PARALLEL DRAINAGE PATTERN CENTRIPETAL DRAINAGE PATTERN

 Tributaries running parallel to each other in a  In a low lying basin the streams converge from all
uniformly sloping region sides
 E.g. Rivers of lesser Himalayas  E.g. Streams of Ladakh

DERANGED DRAINAGE PATTERN BARBED DRAINAGE PATTERN

 Uncoordinated pattern of drainage characteristic of  Confluence of a tributary with the main river is
a region recently vacated by an ice sheet characterised by a discordant junction
 E.g. glaciated valleys of Karakoram  E.g. Arun river – tributary of a kosi
CLASSIFICATION OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA
BASED ON ORIGIN BASED ON TYPE OF DRAINAGE
 Himalayan rivers – Perennial rivers  Himalayan rivers  Coastal rivers
 Peninsular rivers – Non-perennial rivers  Deccan rivers  Rivers of inland drainage
basin
BASED ON ORIENTATION OF THE SEA BASED ON SIZE OF CATCHMENT AREA
 Arabian Sea drainage  Major river – 20000 sq.km
 Bay of Bengal Drainage  Medium river – 20,000-20000 sq.km
 Minor river – 2000 sq.km and below
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MAJOR RIVER SYSTEM/DRAINAGE SYSTEMS OF INDIA

HIMALAYAN RIVER SYSTEMS (INDUS, GANGA AND BRAHMAPUTRA)
INDUS RIVER SYSTEM
Indus flows in NW direction upto Nanga Parbhatflows
between Ladakh and Zaskarreceives Panjnad just above
Mithankotempties into Arabian Sea south of karachi
TRIBUTARIES
 Jhelum – Origin at VerinagFlow into Wular
lakeenters gorge at Baramullsjoins Chenab at
Trimmu
 Chenab –Origin at Bara Lacha PassFlows in NW
directioncut deep gorge near KistwarJoins Sutlej
after receiving Jhelum and Ravi
 Ravi – Origin near Rhotang PassCrosses
ChambeSW turncuts gorge in Dhaola Dhar
rangedebouches into Chenab in Pakistan
 Beas – Origin near Rhotang PassCrosses Dhaola
Dhar rangeSW turn meets Sutlej at Harike wetland
 Sutlej – Origin at Mansarovar-Rakas LakeTakes NW
turn at Shipki Laenters Roparturns westward and

GANGA RIVER SYSTEM

 Originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri  Joined by Yamuna at Allahabad
glacier  At Farraka, it bifurcates into Bhagirathi-Hugli in
 Alaknanda joins Bhagirathi at Devaprayag. From West Bengal and Padma-Meghna in Bangladesh
Devaprayag the river is called as Ganga.  Brahmaputra joins Padma-Meghna at Goalundo

LEFT BANK TRIBUTARIES RIGHT BANK TRIBUTARIES

 Ramganga river -rise in Garhwal and joins Ganga at  Yamuna river – origin in Yamunotri glacier and unite
Kanauj Ganga near Triveni Sangam at Allahabd
 Ghagra river – Origin in Gurla Mandhata peak and o Chambal river – rises in Vindhyan range and
joins Ganga at Bihar joins Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh. Banas is a
o Kali river - Rises in high glaciers of trans- tributary of Chambal
himalayas and joins the Ghaghra o Sind – Originates in Vidisha Plateau and
 Gandak river –Origin near Tibet-Nepal border and joins Yamuna
flows into Ganga in Hajipur (Bihar) o Betwa – Rise in Bhopal district and joins
yamuna
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 Burhi Gandak river –Origin in Sumesar hills of India- o Ken – Rise from Barner rane and joins
Nepal Border and joins Ganga near Mongyr town Yamuna
 Kosi river – has seven streams – they unite at Triveni  Son – Rise in Amarkantak Plateau and joins Ganga
to form Kosi join Ganga near Kursels – called the in Bihar
Sorrow of BIhar  Damodar – Rise in Chotanagpur plateau and joins
the Hugli river
BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM
 Source – Chemayungdung glacierpasses through depression in Tibetabruptly takes a southward turn around
Namcha BarwaCut across eastern Himalaya through Dihang GorgeIn Assam it is joined by Dibang and
LohitTista joins Brahmaputrajoins Ganga at Goalundojoined by Meghna and drains into Bay of Bengal.
 Brahmaputra has braided channels and excessive meandering
 Majuli is the most important island formed by the river

PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEM

 Rivers that drain into Bay of Bengal - Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and other smaller rivers
 Rivers that drain into Arabian Sea – Narmada, Tapi, Mahi and several smaller streams

EAST FLOWING RIVERS (DRAINS INTO BAY OF BENGAL)

MAHANADI RIVER GODAVARI RIVER
 Source – Northern foot hills of Dandakaranya  Source – Trimbakeshwar in Nasik district of
(Chattisgarh) Maharashtra
 States - Majorly Chattisgarh and Odisha  States – b, Andhra Pradesh, Chattisgarh and Odisha
 Length – 900 kms  Length – 1465 kms
 Tributaries –  Tributaries –
o Left Bank – Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand, Ib o Left Bank – More in number and larger in size –
o Right Bank – Ong, Tel, Jonk Penganga, Weinganga, Wardha, Pranahita,
 Importance – Pench,Indravati.
o Chilika Lake – forms part of the basin o Right Bank – Manjra is the only important right
o Ranks second in flood production capacity of bank tributary. Others are Pravara, Peddaagu,
peninsular rivers after Godavari Maner etc.
o Mahanadi delta project completed  Importance –
o Urban centres and industries present in the basin o Largest river system of Peninsular India – called
Dakshin Ganga
o Deccan traps contains minerals like magnetite,
Chlorite
o Rocks of Gondwana group found here
o Major urban centres and industries in the basin
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KRISHNA RIVER CAUVERY RIVER

 Source – Western Ghats near Jor village of  Source – Talacauvery on Brahmagiri range of
Maharashtra Kodagu district of Karnataka
 States – Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and  States – Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and
Karnataka Puducherry
 Length – 1400 kms  Length – 800 kms
 Tributaries –  Tributaries –
o Left Bank – Bhima, Musi and Munneru o Left Bank – Harangi, Hemavati, Shimsha,
o Right Bank – Ghatprabha,Malprabha, Arkavati
Tungabhadra o Right Bank – Amaravati, Bhavani, Suvarnavati,
 Importance – Kabbani, Noyil, Lakshmantirtha
o Second largest flowing river in Peninsula  Importance –
o Major hydro power stations in Koyna, Sri sailam, o Red soils occupy large areas in the basin
Nagarjuna Sagar o Almost a perennial river as it receives rainfall
o Major Urban centres – Pune and Hyderabad from SW as well as NE monsoon
o Cotton textile industry in Coimbatore
o Salem Steel plant

