UNIT: INDUSTRIAL MACHINES & CONTROL TOPIC: INSTRUMENTATION

INTRODUCTION

Instrumentation is the development or use of measuring instruments for observation, monitoring or control. An
instrument is a device that measures a physical quantity, such as flow, temperature, level, distance, angle, or
pressure. Instruments may be as simple as direct reading hand-held thermometers or as complex as multi-variable
process analyzers. Although instrumentation is often used to measure and control process variables within a
laboratory or manufacturing industries, it can be found in the household as well. A smoke detector is one example of
a common instrument found in some homes.

ELEMENTS OF INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM

The following are the elements of instrumentation system:

 Transducer
 Signal conditioner

Sensors and Transducers

Transducer/Sensor converts input energy from one form to another form. According to the type, output sensors are
classified in two types: digital sensors and analog sensors.

The sensors which can produce a digital output signal, that is a digital representation of the input signal, having
discrete values of magnitude measured at discrete times, are called digital sensors. A digital sensor must output logic
levels that are compatible with the digital receiver. Examples of digital sensors include switches and position
encoders.

Analog sensors produce an output signal that is directly proportional to the input signal, and is continuous in both
magnitude and in time. Most physical variables such as temperature, pressure and acceleration are continuous in
nature and are readily measured with an analog sensor. For example, some common analog sensors and the physical
variables they measure are listed below.

Table 14.2 Common analog sensors

Sensor Physical Variable

 Thermocouple  Temperature
 Microphone  Pressure
 Pressure gauge  Pressure
 Photodiode  Light intensity
 Strain gauge  Force
 LVDT  Displacement

When choosing the best analog sensor to use, you must match the characteristics of the physical variable you are
measuring with the characteristics of the sensor. The two most important sensor characteristics are
 The sensor output
 The sensor bandwidth

Signal Conditioner

A signal conditioner is a device that converts one type of electronic signal into another type of signal. Its primary use
is to convert a signal that may be difficult to read by conventional instrumentation into a more easily read format. In
performing this conversion, a number of functions may take place.

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Most sensors and transducers generate signals that must be conditioned before a measurement or data acquisition
system (DAQ) device can reliably and accurately acquire the signal. This front-end processing is referred to as signal
conditioning. A signal conditioner may create excitation for certain transducers such as strain gauges and resistance
temperature detectors, which require external excitation voltages or currents. The main tasks performed by signal
conditioning are as follows:

 Filtering
 Amplification
 Linearization
 Isolation
 Excitation

1. Filtering

In noisy environments, it is very difficult to acquire low magnitude signals received from sensors such as signals
from thermocouples and strain gauges (in the order of mV). If the noise is of the same or greater order of
magnitude than the required signal, the noise must first be filtered out. Signal conditioning equipment often
contain low-pass filters designed to eliminate high-frequency noise that can lead to inaccurate data.

Filtering is a process by which the unwanted noise frequencies are removed from the source signal. This is done
before the signal is amplified to feed to the DAQ system.

Ideally, a filter should have a very sharp cut-off frequency, in order to separate the useful frequencies from the
noise frequencies. However, most practical filters do not accurately attenuate the undesired frequencies beyond
the desired range.

In general, analog filter hardware consists of two types of filters—namely active filters and passive filters.

While active filters use components like OP-AMPs, passive filters consist of passive components like capacitors,
inductors and resistors. They provide cheap hardware for filtering action. However, such filters are not ideal and
they do not accurately attenuate the noise amplitudes.

In intelligent signal-conditioning modules, however, integrating A/D converters go a long way to averaging
(filtering) out any cyclical noise appearing at the input.

Alternatively, software averaging may also be used to eliminate periodic system noises such as mains hum.

Filters have certain attributes which define them. They are as following:

i) Cut-off Frequency
It is the frequency beyond which the filter attenuates all the frequencies. It can be high pass or low-pass cut-off
frequency as required by the device. In general, cut-off frequency is considered as frequency where the normalized
gain of the signal drops below 0.707 times the maximum gain.

ii) Roll Off

This is the slope of the amplitude versus the frequency graph at the region of the cut-off frequency. This
characteristic differentiates an ideal filter from a non-ideal filter.

iii) Quality Factor

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This factor determines the gain of the filter at the resonant frequency and the roll-off of the transfer characteristics
on both sides of the resonant frequency. Active filters are more frequently used as against the passive filters due to
their sharper roll-off and better stability.

iv) Types of Filters

There are four kinds of filters, namely
a) Low-pass filter
b) High-pass filter
c) Band-pass filter
d) Band-stop filter

a) Low-Pass Filter A low-pass filter allows the low frequencies to pass while attenuates the higher frequencies.
Figure 14.2 shows the ideal low-pass filter characteristics, where 𝜔𝑃 is the filter cut-off frequency. Figure 14.3
shows the circuit diagram of an active low-pass filter. The actual filter response deviates from the original when
implemented. Figure 14.4 shows the practical filter characteristics.

Figure 14.2 Ideal low-pass filter characteristics. Figure 14.3 Circuit diagram of an active low-pass filter

Figure 14.4 Practical low-pass filter characteristics

Figures 14.2 and 14.3 shows the circuit diagram and the transfer characteristics of a low-pass filter respectively. As
we can see, a low-pass filter allows the low frequencies to pass while attenuates the higher frequencies.

b) High-Pass Filter A high-pass filter allows the high frequencies to pass while attenuates the lower frequencies.
Figure 14.5 shows the ideal high-pass filter characteristics, where wp is the filter cut-off frequency. Figure 14.6
shows the circuit diagram of an active high pass filter. The actual filter response deviates from the original
when implemented. Figure 14.7 shows the practical filter characteristics.

