Physics definitions

C1: making measurements

● Length: measure between two points of an object.
● Least count: the minimum measurement that can be measured with
a device
● Micrometer screw gauge: it has two scales. Main scale which is on
the shaft
and the fractional scale which is on the rotating barrel. The main scale
is read to the nearest 0.5mm and the fractional scale has 50 divisions,
so one complete turn represents 0.50mm. Used for measuring very
small thicknesses.
● Displacement method for measuring volume: fill a measuring cylinder
partially with water and measure the volume. Then put the irregular
object into the cylinder and record the change in volume. Subtract both
the volumes and thus find the volume of the irregular shaped objects.
● Mass: of an object is the amount of matter that makes up the object.
● Volume: the space occupied by three dimensional objects
● Density: the ratio of mass to volume of a substance (or) the amount
of mass that
is concentrated
● D=M/V
● Density of water= 1000kg/m3 or 1kg/dm3 or 1g/cm3
● Analogue clock: time is found by checking where the hands of the
clock are
pointing on the scale
● Digital clock: it gives a direct reading of the time in numerals.
● Period of a pendulum: time taken for one swing of a pendulum from
left to right
and back again
C2: describing motion
● Speed: the distance travelled by an object per unit time S= D/T
● Average speed: total distance divided by total time taken Avg.S =
Tot.D / Tot.T
● Light gates: a peg on a trolley breaks the first beam of infrared
radiation, which starts the timer and after moving a known distance it
breaks another beam of infrared radiation, which stops the timer. Then
the distance travelled by the trolley is divided by the time taken to
move from one ray to another to get the speed of the trolley.
● Interrupt card: a card of fixed length starts and stops the timer by
breaking the same piece of radiation once and accordingly speed can be
calculated.

● Slope of distance time graphs gives speed

● Area under speed time graph gives distance
● Slope of speed time graph gives acceleration
● Acceleration: the rate of change of an object’s velocity (or) change in
speed per
unit time.
A = V-U/T
● Deceleration: negative acceleration ( when an object is decelerating )
● Acceleration of free fall: it has a value of 9.81 near the surface of the
earth
● Velocity: an object’s speed in a particular direction (vector quantity)
● s= (u+v/2)*t
● g= v-u/t
● V2 - u2 = 2as
C3: forces and motion
● Mass: amount of matter in an object and the object’s resistance to
motion measured in kilograms
● Weight: is the force of gravity on mass measured in newton
● W = mg
● Friction: a force that opposes motion caused by contact of the two
surfaces. It
acts in the opposite direction to the object’s movement.
● Force: the action on a body by another body that causes its velocity
or shape or
direction of travel to change ( F = ma )
● Newton ( N ): the force required to give a mass of 1 kg an
acceleration of 1 m/s2
● Resultant force: is a single force that has the same effect as two or
more forces
● Weight of 1 kg mass = 10 N
● Gravitational force per unit mass = 10 N/kg
● Greater the mass of an object, the smaller the acceleration it is given
by a
particular force
● Inertia of rest: opposition to change in state of rest to the state of
motion
● Inertia of motion: opposition to change in state of motion to the state
of rest
● Inertia of direction: opposition to change in existing direction
● Newton’s laws of motion:
1. First law / Law of inertia: every object continues to be in a state of
rest or uniform motion unless and until it is compelled by a net external
force
2. Second law of motion: acceleration of a body is directly proportional
to the direction of force applied and it is inversely proportional to the
mass of the object. F = change in momentum/t , F = mv - mu/t, F = m(v-
u/t), F = ma

