Here’s a condensed summary covering all the key points:

Cripps Mission (1942)

 Cause: Japanese attacks in WWII threatened India; Cripps was sent to gain Indian cooperation.

 Proposals:

o Dominion status post-war like Canada.

o Formation of a constituent assembly.

o Princely states could join India or remain independent.

o Provinces could opt out of India.

o British to control defense until further notice.

 Rejection:

o Division of India into independent states threatened unity.

o No clear timeline for dominion status.

o Princely state representatives to be nominated, not elected.

o Gandhi called it a "postdated cheque on a failing bank."

o Muslim League rejected it for not addressing partition.

Quit India Movement (1942)

 Causes:

o Failure of Cripps Mission.

o Communal tensions post-Pakistan Resolution (1940).

o Japanese threat necessitating independence.

 Impact:

o Mass participation from all sections of society.

o British felt unwelcome; repression failed.

 o Second-rung leadership emerged with figures like Ram Manohar Lohia and Aruna Asaf
Ali.

 Muslim League Response: Advocated “Divide and Quit India.”

Simla Conference (1945)

 Wavell Plan:

o Equal representation for Hindus and Muslims in the Executive Council.

o Representation for other minorities.

o Defense under British control until power transfer.

 Failure:

o Congress and Muslim League clashed over Muslim representation.

o Quaid-e-Azam rejected Congress’ nomination of non-League Muslims.

General Elections (1945-46)

 Congress won 930 seats; Muslim League secured 428 of 492 Muslim seats.

 Proved the Muslim League’s dominance among Muslims.

 Increased Congress-Muslim League hostility.

Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

 Proposed:

o Union of India handling defense, foreign affairs, and communication.

o Weak center; residuary powers with provinces.

o Division into three groups (A, B, C) based on regions.

o Constituent Assembly of 389 members.

 Congress accepted but sought changes; League rejected and initiated “Direct Action.”
Towards Partition

 Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947):

o India to be divided into two states.

o Separate constituent assemblies for each state.

o Power transfer to occur in 1947.

o Punjab and Bengal legislatures to decide on partition; boundary commissions to

demarcate borders.

Radcliffe Award (1947)

 Partition unfairly favored India:

o Muslim-majority areas (e.g., Gurdaspur, Ferozepur) given to India.

o Enabled India’s access to Kashmir, causing future conflicts.

This summary captures all significant aspects of the lecture.

Summary: Natural Resources and Culture of Pakistan

Pakistan, officially known as the "Islamic Republic of Pakistan," is a federation comprising five provinces,
Islamabad as its capital territory, Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Gilgit-Baltistan, and Azad Jammu
and Kashmir. Its government operates through five main pillars: Legislature (Parliament with Senate and
National Assembly), Administration (Prime Minister and Cabinet), Judiciary (law interpretation),
Defense, and Media, which plays a vital role in shaping public opinion. Political pressure groups, like the
military, Ulema, landowners, and businesspeople, also influence governance when their interests are
affected.

The country uses PKR as its currency and ".pk" as its internet code. It has 31 AM and 68 FM radio
stations, 90 TV channels, eight international airports, 42 smaller airports, five seaports, and 11 dry ports.

Natural Resources:

 Fishery: Pakistan's 800-mile coastline supports the fishing industry, providing local income and
exports.

 Forests: Only 4% of land is forested, vital for reversing global warming, supporting wildlife, and
providing resources like wood and food.
  Mining: Pakistan has rich mineral deposits, including rock salt, gypsum, limestone, chromite,
iron, and precious gems.

International Agreements: Pakistan is part of agreements related to climate change, marine life
conservation, waste management, and the Indus Water Treaty, allowing it to seek technical support
when needed.

Culture: Pakistan is multicultural, with diverse regional cultures like Punjabi, Balochi, Sindhi, and
Pushtun. Its cultural elements include folk songs, qawwali, ghazals, and unique dances like bhangra,
attan, and khattak. Literature is rich in Urdu, English, and regional languages.