PENNAR RIVER (UTTARA PINAKINI) SUBARNAREKHA RIVER

 Source – Chenna kesava hills of Nandidurg range in  Source – Originates in Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand
Karnataka  Length – 395 kms
 States – Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka  Importance –
 Length – 597 kms o Forms an estuary between Mahandi and Ganga
 Tributaries – delta.
o Left Bank –Jayamangeli, Kunderu, Sagileru
o Right Bank –Chiravati, Papagni, Cheyyaru
 Importance –
o Nellore – only important town
o Somasila project in Pennar basin
o No major industries
BRAHAMANI RIVER OTHER RIVERS
 States – Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and Odisha  Sarada River  Vaigai river
 Length – 800 kms  Ponnaiyar River
WEST FLOWING RIVERS
 Fewer and smaller compared to east flowing rivers  Narmada and Tapi are important rivers
 Drains into Arabian Sea  These rivers didn’t form valleys, instead they flow
through faults
NARMADA RIVER TAPI RIVER
 Source – Amarkantak range  Source – Originates near Multai reserve forest in
 States – Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh
Chattisgarh  States – Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat
 Length – 1310 kms  Length – 724 kms
 Tributaries – Does not have much tributaries  Tributaries –
especially in the right bank o Left Bank – Vaghur, Amravati , Bori, GIrna
o Left Bank – drain into northern slopes of Satpura o Right Bank – Suki, Gomai, Arunavati
Range and join Narmada at different places.  Importance –
o Right Bank – Hiran, Orsang, Barna and Kolar o Textile factories in Surat
 Importance –
o Jabalpur – important urban centre
o Major hydro power project –Indira Sagar,
Sarovar
SABARMATI RIVER MAHI RIVER
 Source – Aravali hills in Rajasthan  Source – Originate in Northern Slopes of Vindhyan
 States – Rajasthan and Gujarat range in Madhya Pradesh
 Length – 372 kms  States – Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat
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 Tributaries –  Length – 583 kms

o Left Bank –Wakal, Hathmati, Vatrak  Importance –
o Right Bank – Sei o One of the major interstate west flowing rivers
 Importance – o Vadodara is the only important urban centre
o Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad are important o Some industries are cotton textile and paper
urban centres
o Important industries are textile and leather
industries
LUNI RIVER WEST FLOWING RIVERS IN WESTERN GHATS
(SAHYADRIS)
 Source – Originate in Western Slopes of Aravali
Range
 States – Western Rajasthan
 Tributaries –
o Most of the tributaries drain the steep north
west of Aravali hills and join it on left side
 Importance –
o The peculiarity of this river is that it tends to
increase its width rather than deepening the
bed because the banks are of soils, which are
easily erodible whereas beds are of sand.
o The floods develop and disappear so rapidly
that they have no time to scour the bed.
USABILITY OF RIVERS
 Source of fresh water, irrigation and hydro-electric production
 Most important navigable rivers are Ganga, Brahmaputra and the Mahandi.
GHAGGAR RIVER – INLAND DRAINAGE
 Some rivers of India are not able to reach the sea and constitute inland drainage.
 Large parts of the Rajasthan desert and parts of Aksai Chin in Ladakh have inland drainage.
 The Ghaggar is the most important river of inland drainage.
 It gets lost in the dry sands of Rajasthan near Hanumangarh after traversing a distance of 465 km
ESTUARY
 An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water  Primary productivity is very high
along the coast where freshwater from rivers and  Most of the estuaries are good bird sanctuaries
streams meets and mixes with salt water from the  Salt marsh grasses and other estuarine plants
ocean. also help prevent erosion and stabilize shorelines
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INDIAN MONSSON –CLASSICAL THEORY: SIR EDMUND HALLEY

 SummerSun over Tropic of CancerHigh temperature and Low pressure in
MONSOON Central AsiaAir flow from sea to land (monsoon)
 Monsoons are  WinterSun over Tropic of CapricornNorth western part of India grow
seasonal winds colder and high pressureAir flow from land to sea (monsoon reversal)
which reverse their  But the drawback is that it fails to explain intricacies of monsoon such as
direction with the sudden burst of monsoon, delay in set of monsoon sometimes etc.
change of seas
 India receives
south-west
monsoon winds in INDIAN MONSSON – MODERN THEORY: AIR MASS
summer and north- THEORY
east monsoon  The theory is based on migration of Inter-Tropical
winds in winter. Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
 According to this theory, the monsoon is simply a
modification of the planetary winds of the tropics.
 ITCZ – Meeting place of SE trade winds in Southern
Hemisphere and Ne trade winds in Northern
Hemisphere
 SummerSun over Tropic of CancerITCZ move
northwards
 South east trade winds crosses equator and this
displaced trade winds is called the South West
Monsoon over Indian sub-continent
 July - ITCZ shifts to 20°- 25° N latitude. The ITCZ in
this position is often called the Monsoon Trough
[maximum rainfall].

INDIAN MONSSON – JET STREAM THEORY

 Latest theory regarding origin of monsoons has
wider acceptance
 Jet stream have distinct peaks (ridges) and troughs.
 Trough region of Jet stream create cyclonic
circulation and (low pressure) and the ridge of jet
stream creates anti-cyclonic circulation
 Troughs create upper level divergence, associated
with convergence at surface (low pressure –cyclonic
conditions)
 Ridges create upper level convergence, associated
with divergence at surface(high pressure-anti-
cyclonic condition)
 Due to Coriolis effect cyclonic rotation is created
 Coriolis effect also creates anti cyclonic rotation
that is associated with clear weather.
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INDIAN MONSSON – ROLE OF SUB TROPICAL JET STREAM (SJT)