3.Third law of motion: every action has an equal and opposite reaction
● Momentum: of a body is the product of the body’s mass and velocity
( P=mv )
C4: turning effects of forces
● Pivot: the fixed point about which an object will turn
● Turning effect: can be increased by using a big force and applying
force as far
from the pivot as possible.
● Moment of a force: is the quantity that tells us the turning effect of a
force about
its pivot. It can be maximised by the force acting 90 degrees to the
object, by using a big force and applying the force as far from the pivot
as possible.
M = F*d ( force*perpendicular distance from pivot to force)
● Equilibrium: if an object is in equilibrium, then the forces on it must
be balanced (no resultant force) and the turning effect of forces must
also be balanced (no resultant turning effect which is total clockwise
moment=total anticlockwise moment)
● Principle of moments: the idea that an object is balanced when
anticlockwise moments equal clockwise moments.
● Contact force: is the sum of all the downward forces acting on a
beam
● Centre of mass/gravity: the point on an object where it is assumed
that the
mass/weight of the object is concentrated.
● For an object to be stable, it should have a low centre of mass and a
wide
base.
● A lamina is hung on a pin and a line is drawn across a plumb line
when the
lamina stops moving. It is repeated on more sides of the irregular
object and the point where the lines coincide, it is assumed as the
centre of mass.
C5: forces and matter
● Forces used for deforming objects: tensile forces, compressive forces,
bending forces and torsional forces.
● Load: weights hung to springs for experimental purposes
● Inelastically deformed: occurs when a spring becomes permanently
stretched
as the load is increased way too much and it will not return to its
original length.
● Extension: this is the quantity which measures the increase in length
of the
spring as the force stretching the spring increases.
● Length of stretched spring = original length + extension

● Limit of proportionality / elastic limit: the point at which the graph

slopes up steeply. Beyond this point, if the string is stretched, it will be
permanently damaged.
● Hooke’s law: the extension of a spring is proportional to the load
applied to it, provided the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
● F = kx ( F is the load, k is the spring constant of the spring and x is the
extension of the spring )
● In the spring, the bigger the load, the bigger the extension and not
the spring.
● Pressure: is the force acting per unit area at right angles to the
surface.
P = F/A
● High pressure: large force acting on a small area
● Low pressure: small force acting on a large area
● Pa = N / m2 ( 1 pascal is equal to a force of 1 N by an area of 1 m2 )
● Atmospheric pressure: the pressure due to the air column above the
earth’s
surface
C6: energy transformations and energy transfers
● Energy stores: kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy, chemical
energy, nuclear energy, strain/elastic energy and internal energy
● Energy transfers: light energy, heat/thermal energy, sound energy
and electrical energy.
● Internal energy is the energy stored in a hot object where as the
energy radiating out of a hot object is thermal energy.
● Energy can be transferred by a force, by electricity, by heating and by
waves.
● Principle of conservation of energy: in any energy conversion, the
total
amount of energy before and after the conversion is constant
● Low-grade energy: energy wasted as heat and sound
● Efficiency: the efficiency of an energy conversion is the fraction of the
energy
that ends up in the desired form.
efficiency=( useful energy output/energy input ) * 100%
● G.p.e = mgh: energy possessed by a body due to its position/h from
ground
● K.e = 1⁄2 * m *v2 : energy possessed by a body due to virtue of its
motion
C7: energy resources
● Solar panels: they are used to collect thermal energy from the sun by
absorbing the sun’s rays and later convert it into electrical energy for
domestic use.
● Solar cells/photocells: used to absorb sunlight and produce electricity