Social Diversity: Pakistan's multiculturalism and social diversity include varying customs, tribes, urban-
rural lifestyles, and economic classes. This diversity strengthens the nation and promotes political
development when differences are respected and accepted.

In conclusion, Pakistan is a pluralistic society where its multicultural and socially diverse fabric is vital for
its growth and unity.

Summary: Dilemma of Constitution Making in Pakistan

After gaining independence in 1947, Pakistan faced challenges in drafting its constitution. Though
Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah prioritized this task, pressing issues delayed the process. Pakistan
initially adopted the Government of India Act, 1935, with amendments as an interim constitution.
Despite borrowing a parliamentary system from Britain, the process of framing a permanent
constitution took nine years due to multiple reasons.

Definition of Constitution: A constitution defines the framework for governance, the powers of
institutions, and the relationship between the state and individuals. Factors like culture, history, religion,
and politics influence constitution-making.

Constitution of Pakistan: Pakistan’s existing constitution, framed in 1973 under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto,
established a parliamentary system with a President as head of state and a Prime Minister as head of
government. It was the first consensus-based constitution, unlike the earlier ones in 1956 and 1962.

Reasons for Delay:

1. Differences between East and West Pakistan.

2. Inexperienced politicians and leadership.

3. Cultural, linguistic, and ideological clashes.

4. Debates over the role of Islam and federalism.

5. Administrative problems, refugee influx, and illiteracy.

6. Personal and political conflicts among leaders.

History of Constitution-Making:

1. Jinnah’s Efforts: Jinnah formed the first Constituent Assembly in 1947 with 69 elected members
and 10 from princely states. However, members lacked experience, and his early death in 1948
left Pakistan vulnerable.

2. Objectives Resolution (1949): Proposed by Liaquat Ali Khan, it outlined the aims of Pakistan’s
constitution, emphasizing the sovereignty of Allah, democracy, Islamic principles, minority
rights, and Pakistan’s federal structure.

o Importance: It established Islam's central role in governance, guaranteed minority

rights, and served as the foundation for future constitutions.

o Objections by Non-Muslims: They opposed mixing religion with politics, feared

inequality, and viewed it as a step toward a theocratic state.

3. Constitutional Issues: Key challenges included federalism, representation, electorate systems,

the national language, and choosing between a parliamentary or presidential system and an
Islamic or secular state.

The constitution-making process was prolonged due to these complexities, but it laid the groundwork
for Pakistan’s governance framework.

Summary of the Constitution of 1956 and Related Issues

The Constitution of 1956 was Pakistan's first constitution, formed after long deliberations and
challenges. Below is a summary of its key aspects and the issues that arose during its development:

Key Constitutional Issues

1. Federalism:
Pakistan consisted of East and West parts, separated by over 1,000 miles. Provincial autonomy
was demanded, but a strong center was maintained.

2. Representation:
Representation was debated due to the population differences between East and West
Pakistan. The Basic Principles Committee (BPC) was formed in 1949 to address these issues.

3. Separate or Joint Electorate:

East Pakistan opted for joint electorates, while West Pakistan chose separate electorates due to
support from religious groups.

4. National Language Issue:

Urdu was declared the national language in 1948, but East Pakistan demanded recognition of
Bengali. The Two-Language Formula was adopted in 1954.
 5. Parliamentary or Presidential System:
A parliamentary system was favored, but debates on this delayed the constitution-making
process.

6. Islamic or Secular State:

The Objectives Resolution (1949) emphasized an Islamic identity, rejecting theocracy. There
were debates about the role of Islam in governance, including women’s rights and the position
of minorities.

Key Developments

1. Basic Principles Committee Reports:

The BPC faced criticism, especially from East Pakistan, over representation and the use of Urdu
as the sole national language. Liaquat Ali Khan’s assassination further delayed progress.