Sub-tropical Jet Stream – narrow band of fast moving air from west to east (blow b/w 25-300N in N. Hemisphere).
The burst of monsson depends on upper air circulation dominated by the SJT
DURING WINTER
 SJT bifurcatedNorthern branch along northern o Followed by cold waves in the whole of
edge of Tibetan Plateau and Southern branch Northern India
along south of Himalayas.  No South-West Monsoon during winter because-
 The impacts are as follows- o ITCZ has left India
o Upper jet responsible for steering the o Ridge of jet lies over NW and is associated
Western Disturbance with strong divergencehigh pressure
o Winter rain and heat storms in NW plains and o High pressure over Tibet
snowfall in hilly region by this disturbance
DURING SUMMER
 SJT move northwardsSouthern branch of SJT  No South-West Monsoon in March(Summer)-
gets weakenedITCZ (equatorial trough) pushes o Position of the upper air jet stream is
northwardsEnd of May : Southern jet breaks maintained above the surface low pressure
and diverted to north of TibetSudden burst of (to the south of Himalayas)dynamic anti-
monsoonUpper air circulation reversed with cyclonic conditions persist over NW India
emergence of easterly jet stream (become o The winds descending from the upper air high
powerful and stationed at 150N latitude)more pressure [because of the trough of STJ]
active SW monsoon and heavy rainfall obstructs the ascent of winds from the surface
low pressure areas, with the result that the
weather remains warm and dry.
INDIAN MONSOON-ROLE OF LOW LEVEL JETS
 Low level jets are high velocity winds in the lower troposphere. In tropic the most prominent ones are
o Tropical Easterly Jet (African Easterly Jet) o Somali Jet
INDIAN MONSSON – ROLE OF TROPICAL EASTERLY JET (TEJ) [AFRICAN EASTERLY JET]
JET is an unique and dominant feature of northern hemispheric summer over S. Asia and N. Africa (b/w 50 and 200N)
 TEJ comes into existence after STJ has shifted to north of Himalayas (early June)
 Formation of TEJ results in reversal of upper air circulation(High pressure shifted to low pressure) and leads to
quick onset of monsoons
 The easterly jet does not come into existence if the snow over the Tibet Plateau does not melt. This hampers
the occurrence of rainfall in India.
INDIAN MONSSON – ROLE OF SOMALI JET
 Somali Jet transits Kenya, Somalia and Sahel. It flows from Mauritius and the northern part of the island of
Madagascar before reaching the coast of Kenya at about 3º S
 It strengthens permanent high over Madagascar and help drive SW winds over India
 The peculiar feature of Somali Current is reversal in direction with the onset of the summer monsoon.
o In winter, this current is from north to the south running southwards from the coast of Arabia to the east
African coastline;
o With the advent of the summer monsoon it reverses its direction and flows from the south to the north.

Role of Jet stream in

Indian Monsson

JET STREAM THEORY + ROLE OF SUB TROPICAL JET STREAM +ROLE

OF LOW LEVEL JETS
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INDIAN MONSOON-ROLE OF INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE (IOD)

The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) – Difference in sea surface temperature between two areas –Arabian Sea (western
Indian Ocean) and eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia

POSITIVE IOD NEGATIVE IOD

Winds blow from east Winds blow from west
(Bay of Bengal) to west to east (reversal)
(Arabian Sea)
Arabian Sea becomes Indonesia become
warmer and East much warmer and
Indian ocean around rainer
Indonesia become
colder and dry
Good for Indian Bad for Indian
Monsoon as more Monsson
evaporation occurs in
warm water

WESTERN DISTURBANCE
Western disturbances are temperate storms (remnants of temperate cyclones)
IMPACTS OF WESTERN DISTURBANCE
 Impacts of Western disturbances-
o Causes precipitation leading to abrupt decrease in air temperature over NW India
o Weather becomes clear after the Western disturbances passes away
o Brings heavy snowfall in Himalayan region
o Gives occasional rainfallbeneficial for rabi crops.

WHAT TYPE OF CLIMATE DOES INDIA HAVE??

 Closely resembles tropical country, although northern part situated in temperate belt
 Himalayas block cold air masses from Central Asia
 Northern Indian plains are under the influence of hot dry winds (loo)
 Tropical monsoon type (a distinct wet and dry climate) rather than just a tropical or half temperate climate

FEATURES OF INDIAN CLIMATE

 Rainfall
o Most regions  distinct wet and dry season; That desert, Ladakhno wet season
o Mawsynram and Cherrapunji receives 1000 metres of rainfall
o Ganga delta and coastal plainsintense rainfall in July, while Coromandel coast goes dry these months.
 Temperature
o Highest diurnal temperature in Thar desert and highest annual temperature in Himalayan regions
o Winters are moderately cold in most of the regions whiles the summers are extremely hot
 Vyasa IAS

FACTORS INFLUENCING INDIAN CLIMATE

 LATITUDINAL LOCATION  MONSOON WINDS
o Areas south of Tropic of Cancer – high o Important features of Indian monsoon
insolation-summers –extreme; winters- such as – sudden onset (sudden burst),
moderate gradual progress, gradual retreat and
o Areas north of Tropic of Cancer – less seasonal reversal of winds – bring sudden
insolation – warm temperate zone change in seasons and climate
 DISTANCE FROM THE SEA  UPPER CIRCULATION
o Coastal regions – moderate climate; o Jet streams bring western disturbances –
o Interiors – continental climate due to cause occasional rain in NW regions
moderating influence o Easterly jet stream leads to sudden onset
 THE HIMALAYAS of South-West monsoon
o Protect India from cold and dry air  EL-NINO, LA-NINA AND ENSO
masses of Central Asia o El-Nino adversely affect monsoon rainfall
o If Himalayas were not present, the and droughts are common during El-Nino
monsoon winds would simply move to o La-Nina is good for Indian Monsoon and
China floods are common
 PHYSIOGRAPHY o Southern Oscillation is simply the
o Places on leeward side of orographic oscillation or alternating positions of low
barrier remain arid/semi-arid due to rain- pressure and high pressure cells over
shadow effect eastern and western Pacific. Southern
o Monsoon winds flowing in Rajasthan and Oscillation coinciding with El Nino is called
Gujarat are not obstructed by any is called ENSO. Climatic conditions same
orographic barrier, hence these regions as El Nino
receive no rainfall  TROPICAL CYCLONES AND WESTERN
o Copious rainfall in Mawsynram and DISTURBANCES
Cherrapunji is due to funnelling effect o Majority of cyclones originate in Bay of
followed by orographic upliftment (clouds Bengal and influence weather conditions
are channelled into a narrow region during SW Monsoon
between mountains and hence cloud o Western disturbance influence winter
density is extra-ordinary) weather conditions
INDIAN CLIMATE - SEASONS
COLD WEATHER SEASON OR WINTER SEASON
TEMPERATURE
GENERAL  Isotherm – 200C roughly
 Sun’s apparent path to the parallel to Tropic of Cancer PRESSURE
south of the equator.  South of isotherm – mean  High Pressure over NW India
 January-coldest month temperature above 200C  Pressure comparatively
 Clear sky, pleasant weather,  North of isotherm – mean lower in South India
low temperature, low temperature below 210C  So winds blow from SW to NE
humidity, cool and slow NE  Dras Valley in Kashmir –
trade winds coldest place in India

TROPICAL CYCLONES WESTERN DISTURBANCES

PRECIPITATION
 Least cyclone activity  Western disturbances
 Most rainfall in SE coast of
 Storms which are born in Bay intensity over Rajasthan,
Tamil Nadu
of Bengal bring heavy rainfall Punjab and Haryana
 Western disturbance cause little
in Tamil Nadu  Cause light rain in Indus-
rainfall in NW India
 Some Storms originate in Ganga plain and snowfall
 North eastern part of India gets
Arabian Sea move towards in Himalayan belt
rainfall during winter months
either north or west
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HOT WEATHER SEASON OR SUMMER SEASON