● Wind and wave power: winds are produced by the warmth of the
sunlight heating a few parts of the atmosphere which causes the air to
heat and expand and move around as winds. These winds can be used
in turbines and windmills for producing energy.
● Biomass fuels: wood, animal dung and biogas.
● Fossil fuels: oil, coal and gas.
● Nuclear fuels: uranium, plutonium ( radioactive materials )
● Nuclear fission: a procedure in which inside a nuclear reactor, the
radioactive
decay is speeded up of radioactive elements so that the energy they
stored is released much more quickly. Nuclear fuel is cheap,
concentrated energy resource however setup and close down costs are
high. Nuclei are split apart to produce energy
● Nuclear fusion: occurs when two energetic hydrogen atoms collide
and fuse up and form an atom of helium. Nuclei are fused to produce
energy.
● Water power: used for hydroelectricity and water wheels. Water
stored behind the dam walls is released to turn turbines which make
generators spin. This is safe, clean and reliable but also causes wildlife,
habitat and shelter loss.
● Geothermal energy: water is pumped down underground into
radioactive rocks where it gets hot and steam produced comes back up
to generate electricity.
● Renewable resources: sources of energy which won’t run out and can
be regenerated. Eg: wind, solar, biomass
● Non-renewable: sources of energy which are present in limited
amounts and have to be used carefully. Eg: coal, oil, gas
● Comparing energy resources by: cost, reliability, scale and
environmental impact.
C8: work and power
● Doing work: is the means of transferring energy from you to the
object with the help of a force.
● Work done: is the amount of energy transferred. ( work done =
energy transferred ). Greater the force and distance moved in the
direction of force, the work done is increased.
● W = F * D (moved in the direction of the force)
● 1 J = 1N * 1m = 1Nm
● Joule: 1 joule is the energy transferred or the work done by a force of
1 newton
when it moves through a distance of 1m in the direction of the force.
1J=1Nm
● G.p.e / work done = mg * h
● 1 kJ=1000J, 1MJ=1,000,000J
● Power: the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. The
more work
you do in a lesser time, make you more powerful.
● Power can be increased by lifting heavier objects and doing that fast.
● Watt: the power when 1 J of work is done in 1 second. 1 W = 1 J/s and
1 J=1Nm
● 1kW=1000W, 1MW=1,000,000W
C9: the kinetic model of matter
● Melting point: the temperature at which pure substances change into
a liquid from solid state
● Boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas. It
occurs throughout the liquid.
● Evaporation: a process in which a liquid changes to a gas over a range
of temperature and takes place only on the surface of the liquid.
● Freezing point: the temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid
state. Freezing point and melting point of a substance are the same.
● Brownian motion: the erratic movement of small particles when
observed from a microscope. It is caused by gas/liquid particles
colliding larger molecules of smoke, for example, with high speeds
causing the larger particles to move around.
C10: thermal properties of matter
● Thermal expansion: occurs when solids, liquids and gases expand
when they are heated. Uses of expansion are in rivets, loosening metal
lids, bimetallic strips and fitting steel tyres onto their wheels.
● The two types of thermometers are liquid in glass ( mercury in thin
column of the thermometer expands with increase in temperature )
and liquid crystal ( each segment shows a particular temperature ).
● Thermal equilibrium: is achieved when energy is not being
transferred between two objects.
Eg: the thermometer is in the same temperature as the water and the
water is no more transferring its energy.
● Internal energy: is the total energy of all the particles
● thermal/heat energy: energy radiated out of an object in the form of
heat
● Temperature: is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
individual
particles.
● Calibration of the thermometer: is a process where the thermometer
is marked
from 0 to 100 degree celsius to give it a proper scale.