2. Bogra Formula (1953):

Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra proposed equal representation for provinces in the Upper
House and proportional representation in the Lower House. This formula was praised but could
not be implemented due to the dissolution of the first Constituent Assembly by Governor-
General Ghulam Muhammad in 1954.

3. One Unit Scheme (1955):

Provinces in West Pakistan were merged into a single unit to reduce administrative challenges,
mirroring East Pakistan's structure.

4. Second Constituent Assembly:

Formed in 1955, this assembly finally passed the Constitution of 1956.

Constitution of 1956

The Constitution was enacted on March 23, 1956, with 234 articles, emphasizing the following:

1. Islamic Provisions:

o Pakistan was named the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

o Laws were to align with Islamic principles, and an Islamic Research Organization was
established.

o Minority rights were protected, and the Quran’s teaching was made compulsory.

o Relations with Muslim countries were encouraged.

 2. Parliamentary System:

o The President (a Muslim) was the ceremonial head, while the Prime Minister held
executive powers.

o A unicameral legislature (National Assembly) of 300 members was established.

3. Federal System:

o Power was divided into Federal, Provincial, and Concurrent Lists.

o Provincial assemblies had their own powers but operated under central oversight.

4. Independent Judiciary:

o Supreme Court and High Courts ensured the interpretation of the constitution and
protection of citizens' rights.

5. Fundamental Rights and Welfare State:

o Rights like education, work, and non-discrimination were guaranteed. Efforts to

eliminate poverty, illiteracy, and racial discrimination were emphasized.

Cancellation of the Constitution (1958)

The Constitution lasted only 2 years and 7 months. On October 7, 1958, General Ayub Khan imposed
Martial Law, dismissed the Constitution, and later removed President Sikandar Mirza.

This marked the end of Pakistan's first attempt at constitutional governance.

Summary of the Constitution of 1962

The Constitution of 1962 was introduced after military rule was imposed by General Ayub Khan on
October 7, 1958. He declared martial law, dissolved political institutions, and sought a new system to
replace the parliamentary democracy, which he believed caused instability in Pakistan. A Constitutional
Commission, led by Justice Shahab-ud-Din, was established in February 1960 to draft the new
constitution. The draft was finalized and enforced on June 8, 1962.

Key Features of the Constitution of 1962:

1. Islamic Republic of Pakistan:

o The country was officially named the "Islamic Republic of Pakistan."

 o The Objectives Resolution served as its preamble.

2. Presidential System:

o The President was the central authority and head of state.

o He had to be a Muslim, at least 40 years old, and elected indirectly for a five-year term.

o The President had extensive powers, including appointing key officials, issuing
ordinances, and declaring emergencies.

3. National Assembly:

o A unicameral legislature with 150 members, including six reserved seats for women.

o Members were indirectly elected, with limited legislative and financial powers.

4. Federal Structure:

o Pakistan was divided into two provinces: East Pakistan and West Pakistan.

o Provincial governors were appointed by the President and directly controlled by him.

5. Basic Democracies:

o Local councilors (40,000 Basic Democrats) were elected to serve as the electoral college
for the President and assemblies.

o They also participated in developmental activities.

6. Islamic Provisions:

o The constitution included an Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology and an Islamic

Research Institute.

o These bodies provided recommendations but had no binding authority.

7. Political Parties:

o Political parties were banned to curb political instability.

8. Fundamental Rights:

o Fundamental rights were provided but heavily controlled under emergency powers.

Challenges and Abrogation:

The constitution remained in force from June 8, 1962, to March 25, 1969. During this time, General Ayub
Khan faced significant challenges, including the 1965 war with India over Kashmir, internal
dissatisfaction, and political instability.

 1965 War: Pakistan launched Operation Gibraltar to capture Kashmir but faced shortages in
arms. The Tashkent Agreement, signed in Moscow, returned territories captured during the war,
causing public outrage.

 Political Opposition: Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, a former ally of Ayub Khan, turned against him and
formed the Pakistan People's Party (PPP). Bhutto's campaign, combined with unrest in East
Pakistan led by Sheikh Mujeeb-ur-Rehman, further weakened Ayub Khan's position.

