SOLID MECHANICS

SEBB 3323
TOPIC 4 - AXIAL LOAD
DR. NADIA SHAIRA BINTI SHAFII
P07-317-01

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 LEARNING OUTCOME

• Determine deformation of axially loaded members

• To solve the problem on support reactions when it
cannot be solved by the equilibrium’s equations
only.
• Analyze the effects of stress concentrations.
 SUBTOPICS
1. Saint-Venant’s Principle
2. Elastic Deformation of an Axially Loaded Member
3. Principle of Superposition
4. Statically Indeterminate Axially Loaded Member
5. Force Method of Analysis for Axially Loaded
Member
6. Stress Concentrations
 DEFINITION

• Axial load: is a force/load acting normal to the lines of the axes (x, y or z axes).
• Deformation occurs when a body is subjected to axial load.
• Closely related to stress and strain in a body
• Connection between stress and strain depends upon material used for the body.
• If material behavior is linear elastic, then Hooke’s law is obeyed
4.1 Saint-Venant’s Principle
Saint-Venant’s principle states that both localized deformation and stress tend
to “even out” or dissipate/smooth at a distance sufficiently removed from these
regions.

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If the location of cross-sectional area is away from given load
and support, stress and deformation distributions will tend to
disappear
4.2 Elastic Deformation of an Axially Loaded Member
• Recall from previous class;

• If stress and strain did not go beyond elastic limit, hooke’s law can be used
to determine the deformation of the member.

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4.2 Elastic Deformation of an Axially Loaded Member
Using Hooke’s law and the definitions of stress and strain, we are able to
develop the elastic deformation of a member subjected to axial loads.
Suppose an element subjected to loads,

P( x ) dδ
= and ε =
A(x ) dx

 = small displacement
P(x )dx
L
 = L = original length

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0
A(x )E P(x) = internal axial force
A(x) = cross-sectional area
E = modulus of elasticity
• When a constant external force is applied at each end of the member,
From Hooke’s Law:

 = E  =  = P
E AE
From the definition of strain:

= 
L
Equating and solving for the deformation,

 = PL

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AE
• If
i. different axial forces is applied to the bar
ii. icross section area changes from one region to another
iii. modulus of elasticity changes from one region to another,

The above equation can be applied on each segment and the

solution can be obtained from addition of every elongation
PL
 = i i
i Ai Ei

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With variations in loading, cross-
section or material properties
 Sign Convention
 Force and displacement is positive when tension and
elongation and negative will be compression and
contraction.

• Tension and elongation are caused by positive force and displacement.

•Compression and contraction are caused by negative force and

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displacement.
Example 1
The composite steel bar (Est = 210
GPa) shown in the figure is made
from two segments, AB and BD,
having cross-sectional areas of AAB =
600 mm2 and ABD = 1200 mm2.
Determine the vertical displacement
of end A and the displacement of B
relative to C.

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Solution

Section AB Section BC

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Section CD
Example 2
The assembly shown in the figure consists of an aluminium tube AB having a
cross-sectional area of 400 mm2. A steel rod having a diameter of 10 mm is
attached to a rigid collar and passes through the tube. If a tensile load of 80
kN is applied to the rod, determine the displacement of the end C of the rod.
Take Est = 200 GPa, Eal = 70 GPa.

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 Solution

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Example 3
The rigid bar BDE is supported by two links AB and CD. Link AB is made of
aluminum (Eal = 70 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 500 mm2. Link
CD is made of steel (Est = 200 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 600
mm2.
For the 30 kN force shown, determine the deflection
a) of B, b) of D, and c) of E.

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Solution
Apply a free-body analysis to the bar BDE to find the forces exerted by
links AB and DC.

MB = 0
0 = −(30 kN  0.6 m ) + FCD  0.2 m
FCD = +90 kN tension

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 MD = 0
0 = −(30 kN  0.4 m ) − FAB  0.2 m
FAB = −60 kN compressio n
 PL
B =
• Evaluate the deformation of AE
links AB and DC or the (− 60 103 N )(0.3 m )
displacements of B and D.
=
(500 10-6 m2 )(70 109 Pa )
= −514 10− 6 m
 B = 0.514 mm 

Displacement of D

Displacement of B

PL
D =
AE
(90 103 N )(0.4 m )