● The scale on a thermometer is linear if the marks are evenly spaced

out. It is usually found in a mercury in glass thermometer as mercury
expands at a steady rate when it is heated.
● The thermometer can be made sensitive by making the tube
containing mercury very narrow.
● Mercury thermometers can also have a wide range of temperatures
to get more accurate readings and the opportunity to measure a wider
range of temperatures.
● Thermistors: are resistors whose resistance changes by a large
amount over a narrow temperature range. But their resistance changes
in a non-linear way and the range is narrow.
● Thermocouple: a device that gives out an output voltage that
depending on the temperature. They are made from pieces of wires
made up of two different metals. A wire of metal X is joined at each end
to wire of metal Y to form two junctions. The ends of the thermocouple
are joint to a sensitive voltmeter. Then one of the junctions is placed in
melting ice whereas the other is placed in the object whose
temperature is to be measured. The greater the voltage produced, the
greater the difference in the temperatures between the two junctions.
They are used for measuring rapidly changing temperatures and high
temperatures as well.
C11: thermal/heat energy transfers
● Thermal energy: is energy being transferred from a higher
temperature to a lower temperature and it requires a temperature
difference to be transferred.
● Metals are good conductors of heat and it can be proven by the
metal rods and wax experiment. Water is a bad conductor of heat and
it can be proven by the ice cubes separated by wire and heating the
mouth of the test tube experiment. Diamond is the best conductor
whereas glass wool is the worst.
● In non-metals/insulators, the atoms on the hot end gain energy and
transfer it to their neighbours which eventually makes the hot end cold
and the cold end hot.
● In good conductors, electrons flow, transferring the heat.
● Conduction: the flow of heat through matter from higher
temperature to lower
temperature without the movement of the matter as a whole.
● Convection: is the flow of heat in liquids/gases (fluids) from regions of
higher
temperature to regions of lower temperature with the movement of
the fluid as a
whole.
● Hot air rises because when air is heated, it becomes less dense as it
expands
which causes it to float upwards and that causes cool air to descend.

● Convection current: is a movement of a fluid that carries energy from

a warmer place to a cooler one.
● Radiation: is the flow of heat from one place to another by means of
electromagnetic waves. It doesn’t require a medium.
● Infrared radiation is produced by warm/hot objects and it is in the
form of electromagnetic radiation. It travels through empty space and
air in the form of waves and travels in straight lines. It also warms the
objects that absorbs it and is invisible to the naked eye but can be
detected by nerve cells in the skin.
● Matt black surfaces readily absorb radiation and emit it as well. ( best
absorbers, best emitters and the worst reflectors )
● Shiny or white surfaces are the best reflectors, worst absorbers and
the worst emitters.
● Insulation is required to keep energy in something that is hotter than
its surroundings.
Insulation in houses can be provided by double glazed windows having
vacuum between the glass panels (only radiation can pass through as
conduction and convection need an medium) and building of cavity
walls with an air gap or foam filled between the two layers of bricks
which stops convection currents from flowing, but minimal conduction
takes place.
● Energy can be retained in the house by the use of thick curtains,
draught excluders, loft and underfloor insulating materials, double and
triple glazing of windows, cavity walls and foam or rockwool in wall
cavity.
● In vacuum flasks, glass is used as it is a good insulator but sometimes
steel is used for added strength. The gap between double walls is
vacuum to avoid heat loss by conduction and convection, silvering
reduces loss by radiation and the stopper prevents heat loss by
convection and evaporation.
● Thermal capacity: is the amount of heat energy required to increase
the temperature of the object by 1 degree celsius. It is also equal to the
amount of heat energy an object will give out when cooled by 1 degree
celsius.
E = thermal capacity * T
Thermal capacity = m * c (m=mass and c= specific heat capacity)
● E = m*c*change in t
● Specific heat capacity (c): is the amount of thermal energy needed to
raise the
temperature of a mass of 1kg by 1 degree celsius. Unit: J/kg degree
celsius
Change in energy= mass*specific heat capacity*change in temperature
C 12 and 14: waves and sound