GENERAL WINDS PRESSURE

 High temperature and  Loo – Hot, dust-laden, strong winds  Pressure low all over country
low humidity  Andhis – Strong dust storms due to  But divergence over NW India
 March to June convective phenomenon prevents onset of SW monsoon
 Pre-monsoon period
PRECIPITATION
TROPICAL CYCLONES (TC)  Only 1% of annual rainfall
TEMPERATURE
 3/4th of TC – Bay of Bengal  TN, Kerala – mango showers
 Southern parts of country –
 Arabian Sea – major storms  Karnataka – cherry blossoms
warmer in March and April
formed in May (b/w 7-12 0N)  Norwesters – bring rainfall in
 North India – has higher
 Frequency rises in April and May Assam, West Bengal, Odisha
temperature in June
 Highest temperature recorded THUNDERSTORMS
late May WESTERN DISTURBANCES (WD)
 Thunderstorms in eastern and
 North and Central parts  Intensity decreases with
NE parts of country
experience heat waves summer
 In Assam these are called as
 Cause snowfall in higher
‘Barodoli Cheerha’
reaches of Himalayas

SOUTH WEST MONSOON SEASON OR RAINY SEASON

GENERAL WINDS PRESSURE

 June to Mid-September  Winds blow in SW to NE direction from  Low pressure – NW India
 Hot wet season A. Sea to Bay of Bengal  Temperature gradient
 Sudden onset of SW between north and south
monsoon 
CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS PRECIPITATION
th
TEMPERATURE  June-September  3/4 of total annual rainfall
 Significant all in temperature  Largely relief and is  Average rainfall over plains is
 Low temp. in W. Ghats orographic 87 cm
 Highest temperature at west  Large scale spatial  Sudden onset of rain is called
of Aravali due to lack of clouds variations monsoon burst

BREAK IN SOUTH WEST MONSOON

Monsoon winds beyond South Kerala form two branches
 There are certain periods when monsoon
ARABIAN SEA BRANCH
becomes weak and rainfall practically
 Divided into three streams-
ceases over the country. This is break in
o First stream – heavy rainfall to west coast of India, but
monsoon
dry in the leeward side of W.Ghats
 In second week of August
o Second stream – enters Narmada-Tapti and enters  Reason – Monsoon trough shifts to
Central India. Some parts of C.India receive rainfall. Does foothills of Himalayas
not cause much rain near the coast  But heavy rainfall occur over sub-
o Third stream – parallel to Aravali range – not much Himalayan ranges and southern slopes
rainfall – Rajasthan Desert Area of Himalayas
BAY OF BENGAL BRANCH
 Divided into two streams-
DEPRESSION IN SW MONSOON
o First stream – crosses Ganga-Brahmaputra delta and
 Depression originate in A.Sea
reaches Meghalaya – orographic effect cause intense
and Bay of Bengal
rainfall e.g. Cherrapunji
 Some depression occur in land
o Second stream– move along Himalayan foothills-steady
also
decline of rainfall as we move from east to west up the
 Absence of depression results
plain
in deficit/no rain
Tamil Nadu Coast remains relatively dry during SW monsoon
period because –
o Rain shadow effect of Arabian Sea Current
o Bay of Bengal branch which flows parallel to coast
 Vyasa IAS

RETREATING MONSOON OR COOL SEASON OR NORTH EAST MONSOON

TEMPERATURE WINDS PRESSURE

 Day temperature falls  Direction of winds influenced by local  Monsoon trough shifts
steeply pressure conditions southwards
 Clouds disappear and  Pressure gradient is low
skies becomes clearer 

CYCLONES GENERAL PRECIPITATION

 More cyclones in October  Starts with withdrawal of  October-November is the
than in November SW Monsoon most rainy season in Tamil
 More cyclones originate  Gradual withdrawal and Nadu
in Bay of Bengal than takes about 3 months
Arabian Sea  Withdraw from
Coromandel coast only in
middle of December

DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL
VERY HIGH HIGH RAINFALL LOW RAINFALL VERY LOW RAINFALL
RAINFALL
Above 200 cm 100-200 cm 50-100 cm Less than 50 cm
Western Ghats Eastern slopes of Western Gujarat, Maharashtra, Western Desert and semi-desert areas,
and North Ghats, major parts of MP, Andhra Pradesh, Eastern Western Rajasthan, Kachchh
Eastern States Northern plains, Odisha, MP Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and most of Ladakh and Jammu
and TN and parts of Uttar Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir
CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA
 Stamp’s Classification of Climatic Regions of India  Koeppen’s Classification of Climatic Regions
STAMP’S CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA
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KOEPPEN’S CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA

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CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA

MOIST TROPICAL FORESTS

TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN FORESTS/RAIN FORESTS TROPICAL SEMI EVERGREEN FORESTS
 Annual Rainfall exceeds 250 cm  Annual Rainfall between 200-250 cm
0 0
 Mean Annual Temperature is about 25 – 27 C  Mean Annual Temperature is about 240 – 270C
 Characteristics – Evergreen, Mesophytic (adaptation  Characteristics – less dense, gregarious (living in
of plants to neither too dry nor too wet type climate), colonies), buttered trunks with abundant epiphytes
Thick canopy, less under-growth, epiphytes.  Distribution –Western coast, Assam, Lower slopes of
 Distribution – Western side of W.Ghats, Purvanchal Eastern Himalayas, Odisha and Andamans
hills, A&N islands  Important Species – Rosewood, mesua, Indian
 Important Species – Mahogany, bamboo, white chestnut, mango etc.
cedar etc.  Timber– similar to that in tropical evergreen forests
 Timber– fine grained, hard and durable except that these forests are less dense with more
pure stands
TROPICAL MOIST DECIDIOUS FORESTS LITTORAL AND SWAMP FORESTS
 Annual Rainfall between 100-200 cm  Survive in both fresh water and brackish water
 Mean Annual Temperature is about 27 C 0  Prone to tidal influences
 Characteristics – trees drop their leaves during  Occur in and around deltas, estuaries and creeks
summer, irregular top storey, bare in extreme  Distribution - Confined to deltas of Ganga,
summers, high degree of gregariousness Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery
 Distribution – Belt running along W.Ghats  Sunderbans in Ganga Delta – most pronounced and
surrounding the evergreen forests belt, Manipur and the densest – predominant species here is Sundar
Mizoram, Chota Nagpur Plateau, Odisha, West
Bengal and A&N islands
 Important Species –teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla
 Timber– provide valuable timer like teak
DRY TROPICAL FORESTS
TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS TROPICAL DRY DECIDIOUS FORESTS
 Annual Rainfall of 100 cm  Annual Rainfall between 100-150 cm
 Mean Annual Temperature is about 280C  Characteristics – shed their leaves in dry season,
 Characteristics – Short saturated trees, bamboos grow in comparatively less rainfall, uneven canopy,
and grasses are not conspicuous, most of the land undergrowth
under Casuarina plantations  Distribution – irregular wide strip running from foot
 Distribution – Along the coasts of Tamil Nadu of Himalayas to Kanniyakumari except in Rajasthan,
 Important Species –jamun, tamarind, neem etc. W. Ghats and West Bengal
 Important Species –teak, red sanders, common
bamboo, rosewood etc.
 Vyasa IAS