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=
(600 10-6 m2 )(200 109 Pa )
= 300 10− 6 m  D = 0.300 mm 
• Work out the geometry to find the
deflection at E given the deflections
at B and D. BB BH
=

DD HD
0.514 mm (200 mm ) − x
=
0.300 mm x
x = 73.7 mm

EE  HE
=
DD HD
E
=
(400 + 73.7 )mm
0.300 mm 73.7 mm
 E = 1.928 mm

 E = 1.928 mm 

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 4.3 Principle of Superposition
Principle of superposition is to simplify stress and displacement problems
by subdividing the loading into components and adding the results.
• Apply on problems with complicated loadings.
• Loads are separated into components and the results of each component must be
added.
• Applicable for small deformation and elastic material
Condition:
1. The loading must be linearly related to the stress or displacement that is to be
determined
2. The loading must not significantly change the original geometry or configuration of the

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member
 4.3 Principle of Superposition

• If Px= Pa + Pb and l ≠ l1 ≠ l2, then the deflection at x is sum of two cases, δx = δx1 + δx2

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 4.4 Statically Indeterminate Axially Loaded Member
• A structural member is said to be statically indeterminate, if the force
equilibrium condition alone cannot be used to solve the problem.

• To overcome the problem of statically indeterminate member, another condition

at the constrain is needed. This condition is known as compatibility conditions
Statically Determinate:
i. Bar is fixed-supported at only one end and is subjected to an axial force.
ii. Force equilibrium equation is sufficient to find the reaction at fixed supported.

Statically Indeterminate:

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i. Bar is fixed at both ends, then two unknown axial reactions occur
ii. Force equilibrium equation is not sufficient to find the reaction at fixed supported.
Statically Indeterminate Axially Loaded Member

Steps for analysis:

Equilibrium

i. Identify all forces involved in a member by sketching a free-body diagram

ii. If the unknown is more than the equation of equilibrium, the problem is
considered as statically indeterminate
iii. List down all equations of equilibrium of the member

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Compatibility
i. Investigate the nature of the movement of a member by drawing a
displacement diagram
ii. Find the compatibility conditions in terms of displacement

Load-Displacement

i. Relate unknown displacement by using load displacement equation

ii. Substitutes equilibrium equation into load-displacement equation of vice-versa.

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Negative or positive value indicates the force direction
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KEY POINTS
• In superposition, two conditions must be satisfied. They are:
(i) the material must be elastic i.e., obey Hooke’s law,
(ii) deformation must be small
• For statically indeterminate, reaction member cannot be determined by
only equation of equilibrium

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 Example :

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 Solution:

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4.5 The Force Method of Analysis for Axially Loaded Member

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Compatibility & Equilibrium Analysis

Compatibility
i. One of the support must be choose as redundant define the compatibility
equation
ii. Using load-displacement relationship, find the equation of external load and
redundant displacement in terms of loading
iii. Use compatibility equation to figure out the magnitude of redundant force

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Compatibility & Equilibrium Analysis
Equilibrium

i. Establish Free Body Diagram

ii. Express equation of equilibrium for the member using result obtained from
redundant
iii. Solve equations of all reactions

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 Example

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 Solution

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Example 4
The steel rod shown has a diameter of 5 mm. It is attached to the fixed wall
at A, and before it is loaded, there is a gap between the wall at B’ and the
rod of 1 mm. Determine the reactions at A and B’ if the rod is subjected to an
axial force of P = 20 kN. Neglect the size of the collar C. Take Est = 200 GPa

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 Equilibrium:
We will assume that the force P is large enough
to cause the rod’s end B to contact the wall at B’.
Equilibrium of rod:
ΣFx = 0, -FA – FB + 20000 = 0 …… (1)

Compatibility:
The loading causes point B to move to B’,
Therefore compatibility condition is
δB/A = 0.001 = FALAC /AE – FBLCB/AE …..(2)

0.001= [FA(0.4)/π(0.0025)2 x 200(109)] – [FB(0.8)/π(0.0025)2 x 200(109)]

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FA (0.4) – FB (0.8) = 3927 ………. (3)
Solving Eqs. (1) and (3), FA = 16.6 kN, FB = 3.39 kN
Example 5
Determine the reactions at A and B for the steel bar and loading
shown, assuming a close fit at both supports before the loads are
applied.