● Ripple tank: is a shallow glass-bottomed tank containing a small

amount of water. Light from above, shining through the water creates a
shadow of the ripples on the floor below, helping us see the pattern in
which ripples form.
● Ripples are produced by something that moves up and down
(vertically, usually wooden bars or spherical dippers) but the ripples
move out horizontally.
● Waves: disturbance in medium that transports energy and
momentum
● Wavelength: of a wave is the distance from one crest to another or
from one
trough to another. It is measured in meters.
● Amplitude (A): of a wave is the maximum distance that the surface of
the water
is displaced from its undisturbed level (or) the height of the crest. It is
measured
in meters.
● Frequency (f): of a wave is the number of waves sent out each second
(or) the
number of waves per second passing a point. It is measured in Hz. 1 Hz
=1
wave or ripple per second
● Period (T): of a wave is the time taken for one complete wave to pass
a point. It
is measured in seconds. It is measured from crest to crest.
● F = 1/T or T = 1/f
● Wave speed: is the rate at which the crest of a wave travels along (or)
the speed
at which it transfers energy from one place to another
● Transverse waves: are waves in which particles carrying the wave
move from
side to side, perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is moving.
Eg: light,
ripples on water and electromagnetic waves.
● Longitudinal waves: are those waves in which the particles carrying
the wave
move back and forth, along the direction in which the wave is moving.
Eg: sound Compressions are areas of the sound waves where the air
particles are closer together and the air is dense.
Rarefactions are areas of the sound wave where the particles are
farther from each other and the density of the air is less.
● Mechanical waves need a medium and non-mechanical don’t need a
medium.
● When waves enter one medium from another, the wavelength and
velocity
keep changing but the frequency remains constant.
● wavefront: a surface containing points affected in the same way by a
wave in a
given time. The separation of the wavefronts of the ripples is equal to
their
wavelength.
● Refraction occurs when the speed of light changes when it is
travelling from one
medium to another.
● When a glass plate is submerged in water, the area where the glass
plate is
present is shallow, so the waves travel slowly here and where the glass
plate is not present, it is deep and waves travel fast in those regions.
● Diffraction: occurs when ripples in the water encounter a slit/opening
in a barrier and they spread out into the space beyond the barrier.
When the width of the gap is equal to the wavelength, diffraction is the
greatest.
● Types of musical instruments: percussion, stringed and wind.
● Speed of sound in air = 330m/s or 1200km/h
● Sound travels 1 km in about 3 s.
● Echo:is the reflection of sound when it hits a hard surface and
reflects. s=2d/t
● Time of flight method: can be used to measure the speed of sound in
a lab.
Two microphones should be arranged in a straight line at a suitable
distance apart. Each microphone should be connected to a timer. When
a student bangs two blocks of wood together, the first microphone
senses this and sends the signal to timer to start the timer and the
second microphone, a split second later, senses the sound made and
stops the timer. So now, distance of the microphones can be divided by
the time displayed on the timer, to obtain the speed of sound.
● Speed of sound in solids > liquids > gases
● Oscilloscope: it produces a trace on the screen which is the up and
down
motion of the sound wave. A microphone detects sound waves and
sends
electrical impulses to the oscilloscope.
● Higher pitch is due to higher frequency
● Louder sounds are produced due to greater amplitudes
● Sounds: are vibrations that travel through air and other mediums and
are
produced by vibrating objects.
● Crests in a sound wave are compressions and troughs on a sound
wave are
rarefactions. Sound waves also represent the changes in air pressure as
the sound travels from its source.
C 13: light
● Speed of light = 3 * 10^8 m/s
● Light changes direction only when it hits a shiny surface or travels
from one medium to another. ( reflection and refraction )
● Reflection: occurs when a light ray strikes a shiny surface and
bounces back in a straight line. The angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection ( law of reflection ). The incident ray, reflected ray
and the normal all lie on the same plane.
● Real image: is an image which can be formed/captured on a screen
● Virtual image: is an image which can’t be caught/captured on a
screen
● The object reflected on a plane mirror is:

1. The same size as the object

2. Left-right inverted
3. Virtual
4. Same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front
● Refraction: is the bending of light rays when they enter one medium
from another, due to the change in speed. The two laws of refraction
are; the incident ray, refracted ray and the normal all lie on the same
plane at the point of incidence. The ratio of sin of angle of incidence to
sin of angle of refraction is constant for a pair of media.
If light is perpendicular (90 degrees) to the medium it is entering,
refraction doesn’t take place.
● Refractive index: is the quantity that tells us by how much light slows
down while entering particular media.
● n = speed of light in vacuum(3*10^8) / speed of light in the material
● Snell’s law: it relates the sin of angle of incidence with the angle of
refraction
and also the refractive index, because as the refractive index increases,
so does the ray’s bending.
n = sin i / sin r (or) n1(sin i) = n2(sin r) (or) n = 1/sin critical angle
● Total internal reflection (TIR): occurs when light entering a
semicircular glass block reflects internally with no refracted ray
produced. It is “ total “ because all the light is reflected, it is “ internal “
because it happens inside the glass and “ reflection “ because the ray is
reflected. For TIR to happen the angle of incidence should be greater
than the critical angle or equal to it.
● Critical angle: the angle of incidence in the denser medium (glass) for
which the angle of refraction in rarer medium (air) is 90 degrees or
more.
● Optical fibres: use total internal reflection to transport telephone
messages and electronic signals in the form of a flashing laser light.