TROPICAL THORN FORESTS

 Annual Rainfall - less than 75 cm  Distribution –Rajasthan, SW Punjab, W. Haryana,
 Mean Annual Temperature is 250-300C Kachchh and neighbouring parts of Saurashtra
 Characteristics – Trees are low (5-10 metres  Important Species –Indian wild date, neem, babul,
maximum) and widely scattered. cacti etc
MONTANE SUB-TROPICAL FORESTS
SUB-TROPICAL BROAD LEAVED HILL FORESTS SUB-TROPICAL MOIST HILL (PINE) FORESTS
 Annual Rainfall between 75-125 cm  Distribution – Western Himalayas b/w 730E and
 0
Mean Annual Temperature is about 18 – 21 C 0
880E longitudes at elevations between 1000 to 2000
 Characteristics – Forests of evergreen species, metres above sea level. Some hilly regions of
stunted rain forest, climbers and epiphytes are Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Naga hills and Khasi
common. hills.
 0
Distribution – Eastern Himalayas to the east of 88 E  Timber– Chir or Chil is the most dominant tree which
longitude at altitudes varying from 1000-2000 provides valuable timber.
metres
 Important Species –evergreen oaks, chestnuts, ash,
beech etc.
SUB-TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS
 Annual Rainfall between 50-100 cm  Distribution –Found in Bhabar, Shiwaliks and
 Summers are sufficiently hot and winters are cold. western Himalayas up to 1000 metres above sea
 Characteristics –Low shrub forest with small level
evergreen stunted trees and shrubs Important Species –Olive, acacia modesta, pistacia

MONTANE TEMPERATE FORESTS
MONTANE WET FORESTS HIMALAYAN MOIST TEMPERATE FORESTS
 Annual Rainfall between 150-300 cm  Annual Rainfall between 150-250 cm
0 0
 Mean Annual Temperature is about 11 – 14 C  Characteristics – Coniferous species, mostly pure
 Characteristics –closed evergreen forests, branches strands, 30-50 metres high, shrubby undergrowth.
are clothed with mosses, trees rarely achieve a  Distribution – Temperate zone of Himalayas
height of more than 6 metres. between 1500-3300 metres, entire length of
 Distribution – Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, mountain range in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Eastern Himalayan region Uttarkhand, Darjeeling and Sikkhim
 Important Species –Deodar, Chilauni, Indian  Important Species –Pine, cedars, spruce etc.
chestnut, birch, plum, oak, hemlock etc  Timber– provides fine wood
HIMALAYAN DRY TEMPERATE FORESTS
 Annual Rainfall below 100 cm (mostly as snow)  Distribution – Inner dry ranges of Himalayas where
 Characteristics –Coniferous forests with xerophytic SW monsoon is very feeble – Ladakh, lahul, chamba,
shrubs. Garhwal and Sikkhim
Important Species –Deodar, oak, ash, olive etc
ALPINE FORESTS
 Altitude  2900-3500 metres  Fir, spruce, rhododendron etc are important species
 These forests divided into – Sub-Alpine, Moist Alpine  Sub-Alpine Forests – occur lower alpine scrub and
Scrub and Dry Alpine Scrub. grasslands
 Mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved trees  Moist Alpine Scrub – from 3000 metres to snow line.
 Dry Alpine Scrub – over 3500 metres above sea
level.
 Vyasa IAS

SOIL
 Soil is the thin top layer on the
earth’s crust comprising rock
particles mixed with organic
matter.
 Soil Types –
o Sandy-Soil contain greater
proportion of big particles
o Clayey-Proportion of fine
particles is relatively higher
o Loamy-amount of large and
fine particles is about the
same

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

PARENT MATERIAL
 Determines the colour, texture and composition of soil
 Parent material categorized as Gondwana rocks, Deccan basalts, Vindhyan rocks etc

RELIEF
 Barren slopes soil erosion rampanthinders soil formation.
 Areas of low relief deep soils

CLIMATE
 Temperature and Rainfall – important factors
 Determines effectiveness of weathering and influences soil formation
 Cold Climatevegetation decay is very slowacidic soils

NATURAL VEGETATION
 Decayed leaf materialadds humusincrease fertility
 Close relationship between vegetation and soil
SOIL PROFILE
 Vyasa IAS

MAJOR SOIL GROUPS IN INDIA AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION

ALLUVIAL SOIL
 45.6% of total area; porous soil because of its
loamy nature. The soil divided into-
o Bhangar– older alluvium-higher than flood
plain
o Khadar – newer alluvium-forms the flood plain
 Two belts-
o Bhabar belt-8-16 km wide;northren most
stretch of Indo-Gangetic Plain
o Terai-15-30 km wide;south of bhabar and
parallel to it
BLACK SOIL
 Formed in Deccan Plateau
 Uplandslow fertility; Valleysvery fertile
 Suited for cotton crop
RED SOIL
 Largest soil group of India
 Mainly acidic due to nature of parent rocks.
 Red colour is due to presence of iron oxide. ARID – DESERT SOIL
 Rice, wheat, pulses, millets can be grown with  Presence of sand inhibits soil growth
proper use of fertilisers and irrigation  Phosphate content is high as in normal alluvial
LATERITE SOIL soils
 Formed under conditions of high temperature and  Drought resistant and salt-tolerant crops
high rianfall SALINE-ALKALINE SOILS
 Lacks fertility due to intensive leaching.  Top soil is impregnated with saline and alkaline
 Mainly used for growing plantation crops efflorescences
FOREST-MOUNTAIN SOIL  Due to capillary action, injurious salts are
 Heterogenous soil found on hill slopes covered by transferred from below.
forests PEATY-MARSHY SOILS
 Very rich in humus  Large amount of organic matter and are highly
 Suitable for plantations like tea, coffee, spices etc. acidic.
 Deficient in potash and phosphate
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOILS  When the rain cease, they are put under paddy
 Most soils are old and mature cultivaiton
 Peninsular soils older than that of Northern plains
 Largely deficient in nitrogen and humus. CONSERVATION OF SOILS
 Plains and valleys have thick layers of soil  Judicious use of irrigation facilities to prevent
 Lost much of their fertility salinity and alkalinity
 Intensive tree plantation in transition zones
to prevent deforestation.
PROBLEMS OFINDIAN SOILS
 Crop Rotation – sustainable agricultural
 Soil Erosion due to agents like win, water and other
practice
factors
 Strip Cropping – crops cultivated in alternate
o Water erosion leads to badland topography
strips, parallel to one another
(chambal ravines)
 Use of early maturing varieties – to reduce
o Wind erosion significant in arid and semi-arid areas
pressure on soil
 Deforestation due to shifting cultivation, mining.
 Terrace farming to reduce surface run-off
 Overgrazing
 Inter-cropping to protect soil from rain wash
 Faulty methods of agriculture
 Shelter belts – to check the wind movement
 Soil salinity and soil Alkalinity – reduces soil fertility
to protect soil cover
 Desertification – spread of desert like conditions in arid
 Afforestation – prevention of forest
and semi-arid areas due to anthropogenic factors.
destruction.
 Waterlogging – There are about 12 million hectares
 Checking overgrazing by creating separate
waterlogged areas in India
grazing grounds
 Vyasa IAS