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SOLUTION:
• Consider the reaction at B as redundant,
release the bar from that support, and solve
for the displacement at B due to the applied
loads.
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the
redundant reaction at B.
• Require that the displacements due to the
loads and due to the redundant reaction be
compatible, i.e., require that their sum be
zero.
• Solve for the reaction at A due to applied

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loads and the reaction found at B.
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the applied loads
with the redundant constraint released,

P1 = 0 P2 = P3 = 600 103 N P4 = 900 103 N

A1 = A2 = 400 10− 6 m 2 A3 = A4 = 250 10− 6 m 2

L1 = L2 = L3 = L4 = 0.150 m

Pi Li 1.125 109
L =  =
A
i i iE E

• Solve for the displacement at B due to the redundant

constraint, P = P = −R
1 2 B

A1 = 400 10− 6 m 2 A2 = 250 10− 6 m 2

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L1 = L2 = 0.300 m

δR = 
Pi Li
=−
(
1.95 103 RB )
A
i i iE E
• Require that the displacements due to the loads and due to
the redundant reaction be compatible,
 = L +R = 0

= −
(
1.125 109 1.95 103 RB
=0
)
E E
RB = 577 103 N = 577 kN
• Find the reaction at A due to the loads and the reaction at
B

 Fy = 0 = R A − 300 kN − 600 kN + 577 kN

R A = 323 kN

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RA = 323 kN
RB = 577 kN
Example 6
The center of post B of the assembly has an original length 0f 124.7 mm, whereas
posts A and C have a length of 125 mm. If the caps on the top and bottom can be
considered rigid, determine the average normal stress in each post. The post are
made of aluminium and have cross-sectional area of 400 mm2, Eal = 70 GPa.

σA = σC = 189 MPa

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σB = 21.4 MPa
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Stress Concentrations

• Stress distribution upon this section can be calculated using theory of

elasticity or Hooke’s Law, given that the material behaves elastically
• Magnitude of resultant force from stress distribution is required in
order to be equal to P

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 Stress Concentrations
• Stress concentrations occur when cross-sectional area
changes. In stress analysis, maximum stress of a section must
be known. The body will be designed to resist the stress when
outside load is applied
• Maximum stress is determined using a stress concentration
factor, K, which is a function of geometry.

 max

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K=
 avg
When an axial force is applied to a member, it creates a

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complex stress distribution within the localized region of
the point of load application.
Horizontal and vertical grid
lines deflect into an
irregular pattern around the
hole centered in the bar

General shape of the

stress distribution

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 The maximum normal stress
in the bar will occur at the
smallest cross-sectional area

The specific values of the

maximum normal stress at the
critical section can be
determined by experimental
methods or by advanced
mathematical techniques using
the theory elasticity.

The results are usually reported in a

graphical form using a stress-
concentration factor, K (ratio of the
maximum stress to the average stress

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acting at the smallest cross section).

K = σmax / σavg
σavg = P/A, where A is the smallest
cross-sectional area. σmax = K(P/A)
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Additional info:
• Material property does not influence the value ok K, but geometry and
discontinuity
• As discontinuity decreased, the stress concentration will increase

• A bar needs a change in the cross section when the edge produced the K value
greater than 3

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Additional info:

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Additional info:

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Example 10

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Example 11

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Example 12
Determine the largest axial load P that can be safely supported by a flat
steel bar consisting of two portions, both 10 mm thick, and respectively 40
and 60 mm wide, connected by fillets of radius r = 8 mm. Assume an
allowable normal stress of 165 MPa.

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SOLUTION:
• Determine the geometric ratios and find the stress concentration factor

• Find the allowable average normal stress using the material allowable normal stress
and the stress concentration factor.

• Apply the definition of normal stress to find the allowable load.

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 • Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor
from Fig.
D 60 mm r 8 mm
= = 1.50 = = 0.20
d 40 mm d 40 mm
K = 1.82

• Find the allowable average normal

stress using the material allowable
normal stress and the stress
concentration factor.
 max 165 MPa
 ave = = = 90.7 MPa
K 1.82

• Apply the definition of normal stress

to find the allowable load.
P = A ave = (40 mm )(10 mm )(90.7 MPa )

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= 36.3 103 N
P = 36.3 kN
Key points!

• Change in the area of a cross section will produce stress

concentration. Bigger change yield larger stress concentration
• In design and analysis, stress concentration factor K is
important in determining maximum stress acting on smallest
area of cross section on a body

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