 Resignation and Martial Law: Ayub Khan resigned in 1969, and General Yahya Khan imposed
martial law. The 1962 Constitution was abrogated.

After the constitution's abrogation, elections were held, resulting in a victory for Sheikh Mujeeb-ur-
Rehman in East Pakistan and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto in Sindh and South Punjab. Bhutto refused to accept the
election results, exacerbating tensions that ultimately led to the separation of East Pakistan in 1971.

Summary of the Constitution of 1973

The Constitution of 1973 was framed after the abrogation of the 1962 Constitution and the imposition
of martial law in 1969. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Pakistan's first civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator,
prioritized drafting a new constitution. Although Bhutto preferred a presidential system, his party's
internal disagreements led to a parliamentary system. An Interim Constitution was enacted in April
1972, and a committee of the National Assembly finalized the constitution, which was unanimously
approved on April 10, 1973, and came into effect on August 14, 1973. The constitution underwent
major changes, including the 8th Amendment in 1985, and periods of suspension under military rule in
1977-1985, 1999-2002, and 2007.

Salient Features:

1. Islamic Provisions:

o Pakistan was titled the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, and Islam was declared the state
religion.

o Ahmadis were declared non-Muslims.

o The Objectives Resolution was made a part of the constitution in 1985 through Article
2-A.

o Institutions like the Council of Islamic Ideology and Federal Shariat Court were
established.

2. Parliamentary System:
 o A Prime Minister (PM), elected by the National Assembly (NA), held executive powers
and was answerable to the NA.

o The President became a ceremonial head, with powers later enhanced through
amendments like the 8th Amendment, allowing the President to dissolve the NA.

3. Federal System:

o Pakistan was divided into four provinces and federally administered areas.

o Two legislative lists (Federal and Concurrent) were defined, with residual powers given
to the provinces.

4. Bicameral Legislature:

o The Senate (Upper House) had equal provincial representation and was elected
indirectly.

o The National Assembly (Lower House) was elected directly on a population basis.

5. Judiciary:

o An independent judiciary with the Supreme Court as the highest authority was
established.

o High Courts were set up in each province and Azad Kashmir.

6. Fundamental Rights:

o Fundamental rights were guaranteed and enforceable through the Supreme Court.

7. National Language:

o Urdu was declared the national language, but English could be used until Urdu's full
implementation.

8. National Security Council:

o Added in 2002 as an advisory body.

Bhutto’s Rule:

Under the 1973 Constitution, Bhutto consolidated power but faced opposition in Balochistan and
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. His measures included appointing Nawab Akbar Bugti as Balochistan's governor
and launching a military operation under General Tikka Khan. The Federal Security Force (FSF) was used
to suppress dissent, often violently.
Bhutto faced criticism for political assassinations and his rigged 1977 elections, which led to mass
protests by the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA). Unable to resolve the crisis, the military, led by
General Zia-ul-Haq, overthrew Bhutto on July 5, 1977, suspending the constitution and imposing martial
law.

Importance:

The Constitution of 1973 is significant for its inclusion of Islamic clauses and its recognition of
parliamentary democracy. It remains a cornerstone of Pakistan’s governance despite periods of
suspension. Amendments and military interventions have shaped its evolution, but it retains its role as
the country's fundamental law.

Summary of Pakistan's Foreign Policy

Background:
Foreign policy defines a country's relationships with other nations to secure its national interests,
reflecting its domestic politics and priorities. Countries need foreign policy to boost their economy,
ensure security, and maintain good relations with other states.

What is Foreign Policy?

Foreign policy is how countries interact and establish relations with one another based on equality and
their national interests. For example, Pakistan does not have relations with Israel due to domestic
policies and maintains friendly ties with Muslim countries. It reflects internal values and priorities, such
as Pakistan’s positive relations with China for mutual benefit.