INDIA AS A GEOGRAPHICAL UNITY AND INDIA’S FRONTIERS

 Vyasa IAS

6. ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

CHAPTER CHAPTER NAME PAGE

NUMBER NUMBER
1 FERROUS METALLIC 91
MINERALS
2 NON FERROUS METALLIC 94
MINERALS
3 FUEL MINERALS 96
4 OTHER NON METALLIC 101
MINERALS
5 PRECIOUS MINERALS 103
6 NUCLEAR MINERALS 105
7 MISCELLANEOUS 108
 Vyasa IAS

IRON ORE
IRON ORE HEMATITE MAGNETITE LIMONITE SIDERITE
TYPES  70% metallic  60 % - 70%  40%-60% metallic  Less than 40%
content metallic content content metallic content
 Dharwad and  Dharwad and  Damuda series in  Many impurities,
Cudappah rock Cudappah rock Raniganj coal field mining not
systems systems economically
viable
IRON ORE
DISTRIBUTION
 China – Manchuria & Shandog
ACROSS
Peninsula
WORLD
 Europe – Ruhr, South Wales etc.
 Africa – Transvaal & Liberia
 Russia – Ural Region
 North America – Great lakes
 South America – Carajas, Itabira
 Australia – Pilbara region, Iron Duke

IRON
DISTRIBUTION
IN INDIA

HAEMATITE MAGNETITE
 Orissa – Barabil-koira Valley
 Chattisgarh – Bailadila mine,
Dalli-Rajhara range
 Jharkhand – highest quality
iron ore – Noamandi mines
 Karnataka – high grade
haematite and magnetite
 Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are
the examples
 Vyasa IAS

FACTORS  Raw materials – iron ore, coal  Unskilled, semi-skilled and skilled workforce
DETERMINING  Transportation – roads, rail etc. (labour)
LOCATION OF  Investment and entrepreneurship  Market (e.g. for automobile industry)
IRON AND  Land  Government policy – e.g. environmental
STEEL clearance
INDUSTRY
RAW IMPURITIES IN IRON ORE
MATERIAL –  Silicon – Acts as de-oxidising agent  Lead –improve machinability of steel
IRON ORE  Sulphur – Forms Iron Sulphide  brittle  Manganese – effective de-oxidant
&  Phosphorous –Increase hardness of steel  Tin – Makes the steel practically useless
IRON ORE  Oxygen – Oxides makes iron and steel weak
SMELTING
PROCESS SMELTING PROCESS
The unwanted impurities to be removed by
smelting iron ore in blast furnace. Smelting is a
process of converting ore to metal by removing
impurities
Why Coke and not Coal in Smelting?
Coke is a fuel with few impurities and high
carbon content (93%). Hence coal is cooked to
produce coke through fractional distillation.
Beneficiation Improves the concentration of iron
Role of limestone To remove Sulphur; Limestone
melts and reacts with Sulphur to form Slag
Reduction
To remove oxygen; Oxygen in the iron oxides is reduced (removed) by a series of chemical
reactions.
Pig Iron – intermediate product of smelting iron ore.
Cast Iron – Carbon content greater than 2%
Steel – Carbon content upto 2.1%
Stainless Steel – Steel alloy with chromium, Nickel, manganese, molybdenum etc.
Wrought Iron - Wrought iron is a very different material made by mixing liquid iron with some
slag.
MANGANESE
PROPERTIES  Found in combination with iron  Pyrolusite – most important manganese
 6 kgs of manganese used in manufacturing of  Manganese also used in manufacturing
one tonne of steel bleaching powder, insecticides and
batteries.
MAJOR
MANGANESE
PRODUCERS
 Vyasa IAS

DISTRIBUTION MANGANESE ORE DISTRIBUTION MANGANESE PRODUCING STATES

IN INDIA  India – 2nd largest reserves after Zimbabwe

 Four-fifths of the total production is

consumed domestically.
 Japan is the largest buyer of Indian
manganese
CHROMITE
FEATURES  Chromite is oxide of iron and chromium  Used in chrome plating
CHROME ORE MAJOR CHROMIUM PRODUCERS IN WORLD CHROMIUM RESERVE BASE ACROSS WORLD
DISTRIBUTION
AND
PRODUCERS

MAJOR CHROMIUM PRODUCERS IN INDIA CHROMIUM ORE DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA

 Odisha is the sole producer [99 per cent]  93% of resources are in Odisha
of chromite ore.  Minor deposits found in Manipur,
 Karnataka is the second largest producer Nagaland, Karnataka etc.

NICKEL
 Nickel does not affect free in nature. Found in association with copper, uranium and others
 Iron + Nickel = Stainless Steel
 Used in manufacturing aeroplanes and Internal Combustion engines
 Hard and great tensile strength
NICKEL  Important occurrences of nickeliferous limonite are found in the Sukinda valley of Jajapur
OCCURENCES district, Odisha
 Other important occurrences of nickel are in Karnataka, Kerala and Rajasthan.
 Polymetallic sea nodules are another source of nickel.
 About 92 per cent resources are in Odisha.
PYRITES
 Pyrite is a sulphide of iron and is a chief source of sulphur
 High proportion of sulphur is injurious to iron. Hence is it removed and used to produce sulphur.
PYRITE  Son Valley in Bihar
OCCURENCES  Chitradurga and Uttara Kannada districts in Karnataka
 Pyritous coal and shale of Assam fields
 Vyasa IAS

COPPRER
FEATURES  Good conductor of electricity  Used in automobile and defense industries
 Alloyed with iron and nickel to produce
stainless steel
COPPER  India has low grade copper ore [less than 1% metal content][international average 2.5%]
RESERVES AND Copper Production in India
PRODUCTION Madhya Pradesh – 1st in Production
IN INDIA Rajasthan – 2nd in Production
Jharkhand – 3rd in Production