The optical fibres are made up of high purity glass, so that the light
inside the fibre is not absorbed and only TIR takes place without any
refraction. Optical fibres are used in telecommunications and
endoscopes.
● Converging lenses (convex): such lenses are thicker/fatter in the
middle compared to the sides and they make parallel rays of light
converge at one point called the principal focus Eg: magnifying glasses
● Diverging lenses (concave): such lenses are thinner in the middle,
● Principal axis: is a horizontal line passing through the centre of the
lens. All the
light rays passing through the lens are parallel to the principal axis.
● Optical centre: the centre of the lens situated on the principal axis.
● Principal focus: points on either side of the lens, on the principal axis,
where all
the light rays passing through the lens converge.

● Focal length: is the distance measured in between the optical centre

and the focal point on the principal axis. A fat lens has a shorter focal
length compared to a thin one.
● Characteristics of light:
1. Light is a transverse wave
2. It travels in a straight line
3. Speed of light in vacuum is c= 3*10^8 m/s
4. It can travel through vacuum, despite the lack of air molecules
5. Light carries energy with it / transfers energy but the matter through
which
its moving doesn’t change position.
● An image formed by a converging lens is:
1. Real
2. Inverted
3. Reduced in size
4. Nearer to the lens than the object
● An image formed by a magnifying glass is:
1. Virtual
2. Upright
3. Magnified ( bigger than the object )
4. Further from the lens than the object
( object has to be closer to the lens than the principle focus )
C 15: spectra
● Spectrum of colours: is produced when white light passes through a
prism. The range of colours produced are VIBGYOR
● Red light: refracted the least, travels the fastest, least refractive
index, most temperature, least frequency, most wavelength
● Violet light: refracts the most, travels the slowest, has the highest
refractive index, least temperature, most frequency, least wavelength
● Infrared radiation: is the invisible form of radiation which is present
beyond the red end of the spectrum
● Ultraviolet radiation: is the invisible form of radiation which is
present beyond the violet end of the spectrum.
● Electromagnetic spectrum: is the ordered arrangement of
wavelengths of electromagnetic waves;
Radio waves, microwaves, infrared, ROYGBIV, ultraviolet, X ray, gamma
rays

● Properties of electromagnetic waves:

1. All the electromagnetic waves are transverse
2. They travel at the speed of light approximately
3. They are non-mechanical (can travel through vacuum)
● Uses of electromagnetic waves:
1. Radio waves: are used to broadcast radio and television signals.
2. Microwaves: are used in satellite television broadcasting. They are
also
used to transmit mobile phone signals between masts. It has to be
made sure no microwaves are leaking out of the microwave ovens used
for domestic purposes.
3. Infrared radiation: is used in remote control for devices such as
televisions and DVD players. It is used in security alarms to send out
infrared radiation and check if they are reflected back, which happens
in the presence of an intruder.
4. Ultraviolet radiation: is used in sunbeds, fluorescent lamps and
sterilisation of food by killing the microbes. Overexposure to tanning
lamps/sunbeds can cause skin cancer and cell damage.
5. X rays: can penetrate solid materials which is why they are used in
security scanners in airports. They are also used in hospitals and clinics
to see inside the patient’s body without performing surgery. Since
bones absorb the radiation they appear as shadows. To avoid the
danger caused by X rays, the equipment can be enclosed in a metal
case, which will absorb the X rays.
6. Visible light: is used in optical fibres (telecommunications and
medical purposes).
C 17, 18 and 19: electricity
● Two types of static electricity: positive charge and negative charge
● Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