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Figure 14.5 Ideal high-pass filter characteristics. Figure 14.6 Circuit diagram of an active high-pass filter

Figure 14.7 Practical high-pass filter characteristics

c) Band-Pass (selective) Filter These are filters which allow frequencies within a certain range, bound by an upper
(wp2) and a lower (wp1) cut-off frequency to pass through, attenuating other frequencies. These are also
known as selective filters and they combine a low-pass and a high-pass filter in series to give selected band of
frequency allowance. Figure 14.8 and 14.9 shows the characteristics of band-pass filter for an ideal and a real
filter respectively.

Figure 14.8 Ideal band-pass filter characteristics. Figure 14.9 Practical band-pass filter characteristics

d) Band-stop (Notch) Filters This kind of filter attenuates a certain band of frequencies and lets all other
frequencies to pass through. They use a parallel combination of a high and low-pass filters to give the required
attenuation of a band of frequencies. They are also known as notch. Figure 14.10 and 14.11 show the ideal and
practical band-stop filter characteristics of a band-stop filter.

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Figure 14.10 Ideal band-stop filter characteristics. Figure 14.11 Ideal band-stop filter characteristics

e) Butterworth Filter This is a kind of active filter which provides a better level of low-pass filtering. This is
achieved by cascading two or more stages of low-pass filters. The number of stages of filtering determines how
sharp the roll-off is at the cut-off frequency. Figure 14.12 shows a two-stage Butterworth filter.

Figure 14.12 A two-stage Butterworth filter

2. Amplification

It is a process by which an input signal of weak signal strength (low amplitude) is converted into a signal of higher
signal strength (high amplitude), so as to be readable by the processing devices.

In signal conditioning, amplification serves two main purposes:

 Increases resolution of the input signal

 Increases Signal-to-Noise ratio (SNR)

Amplification mainly serves for increasing resolution of the input signal. If, for example, a low-level signal of the
order of a few mV is fed to a 12-bit ADC, there will be a loss of precision as the resolution of the ADC is of the order
of 2 mV. However, if the signal is amplified to the order of 10 V (full scale voltage for ADC), we get the maximum
precision. The highest possible resolution can be achieved by amplifying the input signal so that the maximum input
voltage swing equals the maximum input range of the ADC.

Another important function of amplification is to achieve high signal-to-noise ratio. Amplifying a signal before
sending it through a cable to the receiving end enables high SNR to the noises introduced in the path having noise
interference. This ensures the improved precision of the measurement. If, however, the signal is amplified after the
noise interference causes low SNR which implies the noise causes a considerable error in the input signal

3. Linearization

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It is the modification of a system so that its outputs are approximately linear functions of its inputs, in order to
facilitate analysis of the system.

It is seen that sometimes the data output by transducers bears a non-linear relationship with the measured
phenomenon over a range of the measured variable. A good example of such relation is thermocouples. Such non-
linear relationships need to be properly linearized for analysis of data. Typically, the DAQ software facilitates the
linearization of the signals. However, if the signal has a periodic and repeatable non-linear relation, an intelligent
signal conditioning hardware may as well provide such linearization. This however, requires the signal conditioning
module to be modified for a particular type of transducer. The result then can be sent directly to the host PC
directly without undergoing linearization as the signal is directly related to the measured phenomenon

4. Isolation

Signal-conditioning equipment can also be used to provide isolation of transducer signals from the computer where
there is a possibility that high-voltage transients may occur within the system being monitored, either due to
electrostatic discharge or electrical failure. Isolation protects expensive computer equipment from damage and
computer operators from injury. In addition, where common-mode voltage levels are high or there is a need for
extremely low common-mode leakage current, as for medical applications, isolation allows measurements to be
accurately and safely obtained.

Isolation in signal conditioning refers to the transmission signal from the source to measuring device without
physical connection. The most common methods of circuit isolation include opto-isolation, magnetic or capacitive
isolation. While opto-isolation is used for digital signals, magnetic and capacitive isolations are used for analog
signals. Magnetic or capacitive isolation involves the modulation of the signal converting it from voltage to
frequency signal and the transmitting it over a transformer or a capacitor, when it is again converted back to a
voltage signal.

Isolation of the signal source is very crucial where there is a risk of high voltage transients caused by electrostatic
discharge, lightning, or high-voltage equipment failure, which may ruin the expensive DAQ equipment if not
isolated from the signal source and may also cause serious injuries to humans handling the equipment. Also using
isolation prevents complexities caused by common-mode voltages and ground loops.

System isolation can be carried out in the following ways:

 By using isolation transformer in order to reject the common-mode voltage appearing on the signal lines
 By using buffer amplifiers to isolate the input signals from ground noise
 By isolating system ground references

5. Excitation

The transducers generally provide for the excitation signals required by the DAQ hardware and data manipulation.
However, in some cases, the transducers require external excitation due to weak signal generation, non-electrical
signal generation or due to noise interference and other factors. The signal-conditioning hardware provides for
such excitation signals. The transducers which convert the non-electrical values into electrical (voltage or current)
signals are known as active transducers. These transducers do not generally require external excitation. Other
devices known as passive transducers change an electrical network value, such as resistance, inductance or
capacitance, according to changes in the physical quantity being measured. Strain gauges (resistive change to

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stress) and LVDTs (inductance change to displacement) are two examples of this. To be able to detect such
changes, passive devices require external excitation.