Pakistan’s Foreign Policy:

Pakistan is a developing country that forms its foreign policy based on geography, geopolitics, and
economic needs. It focuses on building relations for trade, security, and international cooperation.

Principles of Foreign Policy:

1. Peaceful coexistence: Live and let live.

2. Non-alignment: Neutral stance in global conflicts.

3. Following the UN Charter.

4. Promoting unity among Islamic countries.

5. International and regional cooperation: Active member of organizations like OIC, SAARC, and
WHO.

Objectives:

 National security.

 Economic development.
  Upholding Pakistan’s ideology.

Key Determinants:

 Security, ideology, national interests, diplomacy, public opinion, and decision-making.

Guiding Principles of Foreign Policy:

1. Protection of Freedom and Sovereignty: Ensuring Pakistan’s independence is safeguarded.

2. Cordial Relations with Muslim Countries: Supporting Muslim nations and their causes like
Palestine and Kashmir.

3. Non-Interference in Other Countries’ Affairs: Respecting sovereignty and avoiding involvement

in internal matters.

4. Implementation of UN Charter: Supporting global efforts for human rights, health (e.g., WHO’s
polio eradication programs), and development.

5. Promotion of World Peace: Advocating peaceful resolutions of conflicts through negotiations

and playing a mediator role in global disputes.
6

. Non-Alignment: Staying neutral in major global power struggles like the Cold War, although Pakistan
initially aligned with the capitalist bloc by joining SEATO and CENTO but later withdrew.
7. Support for Self-Determination: Advocating for the right to self-determination for oppressed regions
like Kashmir and opposing racial discrimination.

Pakistan's foreign policy prioritizes peace, mutual cooperation, and the protection of national and
Islamic values while maintaining flexibility to adapt to changing global dynamics.

Summary of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy

Factors of Foreign Policy:

Pakistan's foreign policy is influenced by internal factors like its geographical location, size, and
resources, and external factors like alliances, global power structures, and world opinion.

Guiding Principles:

1. Protect freedom and sovereignty.

2. Maintain cordial relations with Muslim countries.

3. Avoid interference in other nations’ affairs.

4. Follow the UN Charter.

5. Promote world peace.

 6. Support self-determination and oppose racial discrimination.

Current Focus Areas:

Pakistan prioritizes its security, national identity, and independence. It fosters strong ties with Muslim
nations and partners like China and the USA. Pakistan works to restructure international systems to
reflect modern realities and supports the political and economic concerns of developing countries. It
actively participates in the UN and regional organizations and promotes peace, arms control, and
nuclear non-proliferation.

As the second-largest Muslim country and a nuclear power, Pakistan plays a vital international role. Its
strategic location near oil-rich regions and major maritime corridors adds to its geopolitical significance.

Major Alliances and Rivalries:

Pakistan maintains strong relations with Muslim countries and allies like China and the USA. However,
its relationship with India remains tense, especially over Kashmir. Pakistan also has no diplomatic ties
with Israel.

Role in International Organizations:

Pakistan actively participates in the UN and previously joined alliances like SEATO and CENTO during the
Cold War. It helped form the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) with Turkey and Iran and
opposes India’s inclusion in the UN Security Council.

Phases of Foreign Policy:

Initially, Pakistan adopted a non-aligned policy but later joined US-led alliances like SEATO and CENTO to
counter regional threats. After suffering defeats in the 1965 and 1971 wars with India, Pakistan focused
on strengthening its defense, starting its nuclear and missile programs. Close ties with China were
developed to counter regional imbalances.

Challenges:
Political instability, the Afghan conflict, and reliance on foreign aid have created socio-economic
challenges. Cross-border infiltration and porous borders exacerbate issues. Pakistan needs a foreign
policy that ensures economic stability and reduces dependence on loans.

Conclusion:
Pakistan’s foreign policy is shaped by its Islamic ideology, cultural heritage, and historical experience. It
supports Islamic causes and aims for a just and peaceful world where nations can coexist with security
and equality.