(opposites attract)
● Static electricity arises from electric charges.
● Charging is caused by the force of friction, because when two
substances
are rubbed with each other, friction causes transfer of electrons which
leaves one positively charged and the other negatively charged. Charge
is measured in coulombs ( C ).
● Electric field: Charged objects have electric fields around them and
any object placed in that field, will experience the force.
Q = ne (n= number of e, e= 1,6*10^-19
● Electric field lines: direction of force on unit charge
(negative/positive)

● Electron charge = -1.6 * 10^-19 C

● Proton charge = +1.6 * 10^19
● Methods of charging: frictional/rubbing method, Contact method,
Earthing method and induced/induction method
● Electric circuits can be used to transport energy and contain devices
to
transform energy.
● Cell: provides push in the electrical circuit for electricity to flow
● Battery: is a combination of cells/ two or more cells connected end to
end
● Direct current (DC): current that flows in the same direction all the
time
(positive to negative terminal of the battery)
● Short circuit: is caused when two metal wires come in contact with
each
other. It can be avoided by insulating wires with plastic/polymers.
● Electric charge travels around the circuit
● Current: is the flow of electric charge (or) the rate at which electric
charge
passes a point in a circuit. In a metal current is a flow of e. I = Q/t
● Ammeter: is used to measure electric current in the units amps. The
two types are analogues and digital. It is connected in series. Red is
positive (current flows in) and black is negative (current flows out).
● Trip switches: are used to cut out current if the current passing in a
circuit gets too large.
● Resistance: is the opposition a substance offers to the flow of electric
current. Greater the resistance, smaller is the current. It is measured in
“ ohms “ . Longer and thinner wires have more resistance than shorter
and wider ones.
● Resistance if a wire is proportional to its length
● Resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to its area
R = V/ I and R = p.d. / current
● Ohm’s law: states that, at constant temperature and fixed
dimensions,
current through a conductor is proportional to the potential difference
across its ends. V = IR.
1 ohm = 1V/A ( it takes 10 V to make a current of 1 A flow through a 10
ohm resistor )
● Voltage/ Potential difference: is the work done in moving a unit of
positive electric charge from one point to another. The unit is volts.
● Voltmeter: is connected in parallel and is used to measure the
difference in electric potential across a resistor/p.d. across a resistor.