SIGNAL PROCESSING METHODS

i) Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)

Analog outputs commonly are used to operate final control elements in industrial environments like valves and
motors. An analog output subsystem mainly consists of a Digital-to-Analog (D/A) converter, which is functionally
opposite to an A/D converter. Similar to analog input configurations, a common D/A converter often is shared
among multiplexed output signals. Standard analog output ranges are often same as analog input standards: ±5 V
dc, ±10 V dc, 0–10 V dc, and 4–20 mA dc, etc.

A digital-to-analog converter, or simply DAC, is a semiconductor device that is used to convert a digital code into an
analog signal. Digital-to-analog conversion is the primary means by which digital equipment such as computer-
based systems are able to translate digital data into real-world signals that are more understandable to or useable
by humans, such as music, speech, pictures, video, and the like. It also allows digital control of machines,
equipment, household appliances, and the like.

Essentially, the logic circuitry for an analog voltage output uses a digital word or series of bits, to drop in (or drop
out, depending on whether the bit is 1 or 0) a series of resistors from a circuit driven by a reference voltage. This
ladder of resistors can be made of either weighted-value resistors or an R-2R network using only two resistor
values—one if placed in series (Figure 14.16). While operation of the weighted-value network is more intuitively
obvious, the R-2R scheme is more practical. Because only one resistor value need be used, it is easier to match the
temperature coefficients of an R-2R ladder than a weighted network, resulting in more accurate outputs. Plus, for
high resolution outputs, very high resistor values are needed in the weighted-resistor approach.

Figure 14.16 Weighted value and single-value resistor networks for D/A conversion

By the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, sampled data can be reconstructed perfectly provided that its
bandwidth meets certain requirements (e.g., a base-band signal with bandwidth less than the Nyquist frequency).
However, even with an ideal reconstruction filter, digital sampling introduces quantization error that makes perfect
reconstruction practically impossible. Increasing the digital resolution (i.e., increasing the number of bits used in
each sample) or introducing sampling dither can reduce this error.

ii) Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)

A process of converting an analog signal into a digital signal comprises measuring the amplitude of the analog signal
at consistent time intervals and producing a set of signals representing the measured digital value. The information
in the digital signals and the known time interval enables one to convert the digital signal back to the analog signal.
Analog to digital conversion of a continuous input signal normally occurs in two steps: sampling and quantization.

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The sampler takes a time-varying analog input signal and converts it to a fixed voltage, current, electrical charge, or
other output level. The quantiser takes the constant sampled level and compares it to the closest level from a
discrete range of values called quantization levels. The performance of analog and digital converters is typically
quantified by two primary parameters, speed (in samples per second) and resolution (in bits). Higher resolution A/D
converters typically require a large signal-to-noise ratio and good linearity. A/D converters with high sampling rates
are frequently desired, but generally have lower resolution. There are two basic techniques for performing analog-
to-digital conversion: an open-loop technique and a feedback technique.

A/D converter includes a reference voltage generator for generating a plurality of reference voltages, a first group
of amplifiers having a plurality of amplifiers. Each of these amplifies a difference voltage between each reference
voltage (generated by the reference voltage generator and a voltage of an input signal) and a second group of
amplifiers having a plurality of amplifiers. It is used when higher speed operation is required. This design uses
multiple comparators in parallel to process samples at more than 100 MHz with 8 to 12-bit resolution. Conversion
is accomplished by a string of comparators with appropriate references operating in parallel (Figure 14.14).

The downside of this design is the large number of relatively expensive comparators that are required—for
example; a 12-bit converter requires 4,095 comparators.

Figure 14.14 A/D Conversion by Flash/Parallel technique

Example 1
An analog to digital converter (ADC) measures voltages in the range of 0 to 25 V and has 12-bit accuracy. What is
the smallest voltage step that the ADC can resolve?

Solution 12 bits = 212 = 4096

Therefore, the ADC can measure 4096 different values of voltage (from 0 to 4095 inclusive), the number of voltage
steps is thus 4095 (one fewer than the number of different values available). Assuming that we set digital 0 to be
equivalent to 0 V and digital 4095 to be equivalent to 25 V, each voltage step is simply given by

25 V/4095 = 0.006105 V = 6.105 mV

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Example 2
Determine the number of output bits required for an ADC so that quantising error less than 1 %.

Solution For 1 % quantising error, count ≥ 100.

For n = 6, N = 26 – 1 = 63

For n = 7, N = 27 – 1 = 127

iii) Voltage to Frequency Conversion

An analog voltage can be converted into digital form by producing pulses whose frequency is proportional to the
analog input voltage. These pulses are counted by a counter for a fixed duration and the reading of the counter will
be proportional to the frequency of the pulses, and hence, to the analog voltage.