COPPER COPPER RESERVES

RESERVES AND
PRODUCTION
ACROSS THE
WORLS

The major part of supply comes from the USA, Canada, Zimbabwe, Japan and Mexico

BAUXITE
FEATURES

BAUXITE BAUXITE PRODUCERS

DISTRIBUTION  Odisha – largest bauxite producing state
IN INDIA AND  Chattisgarh – 2nd largest producer
LEADING  Maharastra - 3rd largest producer
PRODUCERS
 Vyasa IAS

LEAD AND ZINC

LEAD
 Malleable, soft, heavy and bad conductor  Does not occur free in nature
 Used as constituent in bronze alloy  Lead nitrate used in dying and printing
 Used as anti-friction metal  Increasingly used in automobile, aero planes etc.
ZINC
 Mixed ore containing lead and zinc  Used for dry batteries, electrodes, textiles etc.
 Mainly used for alloying  Found in association with galena, sulphide ores etc.
DISTRIBUTION OF LEAD AND ZINC – INDIA AND WORLD

NICKEL
 Nickel does not affect free in nature. Found in association with copper, uranium and others
 Iron + Nickel = Stainless Steel
 Used in manufacturing aeroplanes and Internal Combustion engines
 Hard and great tensile strength
NICKEL  Important occurrences of nickeliferous limonite are found in the Sukinda valley of Jajapur
OCCURENCES district, Odisha
 Other important occurrences of nickel are in Karnataka, Kerala and Rajasthan.
 Polymetallic sea nodules are another source of nickel.
 About 92 per cent resources are in Odisha.
TUNGSTEN
 Ore of Tungsten is Wolfram. Over 95% Wolfram used in steel
industry
 Self – hardening is the important property of tungsten
 Used for electric bulb filaments, paints, ceramics, textiles etc.
 Vyasa IAS

COAL

COAL
 Black Gold
 Found in Sedimentary Rocks
 Contains carbon, moisture and
ash
 Used for power generation and
metallurgy.
 Coal reserves are 6 times
greater than oil and petroleum
reserves

FORMATION OF COAL
 Vyasa IAS

CLASSIFICATION OF COAL
Coals are classified into three main ranks, or types: lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite. These classifications are
based on the amount of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen present in the coal.
PEAT LIGNITE BITUMINOUS ANTHRACITE
 40-55% carbon content  40-55% carbon content  40-80% carbon content  80-95% carbon content
 Lot of moisture  35% moisture (high)  15-40% moisture  Small moisture content
 More s pollution  Spontaneous  Used in production of  Ignites slowly –
combustion coke and gas Complete combustion.
DISTRIBUTION OF COAL IN INDIA
DISTRIBUTION OF GONDWANA COAL FIELDS (250 MILLION YEARS OLD)
About Gondwana Coal
 98% of total reserves and 99% of total coal Distribution – States
production in India  Chattisgarh – e.g. Korba coal field
 Less Carbon content than carboniferous coal  Jharkhand – 1st in reserves e.g.
 Damuda series (Lower Gondwana) – 80% of total coal Jharia
production in India  Odisha – Talcher field ranked 2nd in
 Free from moisture but contains sulphur reserve
and phosphorous  Madhya Pradesh – Singrauli
Distribution – In Rivers coalfield – largest in MP
These basins occur in the valleys of certain rivers viz.,  Andhra Pradesh – 6th in reserves –
 Damodar (Jharkhand-West Bengal; e.g. Singareni and Kothagudam
 Mahanadi (Chhattisgarh-Odisha)  Maharastra – 3% reserves
 Son (Madhya Pradesh Jharkhand)  West Bengal – 4% of India’s coal
 Godavari and the Wardha (Maharashtra-Andhra Pradesh)
 Indravati, Narmada, Koe, Panch, Kanhan and many more.
DISTRIBUTION OF TERTIARY COAL FIELDS (15-60 MILLION YEARS OLD)
About Tertiary Coal
 Carbon content is low  Tertiary Coal - Lignite – found in TN, Gujarat,
 High percentage of moisture and Sulphur Kerala, Rajasthan.
o Lignite in Tamil Nadu- 90% of reserves
Distribution – States o Neyveli lignite fields of Cuddalore district
 Assam – e.g. Makum coal field o 57% of production
 Arunachal Pradesh –e.g. Upper Assam  Tertiary Coal - peat
Coal Belt o Confined to few areas only
 Meghalaya – Gharo, Khasi and Jaintia o Occurs in Nilgiri hills
hills o Ganga delta
 J&K and Himachal Pradesh – e.g. Kalakot

PROBLEMS OF COAL MINING IN INDIA MEASURE TO BE TAKEN

 Uneven distribution of coal  Coking coal should be used for metallurgical industry
 High ash content and low calorific value only
 Unscientific method of extraction of coal  Low grade coal should be washed and blended with
 Short life of metallurgical coal superior quality coal
 Environmental pollution  All possible coal from mines should be taken out
 Vyasa IAS

DISTRIBUTION OF COAL ACROSS THE WORLD

PETROLEUM AND MINERAL OIL

PETROLEUM AND MINERAL OIL

 Petra=rock; Oleum=oil;
 Obtained from sedimentary
rocks of earth
 90-95% hydrocarbons
 5-10% organic compounds
containing oxygen, nitrogen,
sulphur and traces of
organometallic compounds

THREE PRE-REQUISITE FOR OIL

RESERVOIR
 Porosity
 Permeability
 Porous layer to be capped
below by impervious layer
 Vyasa IAS

DISTRIBUTION AND PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM AND MINERAL OIL IN INDIA

 Most of the oil reserves in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the sedimentary rock formations
of tertiary times.
 Mumbai High, the Khambhat Gulf and the Assam are the most productive areas.

ON-SHORE OIL PRODUCTION IN INDIA

 Assam Oil fields – along the Brahmaputra Valley. Refineries located
at Digboi
 Gujarat Oil fields – Ankleshwar, Mahesana and Sanand
 Rajasthan oil fields- Largest on-shore oil producing state of India
OFF-SHORE OIL PRODUCTION IN INDIA
 Western Coast – Mumbai High, Bessain and Aliabet.
 Eastern Coast – Godavati, Krishna and Cauvery

PETROLEUM REFINING
 Vyasa IAS

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF MINERAL OIL IN INDIA & SUPERGIANTS

NATURAL GAS
 Natural Gas primarily consists of methane and ethane and also propane, butane, pentane and hexane also
present.
 LPG = mixture of butane and propane

USE OF NATURAL GAS

 Electric power generation
 Industrial Usage
 Transportation
 Ammonia manufacturing
IMPORTANCE IN INDIA
 Diversification of energy
basket
 Insufficient oil resources
in India
 Power crisis
DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL GAS IN INDIA