Summary of Political System and Political Parties of Pakistan

The political system of Pakistan has evolved through the 1956, 1962, and 1973 constitutions.

1. 1956 Constitution: Pakistan adopted a unicameral parliamentary system where the Prime
Minister, chosen from parliament members, was the executive.
 2. 1962 Constitution: A unicameral presidential system was introduced by Ayub Khan. The
President, elected by an electoral college, was the chief executive and could select cabinet
members from outside parliament.

3. 1973 Constitution: It introduced a bicameral parliamentary system with a Senate (equal

representation for provinces) and a National Assembly (representation based on population).
The Prime Minister and cabinet members must be from parliament.

A political party is an organized group aiming to influence public policy by getting its members elected.
Political parties represent people's aspirations, devise manifestos, and implement them if elected. They
vary in objectives, such as promoting justice, equality, or religion.

Pakistan has around 90 fringe parties (limited to specific regions) and a dozen mainstream parties (e.g.,
PML-N, PTI). Many parties face challenges like authoritarianism, lack of internal democracy, and weak
political institutions. Historically, parties in Pakistan were elitist, often dominated by influential figures
like landlords, limiting broader participation.

Challenges of Political Parties in Pakistan:

 Weak development due to authoritarian culture and elite control.

 Lack of political education for the masses, leading to uninformed voting.

 Dependence on speeches and media for communication rather than engaging with people
directly.

 Historical neglect of internal democracy, which keeps elites in control.

Islamic Politics: Since independence, combining self-interest with Islamic politics has made forming
broad-based political organizations difficult. Opposition parties often faced repression, with
governments labeling them unpatriotic and restricting their activities.

The political landscape of Pakistan reflects a history of struggle between elite-dominated parties and
efforts to build a democratic system that addresses the needs of its diverse population.

Summary of the Problems of Political Parties in Pakistan

Political parties play a vital role in representing people's aspirations in democratic societies. However, in
Pakistan, political parties face many challenges that hinder their growth and effectiveness.

Historical Challenges

From the beginning, Pakistan's politics mixed Islamic principles with self-interest, which complicated the
development of political organizations. Opposition parties, such as the Red Shirt (NWFP), Majlis-i-Ahrar,
Jama'at-i-Islami, and the Pakistan National Congress, faced repression. The Muslim League's failure
became evident in East Bengal's 1954 elections when the United Front won. Similarly, the League's
influence declined in West Pakistan after Hussein Shaheed Suhrawardy became prime minister in 1956.
Political instability worsened when the military took control in 1958, banning political parties and
abrogating the 1956 Constitution.

Under Ayub Khan (1958–1971), political centralization occurred without stable coalitions. Ayub formed
the Convention Muslim League, which failed in the 1970 elections. Other parties like the Pakistan
People's Party (PPP) and Awami League achieved success but faced resistance from the establishment.
The 1970 elections led to the breakup of Pakistan in 1971, with Bangladesh gaining independence.

Contemporary Problems

1. Lack of Inner Democracy: Political parties lack internal democracy. Leaders appoint themselves
for life, and family heirs take over leadership. Elections within parties are rare, and influential
individuals secure positions through nominations, not merit.

2. Leadership Development: Political parties do not groom new leaders or promote individuals
from lower ranks to higher positions. This hinders the emergence of alternative leadership.

3. Corruption and Lack of Transparency: Leaders often prioritize personal interests over national
welfare, leading to corruption and weakening public trust. Political party funding remains
unclear.

4. Urban-Rural Divide: Most parties are urban-based and fail to connect with rural populations,
which form 70% of the country's demographic.

5. Manifesto Issues: Party manifestos lack clarity and prioritization. They often promise solutions
without detailing how resources will be managed or contradictions resolved.

Conclusion

Political parties in Pakistan face significant challenges, including a lack of democracy, poor leadership
development, corruption, and weak connections with rural populations. Addressing these issues is
essential for fostering healthy political institutions and a lasting democratic culture in the country.