A block diagram of a voltage to frequency ADC is shown in Figure 10.11. The analog input voltage VA is applied to
an integrator which in turn produces a ramp signal whose slope is proportional to the input voltage. When the
output voltage V0 attains a certain value (a preset threshold level), a trigger pulse is produced and also a current
pulse is generated which is used to discharge the integrator capacitor C. Now a new ramp is initiated. The time
between successive threshold level crossings is inversely proportional to the slope of the ramp. Since the ramp
slope is proportional to the input analog voltage VA, the frequency of the output pulses from the comparator is,
therefore, directly proportional to the input analog voltage. This output frequency may be measured with the help
of a digital frequency counter.

Figure 10.11 Block diagram of a voltage to frequency

The above method provides measurement of the true average of the input signal over the ramp duration, and so
provides high discrimination against noise present at the input.

However, the digitizing rates are slow because of high integration durations. The accuracy of this method is
comparable with the ramp type ADC, and is limited by the stability of the integrator time constant, and the stability
and accuracy of the comparator.

iv) Frequency to Voltage Converter

v) Electrical to Pneumatic Converter
vi) Pneumatic to Electrical Converter
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DATA PROCESSING ELEMENTS

1. ANALOG RECORDING ELEMENTS

These kinds of recorders are used to record analog signals in the form of a chart paper for keeping the record
permanently. Despite the present emphasis by the electronics industry on digital instrumentation, the use of
analog recorders is still popular. As they present an instantaneous visual indication of the data being recorded, they
fit it in an analog way, which is often more meaningful than digital indication to people in the laboratory or on the
production line.

There are basically three types of analog recorders available:

a) graphic,
b) oscillographic and
c) magnetic tape recorders.

(a) Graphic Recorders

A graphic recorder is basically a measuring device which is able to produce in real time a hard copy of a set of time
functions with the purpose of immediate and/or later visual inspection. The curves/lines are mostly drawn on a
(long) strip of paper (from a roll), often called strip chart recorder. When the curves are drawn on a circular paper,
it is called a circular chart recorder, and when two independent variables are to be recorded on a piece of paper
with respect to each other, it is called an X-Y recorder.

i) Strip Chart Recorder

A strip chart recorder records physical variable with respect to the independent variable time on a long paper kept
in the form of a roll. The independent variable time (t) then corresponds to the strip-length axis and the physical
variables measured (y) are related to the chart width. Tracings are obtained by a writing process at sites on the
chart short axis (y) corresponding to the physical variables magnitudes with the strip being moved at constant
velocity to generate the time axis. Graphs cannot be interpreted if essential information is absent; scales and
reference levels for each physical variable recorded and for time are all necessities. Additional information
concerning the experimental conditions of the recording is also necessary and is preferably printed by the
apparatus (data, investigated item, type of experiment, etc.). Figure 15.1 shows different components of a strip
chart recorder. A typical industrial strip chart recorder is shown in Figure 15.2

Strip chart recorders consist of a roll or strip of paper that is passed linearly beneath one or more pens. As the
signal changes, the pens deflect producing the resultant chart. Strip chart recorders are well suited for recording of
continuous processes.

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Figure 15.1 Strip chart recorder Figure 15.2 Industrial strip chart recorder

A strip chart consists of the following:

 Chart/Paper Long graph paper kept on two rollers, lower roller drags the paper vertically with the help of a
motor.
 Chart Speed Selector Controls the speed of the roller at some specified speed selected by the operator and
hence controls the time scale.
 Range Selector Amplifier or attenuator which is to be adjusted according to the amplitude level of physical
variable. If the physical variable to be recorded is of very low amplitude then it needs to be amplified with
proper gain. The gain value is adjusted by selecting proper range.
 Stylus Driving System Moves the stylus in proportion to the physical variable to be recorded, in most
recorders, a synchronous motor is used for driving the paper.
 Stylus Create marking/impression on the moving graph paper [most recorders use a pointer attached to
the stylus, which (pointer) moves over a calibrated scale thus showing instantaneous value of the quantity
being measured].

The most commonly used mechanisms employed for making marks on the papers are
 Pen and ink: Marking with ink-filled stylus
 Thermal type: Marking with heated stylus on temperature sensitive paper (e.g., fax paper)
 Impact type: Marking with pressure sensitive paper (e.g., carbon paper)
 Electrostatic stylus: Marking with charged stylus on plain paper
 Optical type: Marking with light ray on photosensitive paper

ii) Circular Chart Recorder

A circular chart recorder records data in a circular format. The paper is spun beneath one or more pens as shown in
Figure 15.5. The pens are deflected in proportion to the varying signal resulting in a circular chart. Circular chart
recorders are ideal for batch processes where a set process time is known. The charts are normally designed to
rotate in standard time periods, such as 1 hour, 24 hours, 7 days, etc., although many recorders are flexible enough
to accommodate non-standard time periods.

These recorders were developed mainly to take advantage of the availability and convenience of a spring-wound
clock and synchronous motor movements to drive the chart in a circular direction. The circular chart used here has
concentric circles ruled on it to form its scales as shown in Figure 15.5. In addition, there are printed arcs extending

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from the centre of the chart to the paper’s edge. As the pen of the recorder is moved, it swings along these arcs;
these arcs are called the ‘time arcs’. The speed of the rotation of the chart is usually one revolution per 24 hours or
per seven days or any other speed, which can be conveniently obtained by using a synchronous motor with suitable
gear assembly. The radial position of the pen at any time indicates the instantaneous value of the quantity under
measurement. A typical industrial circular recorder is shown in Figure 15.6.