 Krishna-Godavari
Basin
 Assam
 Gulf of Khambhat
 Cuddalore ditrict of
Tamil Nadu
 Barmer in Rajasthan
 Vyasa IAS

UNCONVENTIONAL GAS RESERVOIRS

 Conventional reservoirs of oil and natural gas are found in permeable sandstone.
 Unconventional Gas Reservoirs occur in relatively impermeable sandstones, in joints and fractures or absorbed
into the matrix of shales [Shale is a Sedimentary Rock], and in coal seams.
COAL BED METHANE
 Considerable amount of methane trapped within coal seams
 This can be accessed by drilling wells in to the coal seam
 The country has an estimated 700-950 billion cubic metre of coal bed methane
 But there are issues in accessing these resources – capital intensive, low level of technology, gas pricing issue

SHALE GAS
 Shale Gas = Lot of methane + little ethane, butane and propane +very little Carbon di oxide, nitrogen and
hydrogen sulphide
 Extraction is done through horizontal drilling through the shale seam, followed by hydraulic fracturing, or
fracking, of the rock by the injecting of fluid at extremely high pressure.
 Environmentalists have objected to fracking because of the damage to forest cover and possible contamination
of ground water.
 Shale gas has low potential and high risk. A better alternative would be the underground coal gasification.

MICA
 Naturally occurring non-metallic mineral that is based on a collection of silicates
 Very good insulator and used in electrical and electronics industry
 India one of the foremost suppliers of mica to the world
MICA Andhra Pradesh stand first in mica
RESERVES AND production followed by Rajasthan and
PRODUCTION Jharkhand
IN INDIA
India is the largest exporter of mica in the
world

LIMESTONE
 Limestone rocks are composed of either calcium carbonate, the double carbonate of calcium and magnesium or
mixture of both
 75 percentage limestone is used in cement industry. Rest in iron and steel, paper, sugar, fertilisers etc
LIMESTONE  All most all states of India produce some quantity of limestone
PRODUCTION  Over 3/4th - produced by Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu etc
 Vyasa IAS

DOLOMITE
 Limestone with more than 10% of magnesium is called dolomite.
 When the percentage rises to 45, it is true dolomite
DOLOMIE  Widely distributed in all parts of the country
PRODUCTION  Orissa and Chattisgarh together account for about 57% dolomite of India.
ASBESTOS
 Asbestos includes a variety of Amphibole and a fibrous variety of serpentine (chrysotile)
 Have great commercial value and high resistance to fire
ASBESTOS  Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh produce almost the whole of asbestos in India
PRODUCTION  Rajasthan is the largest producer
MAGNESITE
 It is an alteration product of dunites (peridotite) and other basic magnesian rocks
MAGNESITE  Major deposits found in Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Uttarkhand.
PRODUCTION  Tamil Nadu is the largest producer of magnesite in India
GYPSUM
 Gypsum is a hydrate of calcium
 It is a white opaque or transparent mineral
GYPSUM  Rajasthan is the largest producer
PRODUCTION  Remaining Gypsum produced by Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh.
GRAPHITE

 Graphite is a naturally occurring form of crystalline carbon.

 Carbon content in Graphite is never less than 95%
 It is found in metamorphic and igneous rocks
 Graphite is the only non-metal that can conduct electricity
 Most of the graphite is formed at convergent plate boundaries
where organic-rich shales and lime stones were subjected to
metamorphism due to heat and pressure.
 Applications of Graphite includes refractories, batteries, lubricants
etc.
 Vyasa IAS

DIAMONDS
 Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance found on earth
 Diamonds are formed in mantle and they are brought to earth’s crust due to volcanism.
DIAMONDS ACROSS THE WORLD AND INDIA
 Vyasa IAS

GOLD AND SILVER

GOLD
Source of gold is found in-
 Auriferous rocks
 Sands of several rivers

SILVER
 Used in chemicals, electroplating, photography
and for colouring glass, etc.
 The chief ore minerals of silver are agentine,
stephanite, pyrargyrite and proustite.
 It is found mixed with several other metals such
as copper, lead, gold, zinc, etc.
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CONCEPTS
NUCLEAR  Nuclear fission is a radioactive decay
FISSION process in which the nucleus of an atom splits
into smaller parts [lighter nuclei]. Uranium-235,
Plutonium-239 and Thorium-232 are the
common fissile material.
 While uranium-235 is the naturally
occurring fissionable isotope, Plutonium- 239
can be produced by "breeding" it from uranium-
238.
 Uranium-238, which makes up 99.3% of
natural uranium, is not fissionable by slow
neutrons.
 Thorium-232 is fissionable, so could
conceivably be used as a nuclear fuel
 A fissile material is one that can sustain a
chain reaction upon bombardment by neutrons.

NUCLEAR  A nuclear reactor is a system that contains and controls sustained nuclear chain reactions
REACTOR  A nuclear reactor coolant — usually water or molten salt — is circulated past the reactor
core to absorb the heat that it generates.
 A neutron moderator is a medium that reduces the speed of fast neutrons, thereby
turning them into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction.
 A critical mass is the smallest amount of fissile material needed for a sustained nuclear
chain reaction.
 Criticality is a nuclear term that refers to the balance of neutrons in the system.
TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS

REACTORS BASED ON COOLANT AND MODERATOR

LIGHT WATER REACTOR
 The light-water reactor (LWR) is a type of thermal-neutron reactor that uses normal water, as opposed to heavy
water, as both its coolant and neutron moderator.
 There are three varieties – Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR), Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) and Super-critical
Water Reactor (SCWR)
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Pressurised Water Reactor

Advantages – Disadvantages-
 Very Stable  Requires high strength piping
 Compact reactors that fit well in nuclear  Not scalable
submarines
Boiling Water Reactor
Advantages – Disadvantages-
 Pressure vessel subjected to less radiation  Need more complex calculations for managing
 Can operate at lower core power density levels consumption of nuclear levels
 Concerns about pressure containment ability

Super-critical Water Reactor

Advantages – Disadvantages-
 Excellent heat transfer properties  Need more complex calculations for managing
 Simpler and more compact consumption of nuclear levels
 Concerns about pressure containment ability

PRESSURISED HEAVY WATER REACTOR

Uses heavy water (deuterium oxide D2O) as its coolant and neutron moderator.
Advantages – Disadvantages-
 Operated without expensive uranium enrichment  More frequent replacement of fuel needed
facilities  Higher volumes of spent fuel
 Generates less heat

ATOMIC MINERALS
 Uranium and Thorium are the main atomic minerals.
 Other atomic minerals are beryllium, lithium and zirconium.
URANIUM

DISTRIBUTIONOF URANIUM ACROSS WORLD

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THORIUM
 Thorium is weakly radioactive: all its known isotopes are
unstable, with the seven naturally occurring ones
(thorium- 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, and 234).
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