This text discusses the problems faced by political parties in Pakistan. It highlights the lack of proper
political vision among them, where each party focuses on different issues like corruption, infrastructure,
poverty, or the implementation of Islamic policies. The absence of a clear vision stems from the lack of
freedom and political space in the country, especially during the early years of Pakistan’s formation.

The vision was further lost after General Zia-ul-Haq’s death, as political parties like the PPP and PML-N
focused on power struggles rather than national progress. These parties were involved in conspiracies,
weakening the country's political direction. In the 1990s, political instability led to corruption, power
grabs, and frequent changes in government, hindering the country’s progress. This weakened political
parties, leading to fragmentation, ethnic divisions, and the failure to create coherent policies.

Furthermore, many leaders come from wealthy backgrounds or inherit their positions, as seen with PPP.
The lack of citizen participation and the absence of membership drives for political parties also hinder
their growth. Political parties often fail to provide a platform for genuine debate, resulting in poor
mutual understanding and dialogue between them. The lack of internal debate and discussion weakens
the overall democratic process.

To improve the situation, there needs to be restructuring within political parties based on democratic
principles. Educated, middle-class citizens should be encouraged to participate, and there should be
accountability to reduce corruption and nepotism. Political parties must introduce internal democracy,
which will help restore national institutions and address the growing gap between the rich and poor.

The article discusses the need for drastic changes in Pakistan’s political system to establish accountable
democracy. Currently, political parties do not represent the people well due to corruption, nepotism,
and lack of accountability. The gap between the rich and poor has grown, and politicians misuse public
funds. The failure to restructure political parties with internal democracy has led to the country's
current political issues. Political parties are not properly accountable, and their leaders often ignore the
needs of citizens once they are elected.

It also highlights the flaws in the Pakistani political system, where politicians often believe they are
above the law and not answerable to any institution. There is a need for better policies to ensure
transparency, minimize unnecessary spending, and reduce the gap between rich and poor. The key
features of a good political system include democracy (equal chances for everyone), accountability,
effective use of financial resources, and mass contact with citizens. Political parties should focus on
serving the people rather than engaging in behind-the-scenes power struggles.

Summary of Civil-Military Relations in Pakistan

Civil-military relations describe the relationship between a country's society and its military, focusing on
how civilian and military authorities interact. In a democratic country, civilian authorities should have
full control over the military, but in Pakistan, control has alternated between civilian and military rule
due to factors like weak political leadership, incompetent parties, and internal and external threats.

Since its independence, Pakistan's civil-military relations have often been imbalanced, with the military
frequently stepping in to govern due to issues like security concerns, leadership crises, and ineffective
civilian governments. The military has ruled Pakistan for about 33 years out of 71, and its influence
continues to be seen even in civilian governments, where it's believed that the military often operates
behind the scenes.

Several factors influence these imbalanced relations:

1. External Threats: India, especially due to the Kashmir issue, has been a long-standing external
threat. Pakistan has fought wars with India, which has kept the military's role prominent.
Additionally, Pakistan has faced terrorism, especially linked to the Afghan conflict, requiring a
strong military presence.

2. Internal Threats: After the death of Pakistan’s founding father, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, a
leadership vacuum led to weak political leadership. This created conditions where the military
 was often seen as the solution. Bureaucratic interference also played a role in eroding civilian
governance.

3. Provincialism: The divide between East and West Pakistan contributed to tensions, with the
West focusing more on its own development. This inequality eventually led to the separation of
East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). The military’s role in handling this issue further empowered
them.

4. Constitutional Dilemma (1947-1956): The delay in making a constitution due to disagreements

between West and East Pakistan also saw the military gaining power, further disrupting civilian
control.

In summary, the civil-military imbalance in Pakistan is a result of various internal and external
challenges, including leadership crises, wars, terrorism, and bureaucratic interference. The military's
involvement in governance has been a recurring theme in Pakistan’s history, affecting the overall
balance between civilian and military powers.