Figure 15.5 Circular chart recorder. Figure 15.6 Industrial circular chart recorder

Chart diameter is limited to a maximum of 0.3 m. Speed of the chart is also limited, resolution along the scale
length is usually non-uniform and the charts do not run for a long period. Magnitude of several variables can be
recorded on a single chart which makes it easy and convenient to analyze the interrelationship of various
measurements and also saves the panel mounting space.

The various drives for circular charts are classified as follows:

 Mechanical (spring clock drive)
 Pneumatic (air lock drive)
 Electric (synchronous regulated dc motor or motor wound spring)
 Dual powered drive (duplex), i.e., a synchronous motor and spring clock mechanical drive
 Externally controlled drives

Circular chart recorders are particularly suitable for direct actuation by a number of mechanical sensors such as
bellows, bourdon tubes, etc.

iii) X-Y Recorder

With the development of the potentiometric principle, users were aware that a record was often required as the
resultant of two varying signals, and thus the X-Y plotter was introduced (Figure 15.7). Today, X-Y plotters are as
flexible as conventional potentiometric instruments, except that they have two completely independent
servosystems to operate the X and Y channels. The two most popular sizes are A4 and A3 (297 mm × 210 mm, 420
mm × 297 mm, respectively). Sensitivities similar to those obtainable with Y-t instruments are achieved, and, often,
the more comprehensive instruments are also fitted with a time axis t, which provides single or repetitive time
sweeps against the Y axis.

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XY recorders accept two inputs and create a chart or graph of one input versus the other. They are commonly used
to determine the relationship between the two inputs. For example, in a chemical process, an XY recorder might be
used to monitor the effect temperature has on the pressure of the process. A typical industrial XY recorder is
shown in Figure 15.7.

Figure 15.7 Industrial XY recorder

This system has a pen which can be positioned along the two axes with the writing paper remaining stationary.
There are two amplifier units, one amplifier actuates the pen in the Y-direction as the input signal is applied, while
the second amplifier actuates the pen in the X-direction. The movements of the pen in X-and Y-directions are
automatically controlled by means of a motor, pulleys and a linear potentiometer. Obviously, trace of the marking
pen will be due to the combined effects of two signals applied simultaneously. In these recorders, an emf is plotted
as a function of another emf There are many variations of X-Y recorders. With the help of these recorders and
appropriate transducers, a physical quantity may be plotted against another physical quantity. Figure 15.8 shows a
block diagram of a typical analog X-Y recorder.

Figure 15.8 Different components of an XY recorder

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A signal enters in each of the two channels.

The signals are attenuated to the inherent full-scale range of the recorder (often 0.5 mA). The signal then passes to
a balance circuit where it is compared with an internal reference voltage.

The error signal (i.e., the difference between the input signal voltage and the reference voltage) is fed to a
“chopper” which converts dc signal to an ac signal.

The signal is then amplified in order to actuate a servomotor which is used to balance the system and hold it in
balance as the value of the quantity being recorded changes.

The action described above takes place in both the axes simultaneously. Thus, we get a record of one variable with
respect of another.

Advantages

 The instantaneous relationship between two physical quantities can be recorded.

 The relationship between either electrical or non-electrical quantities can be recorded.
 In modem types of recorders, zero offset adjustments are available.

Applications A few examples in which use of X-Y recorders are used are as under:
 Plotting of stress-strain curves, hysteresis curves and vibrations amplitude against swept frequency
 Pressure-volume diagrams for LC engines
 Pressure-flow studies for lungs
 Lift drags wind tunnel tests
 Electrical characteristics of materials such as resistance versus temperature
 Plotting the output from electronic calculators and computers
 Speed-torque characteristics of motor
 Regulation curves of power supplies
 Plotting of characteristics of vacuum tubes, Zener diodes, rectifiers and transistors, etc.

iv) Hybrid Recorders

Hybrid chart recorders represent the latest generation of chart recorder and basically consist of a potentiometric
chart recorder with an added microprocessor. The microprocessor provides for selection of range and chart speed,
and also allows specification of alarm modes and levels to detect when measured variables go outside acceptable
limits. Additional information can also be printed on charts, such as names, times and dates of variables recorded.
Microprocessor-based, hybrid versions of circular chart recorders also now exist. A typical industrial hybrid
recorder is shown in Figure 15.9.

A hybrid recorder can function as a recorder or data logger. Like a standard recorder, the hybrid recorder can
generate a chart of the inputs. However, it can also produce a digital stamp of the data similar to a data logger.
They are commonly available in multichannel designs although one print head normally handles all channels. This
makes the hybrid recorder a cost-effective solution for multichannel systems although the response time is not as
fast as recorders which have a unique pen for each channel.

v) Paperless Recorders

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Paperless recorders are one of the latest types of recorders to emerge on the market. Paperless recorders display
the chart on the recorders’ graphic display rather than print the chart on paper. The data can normally be recorded
in internal memory or to a memory card for later transfer to a computer. The major benefit of paperless recorders
is conservation of paper and easy transfer to a computer. A typical industrial paperless recorder is shown in Figure
15.10.

Figure 15.9 Industrial hybrid recorder. Figure 15.10 Industrial paperless recorder

vi) Ultraviolet Recorders

The limited bandwidth problem of galvanometric recorders are due to system moment of inertia and spring
constants can be reduced limited to the maximum bandwidth to about 100 Hz. Ultraviolet recorders work on very
similar principles to standard galvanometric chart recorders, but achieve a very significant reduction in system
inertia and spring constants by mounting a narrow mirror rather than a pen system on the moving coil. This mirror
reflects a beam of ultraviolet light onto ultraviolet sensitive paper. It is usual to find several of these mirror-
galvanometer systems mounted in parallel within one instrument to provide a multi-channel recording capability,
as illustrated in Figure 15.11.