Summary of Civil-Military Relations in Pakistan (B)

Internal Factors:

1. Role of Judiciary: The judiciary has played a significant role in shaping civil-military relations in
Pakistan. A key case was the Maulvi Tamizudin Case (1954-1955), where Governor General
Ghulam Muhammad dismissed the Constituent Assembly, which was trying to limit his powers.
The Sindh High Court ruled against the dismissal, but Chief Justice Muhammad Munir of the
Supreme Court overturned the decision in favor of Ghulam Muhammad, citing the "doctrine of
necessity." This undemocratic ruling became a basis for military intervention in politics and
continued to influence civil governance in Pakistan.

2. Absence of Land Reforms: Feudalism, where a few powerful landlords control land and
peasants, is a barrier to democracy. Landlords benefit from military dictatorships because they
maintain control over their lands and peasants without the interference of democratic
governments. Military rulers can also work more easily with landlords than democratic
governments.

3. Absence of Independent Election Commission: The lack of a strong, independent election

commission in Pakistan has hindered free and fair elections. This has allowed the military to
intervene in politics, as a democratic government of the people's choice would reduce the
army's influence.

International Factors:

1. World War II / Cold War Years: After World War II, the world divided into two blocs: the
capitalist bloc led by the U.S. and the communist bloc led by the USSR. Pakistan aligned with the
U.S., signing military pacts like SEATO (1954) and CENTO (1955). These pacts strengthened the
 military’s position, as the U.S. preferred to deal with the army rather than civilian political
parties. This contributed to military intervention in Pakistan’s politics, with the army receiving
tacit support from the U.S. during the Cold War.

Internal Threats:

1. Ethnic Groups: Pakistan is home to several ethnic groups, including Punjabis, Sindhis, Pashtuns,
Balochis, and Mohajirs (immigrants from India). These ethnic groups often have transnational
links with other countries based on their ethnicity. These relationships should be used for the
betterment of Pakistan, not for its destruction.

In conclusion, civil-military relations in Pakistan have been influenced by both internal and external
factors, including the judiciary's role, the absence of land reforms, lack of a fair election system, and
global Cold War politics. The military’s involvement in governance has often been facilitated by these
factors, leading to an imbalance in civil-military relations.

Summary of Civil-Military Relations in Pakistan (C)

Ethnic Problems: In Pakistan, when ethnic issues are not addressed, civilian elites often rely on the
military to manage them, especially in regions like East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). This reliance has led
to an overdependence on the military, strengthening its role in Pakistan's politics.

Domestic Terrorism: Domestic terrorism is a major threat to Pakistan, with more than 35,000 people
killed between 2009 and 2016. Various terrorist groups, such as anti-Shia groups, anti-India groups, the
Haqqani Network, and even ISIS, operate within the country. These groups destabilize Pakistan and
create a law and order problem. The military is seen as essential to handling these terrorism threats,
which further increases civilian reliance on the military and weakens the civilian government.

Military Composition: The Pakistani military is largely composed of Punjabis and Pashtuns, which
contributes to internal unity and cohesion. The military offers benefits such as meritocracy and control
over promotions, making it a strong institution. Politicians often appear incompetent in comparison,
leading to a culture of military superiority.

Weak State: Pakistan is considered a weak state, struggling to provide economic or physical security to
its citizens. High poverty rates, low literacy, and corruption further weaken the state. This economic and
institutional weakness makes the military stronger and more influential in the country.

Military Institutionalization: The Pakistani military has become deeply entrenched in the state's
functions. It has played a significant role in rewriting constitutions, controlling large parts of the
economy, intelligence, and defense, and even influencing policymaking through the National Security
Council (NSC). The military's involvement in politics has grown since Pakistan's independence, making it
a praetorian state, unlike India, where civilian institutions remained strong.
In conclusion, multiple factors, including ethnic issues, terrorism, military power, and state weakness,
have contributed to the growing influence of the military in Pakistan's political landscape. The military's
role continues to shape the country's governance and civil-military relations.