Figure 15.11 Internal recording components of UV recorder

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This arrangement enables signals at frequencies up to 13 kHz to be recorded with a typical inaccuracy of ±2% full
scale, while it is possible to obtain satisfactory permanent signal recordings by this method. Special precautions are
necessary to protect the ultraviolet sensitive paper from light before use and to spray a fixing lacquer on it after
recording. Such instruments must also be handled with extreme care, because the mirror galvanometers and their
delicate mounting systems are easily damaged by relatively small shocks. In addition, ultraviolet recorders are
significantly more expensive than standard chart recorders.

b) Magnetic Disk Tape Type Recorder

At present, magnetic recording technology dominates the recording industry. It is used in the forms of hard disk,
floppy disk, removable disk, and tape with either digital or analog mode. In its simplest form, it consists of a
magnetic head and a magnetic medium, as shown in Figure15.12. The head is made of a piece of magnetic material
in a ring shape (core), with a small gap facing the medium and a coil away from the medium. The head records
(writes) and reproduces (reads) information, while the medium stores the information. The recording process is
based on the phenomenon that an electric current I generates a magnetic flux f as described by Ampere’s law. The
flux f leaks out of the head core at the gap, and magnetises the magnetic medium which moves from left to right
with a velocity V under the head gap. Depending on the direction of the electric current i, the medium is
magnetized with magnetization M pointing either left or right. This pattern of magnetization is retained in the
memory of the medium even after the head moves away.

Magnetic tapes are still popular in several areas such as

 Medical research
 Patient monitoring
 Surveillance
 Spying
 Production control

Figure 15.12 Magnetic tape recording

(B) DIGITAL RECORDING

Digital recorder records the data in the form of ‘1’ and ‘0’. There are several types of digital recorders. The
following section discusses data loggers and magnetic-type digital recorders.

i) Data Logger
Data loggers are is a stand-alone device that can record information electronically from internal or external sensors
or other equipment that provide digital or serial outputs.

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Key Features of Data Loggers

 Stand-alone Operation Most data loggers are normally configured with a PC, some models can be
configured from the front panel provided by the manufacturer. Once the data loggers are configured, they
don’t need the PC to operate.
 Support for Multiple Sensor Types Data loggers often have universal input type which can accept input
from common sensors like thermocouple, RTD, humidity, voltage, etc.
 Local Data Storage All data loggers have local data storage or internal memory unit, so all the measured
data is stored within the logger for later transfer to a PC.
 Automatic Data Collection Data loggers are designed to collect data at regular intervals, 24 hours a day and
365 days a year if necessary, and the collection mode is often configurable.

Data logging and recording are both analog terms in the field of measurement. Data logging is basically measuring
and recording of any physical phenomena or electrical parameter over a period of time. The physical phenomena
can be temperature, strain, displacement, flow, pressure, voltage, current, resistance, power, and many other
parameters. Typical industrial data loggers are shown in Figure 15.16.

Figure 15.16 Typical data loggers

The data logger collects information about the state of any physical system from the sensors. Then the data logger
converts this signal into a digital form with the help of an A/D converter. This digital signal is then stored in some
electronic storage unit, which can be easily transferred to the computer for further the analysis, the schematic
diagram of a data-logging application in industrial environment is shown in Figure 15.17.

Figure 15.17 Industrial data logging and display

A few basic components that every data logger must have are shown in Figure 15.17, which are:

 Hardware components like sensors, signal conditioning, and analog-to-digitalconverter, etc.

 Long-term data storage, typically onboard memory or a PC
 Software for collecting data, analysing and viewing
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Functions of Data Loggers

Beyond the acquiring and storing data, a data logger often performs various kinds of other jobs like offline and
online analysis, display, sharing data with other devices connected with the network, reporting events and
providing alarm whenever some critical situation arises. A complete data-logging application typically requires most
of the elements shown in Figure 15.18.

Figure 15.18 Different components of data loggers

ii) Digital Tape Recording

The very mention of the name digital tape recording brings the picture of hard drives, flash memories, etc. to our
mind, but this also refers to another method of recording on the good old magnetic tape as well. Figure 15.19
shows the digital tape-recording mechanism.

Figure 15.19 Digital tape-recording mechanism

The only difference is that the signals are recorded in the form of 0s and1s which are typical of the digital world.
Obviously, it would require modulation of some form or the other, to convert analog to digital signals and hence
there are several methods of magnetic tape recording which fall under the category of digital recording.

Some of these methods are

 Return-to-bias method
 Return-to-zero method
 Non-Return-to-zero method

The detailed description of these methods would be a bit too complicated here so we will just go through the basics
of one of these, let us say the Return-to-Bias (RB) method. Figure (15.19) schematically shows the digital
recording/reproducing process. First, all user data are encoded into a binary format—a serial of 1s and 0s. Then a
write current i is sent to the coil. This current change its direction whenever a 1 is being written. Correspondingly, a
change of magnetization, termed a transition, is recorded in the medium for each 1 in the encoded data. During the
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reproducing process, the electric voltage induced in the head coil reaches a peak whenever there is a transition in
the medium. A pulse detector generates a pulse for each transition. These pulses are decoded to yield the user
data. The minimum distance between two transitions in the medium is the flux change length B, and the distance
between two adjacent signal tracks is the track pitch W, which is wider than the signal track width w. The flux
change length can be directly converted into bit length with the proper code information. The reciprocal of the bit
length is called linear density, and the reciprocal of the track pitch is termed track density. The information storage
area density in the medium is the product of the linear density and the track density. This area density roughly
determines how much information a user can store in a unit surface area of storage medium, and is a figure of
merit for a recording technique. Much effort has been expended to increase the areal density. For example, it has
been increased 50 times during 90’s.

DISPLAY SYSTEM

The display system acts as a final link between the measuring process and the user. If the display is not easy to see
and easy to understand then that process is compromised. The user’s sensory capabilities and cognitive
characteristics, therefore, must both be addressed in display-system selection. Furthermore, display technologies
and performance capabilities are easier to evaluate in the context of their intended application. The following are
the various kind of commonly used display system.

1) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) was developed for television in the 40s. Now it has wide range of applications in
oscilloscopes, radar and monitors, etc. It consists of a glass envelope made from a neck and cone. All air has been
extracted so that it contains a vacuum. At the narrow end are pins which make connection with an internal electron
gun, as shown in Figure 15.20. Voltages are applied to this gun to produce a beam of electrons. This electron beam
is projected towards the inside face of the screen.

Different basic component of CRTs is electron gun, electron accelerating anode, horizontal and vertical electric field
coils, electron beam and a screen coated with phosphor. The electron gun generates a narrow beam of electrons.
The anodes accelerate the electrons. Deflecting coils produce an extremely low-frequency electric field that allows
for constant adjustment of the direction of the electron beam. There are two sets of deflecting coils: horizontal and
vertical. (In the figure, only one set of coils is shown for simplicity). The intensity of the beam can be varied. The
electron beam produces a tiny, bright visible spot when it strikes the phosphor-coated screen. The screen is
covered with a fine layer of phosphorescent elements, called phosphors, which emit light by excitation when
electrons strike them, creating a lit-up dot called a pixel.

Figure 15.20 Internal components of a CRT

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To produce an image on the screen, complex signals are applied to the deflecting coils, and also to the apparatus
that controls the intensity of the electron beam. This causes the spot to race across the screen from right to left,
and from top to bottom, in a sequence of horizontal lines called the raster. As viewed from the front of the CRT, the
spot moves in a pattern similar to the way your eyes move when you read a single-column page of text. But the
scanning takes place at such a rapid rate that your eye sees a constant image over the entire screen.

The illustration shows only one electron gun. This is typical of a monochrome, or single-colour CRTs. However,
virtually all CRTs today render colour images. These devices have three electron guns, one for the primary colour
red, one for the primary colour green, and one for the primary colour blue. The CRT thus produces three
overlapping images: one in red (R), one in green (G), and one in blue (B). This is the so called RGB colour model.

2) Light Emitting Diode (LED)

One of the cheapest and convenient ways to display information electronically is by using Light-Emitting Diodes
(LEDs). It is basically a p-n junction photodiode when excited at forward-bias condition emits. It can be easily
interfaced with a simple electronic circuit and is durable and reliable. These LEDs are often arranged in different
formats to display information. Among these, the seven segments configuration and dot matrix display are very
common and widely used. The seven-segment configuration of an LED arranged in the form of the digit 8 can be
restrictive in that it does not adequately allow the display of some alphanumeric characters. By contrast, the
versatility of a dot-matrix arrangement allows an LED unit to display more complicated shapes. There are two
common methods of LED unit display: seven-segment and dot-matrix LED display.

i) The Seven Segment Display

One common requirement for many different digital devices is a visual display. Individual LEDs can of course display
the binary states, i.e., ‘ON’ or OFF’. But when some numbers or characters are to be displayed then some
arrangement of the LEDs are required. One possibility is a matrix of LEDs in a 7 × 5 array. However, if only numbers
are to be displayed then this becomes a bit expensive. A much better way is to arrange the minimum possible
number of LEDs in such a way that it can represent a number requiring only 7 LEDs. A common technique is to use a
shaped piece of translucent plastic to operate as a specialized optical fibre, to distribute the light from the LED
evenly over a fixed bar shape. The seven bars are laid out as a squared-off figure “8”. The result is known as a
seven-segment LED.

Seven-segment displays having a wide range of applications. They used in clocks, watches, digital instruments,
digital balances and many household appliances already have such displays.

There are basically two type of seven-segment displays—common cathode and common anode. The common-
anode type is shown in Figure 15.21, where ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’, ‘e’, ‘f’ and ‘g’ represent individual LEDs which are
arranged as shown in the figure. In order to display numbers often decimal point have to be displayed. For that,
another LED has been added, which is represented by ‘dp’ (decimal point).

A typical seven-segment display unit is shown in Figure 15.22. Figure 15.23 shows the pin diagram of a common
anode type seven-segment display. That means that the positive leg of each LED is connected to a common point
which is the Pin 3 in this case. Each LED has a negative leg that is connected to one of the pins of the device. To
make it work, you need to connect the pin 3 to 5 volts. Then to make each segment light up, connect the ground
pin for that LED to ground. A resistor is required to limit the current. Rather than using a resistor from each LED to
ground, you can just use one resistor from Vcc to the pin 3 to limit the current.

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Figure 15.21 Common anode connection of seven segment display unit

Figure 15.22 Typical seven segment display unit. Figure 15.23 Pin diagram of seven segment display unit

Table 15.1 shows how to form the numbers 0 to 9 and the letters A, B, C, d, E, and F. ‘0’ means that pin is
connected to ground. ‘1’ means that pin is connected to Vcc.

Table 15.1 Forming numbers and letters.

a (pin 1) b (Pin 10) c (Pin 8) d (Pin 6) e (Pin 5) f (Pin 2) g (Pin 9)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
3 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
4 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
6 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
7 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
A 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
B 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
C 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
D 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
E 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
F 0 1 11 1 0 0 0

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3) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

The Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) has been one of the enabling technologies of the current electronic revolution. It is
an essential part of every mobile phone, every laptop and every personal organizer. Liquid crystal is an organic
compound that polarizes any light that passes through it. A liquid crystal also responds to an applied electric field
by changing the alignment of its molecules, and in so doing changing the direction of the light polarization that it
introduces. Liquid crystals can be trapped between two parallel sheets of glass, with a matching pattern of
transparent electrode on each sheet. Figure 15.27 shows different layers of a typical LCD display. When a voltage is
applied to the electrodes, the optical character of the crystal changes and the electrode pattern appears in the
crystal. A huge range of LCDs has been developed, including those based on seven segment digits or dot matrix
formats, as well as a variety of graphical forms. Many general-purpose displays are available commercially.

The liquid crystal fluid is the active medium that is used to create an image. It consists of a very large number of
elongated crystals suspended in a fluid. This reservoir is sandwiched between two thin sheets of glass. Each piece of
glass has a transparent conductive pattern bonded to it. The crystals are aligned in a spiral pattern until an electric
field is impressed on the conductors.

Figure 15.27 Different layers of a typical LCD display

A sheet of polarizing material is bonded to the outside surfaces of both the front and rear glass covers. As incident
light of random polarization enters the top polarizer, it is stopped except for that which is polarized in the proper
direction. With no electric field applied, the light is twisted or its polarization is changed by the spiral pattern of the
crystals. The bottom polarizer is aligned opposite of the top one but the “twisted” light is now aligned with the
bottom polarizer and passes through. The display is now transparent and appears light.

A simple black-or-white LCD display works by either allowing daylight to be reflected back out at the viewer or
preventing it from doing so—in which case the viewer sees a black area. The liquid crystal is the part of the system
that either prevents light from passing through it or not.

The crystal is placed between two polarizing filters that are at right angles to each other and together block light.
When there is no electric current applied to the crystal, it twists light by 90°, which allows the light to pass through
the second polarizer and be reflected back. But when the voltage is applied, the crystal molecules align themselves,
and light cannot pass through the polarizer: the segment turns black, this phenomenon is shown in Figure 15.28.

Many other types Many other types of LCD displays are being developed for the laptop and CRT replacement
market including full colour versions. These include double and Triple Twisted Nematic (DSTN and TSTN) displays
and the Active-matrix Thin-film Twisted Nematic and Metal-Insulated-Metal Twisted Nematic (TFT-TN and MIM-TN)
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displays. Unfortunately, these advanced displays are too expensive for most of the calculator market. TN LCDs
almost completely dominates today’s calculator market due to their extremely low power requirements, thin size
and low cost.

Figure 15.28 Working principle of LCD

Table 15.3 Comparison of CRT and LCD

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4) Flat Panel Display

Flat-screen monitors, often termed Flat Panel Displays (FPDs), are becoming more and more popular, as they take
up less space and are less heavy than traditional CRT monitors. Other greater advantages of FPDs are they consume
less energy when compared to CRT monitors, and also have less electromagnetic radiation. There are basically two
types of Flat Panel Display (FPD)—the popular one is Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and the other one is Plasma
Display Panel (PDP).

The theory of Liquid Crystal Displays was discussed in the LCD section. Here, Plasma Display Panel (PDP) will be
discussed in brief.

i) Plasma Display Panel (PDP)

A Plasma Display Panel (PDP) is a type of flat panel display now commonly used for large TV displays (typically
above 32 ¢¢). It is often used in the home environment and is becoming increasingly popular in modern cultures.

Figure 15.29 Working principle of plasma display

A plasma display panel is based on emitting light by exciting gases. The gas used in plasma screens is a mixture of
argon (90%) and xenon (10%). Gas is contained within cells, each one corresponding to a pixel that corresponds to a
row electrode and column electrode, which excite the gas within the cell. A typical green colour cell is shown in
Figure 15.29, where red and blue colour cells are located nearby. By modulating the voltage applied across the top
and bottom electrodes and by changing the frequency of excitation, the inert gas can be excited. The gas excited
this way produces ultraviolet radiation (which is invisible to the human eye). With blue, green, and red phosphors
distributed among the cells, the ultraviolet radiation is converted into visible light, so that pixels (made up of 3
cells) can be displayed in up to 16 million colors (256 × 256 × 256). Plasma technology can be used to create large-
scale high-contrast screens, but plasma screens are still expensive. What’s more, power consumption is more than
30 times higher than for an LCD screen. A typical plasma TV of SAMSUNG Corp. is shown in Figure 15.30.

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