● e.m.f (electromotive force): work done to move a unit charge across

the circuit and it drives the electric charge. It is a voltage and not a
force. (or) energy supplied by a source in driving charge around a
complete circuit.
● Current-voltage characteristic: is a graph with the x-axis representing
p.dV/V, as this is what we vary and the y-axis represents current I,
because this is the value that varies as we change V.
● Ohmic resistor: a resistor which has a current-voltage characteristic
which shows that current is proportional to voltage.
● A filament lamp acts an ohmic resistor until its filament stays cool,
but at high temperatures,as the filament starts getting hot, it acts as an
excellent resistor,due to which increasing p.d. doesn’t increase the
current.
● A negative current can be achieved by connecting the voltmeter the
other way around.
● Power rating of an appliance: shows the rate at which the appliance
transforms energy, and indicates the maximum power the appliance
draws from the mains supply when it is operating at full power. They
are indicated in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW).
● Power: is the rate at which energy is transferred from place to place
or transformed from one form to another. P = E / t
● The rate at which a cell or power supply transfers energy to a circuit
depends on both the e.m.
f of the supply and the current it pushes round the circuit. P = IV (watts
= amps * volts)
● Energy transformed = current * p.d * time , E = IVt ( J = A * V * sec )
● Circuit components:
1. Resistor: can be used to control the amount of current in a circuit. It
has two terminals so that current can flow in from one terminal and
then out from the other. High resistance resistors are made from
carbon (graphite) or metal alloys.
2. Variable resistor/potentiometer: is used to alter the current flowing
in a circuit. It has three terminals and all of them don’t need to be
connected in a circuit. Its enough, even if two of them are connected.
Its working: as the control is turned, the contact slides over the resistive
track. The current flows from the other end and flows till the contact
and after that it leaves the resistor. Such resistors are used for volume
control in stereos and radio systems.
3. Light-dependent resistor (LDR): is a type of variable resistor whose
resistance depends on the amount of light falling on it. In the dark, an
LDR has a very high resistance because it is made up of a material that
does not normally conduct well and in the light it has a
very low resistance. They are used in circuits to detect light, as
current flows in the circuit when light is shone on it.
4. Thermistor: is a type of resistor whose resistance depends on the
environment’s temperature. The resistance changes by a large amount
over a narrow range of temperature. A few resistor’s resistance
decrease as they are heated and such ones are used in temperature
probes(NTC thermistor). For other thermistors, their resistance
increases with the temperature. They are used in circuits where
overheating has to be prevented because the resistance increases in
the circuit with the temperature, and thus current flowing will be
reduced and other components in the circuit won’t burn out. NTC
thermistor stands for negative temperature coefficient and their
resistance decreases with the increase in temperature.
● Combined resistance (series): R = R1 + R2 and V = V1 + V2
● Combined resistance (parallel): 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2
● For resistors in series:
1. The combined resistance is equal to the sum of all the resistances
2. The current is the same at all points around the circuit
● For resistors in parallel:
1. The effective resistance is less than the resistance of either resistor
2. The current from the source is greater than the current through
either resistor.
● Earthing is a process carried out so that the chances of electric shocks
decreases by connecting the metal case of any wire to the earth wire.
● Each cable has a live, neutral and earth wire. The earth wire is not
insulated (covered with plastic).
● Fuse: contains a thin section of wire, designed to melt and break if
the current gets above a certain value. The fuse should have a current
rating just above the rating of the appliance when the current is flowing
normally.
● Trip switches: can be used instead of fuses. If the current flowing
through a trip switch is too high, it trips, breaking the whole circuit.
● All formulae:
1. Q = ne (e = 1.6 * 10^-19)
2. Q = It
3. V = W/Q = work done/charge = energy/charge
4. V = IR
5. R = rL/A (r= resistivity)
6. Rs = R1 + R2

7. Rp = 1/R1+ 1/R2
8. P = VI = (I^2) * R = (V^2)/R
C 16, 20, 21: magnets
● Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
● North pole of the compass is attracted to the earth’s geographical
north pole as
there is a magnetic south pole nearby.
● Examples of magnetic materials are iron, cobalt, steel, nickel,
lodestone, ferrite
and neodymium.
● Magnetisation: is the process by which materials can be made
magnetic either
by stroking them with a magnet in one direction, or placingthe material
in a strong magnetic field produced by an electromagnet, or placing it
in a north-south direction in a magnetic field and hammering it or
inducing it by keeping it close to a magnet which makes it magnetic for
a while.
● Hard magnets are those which are hard to magnetise but retain their
magnetism for a long time and are hard to demagnetise.
They are used in loudspeakers, permanent magnets and compass
needles. Hard steel is an example.
● Soft magnets are those which can be magnetised and demagnetised
easily. They are used in radio aerials, transformers and cores for
electromagnets.
● Magnetic fields come out from the north pole and go into the south
pole of a magnet. The closer the magnetic field lines are to each other,
the stronger the field.
● Strength of an electromagnet can be increased by: increasing the
current flow, increasing the number of turns of wire on the coil and add
a soft iron core.
● Electromagnets are used in electric doorbells, relays, transformers,
electric motors and loudspeakers.
● Maxwell’s right hand grip rule: when a wire carrying current is held,
the thumb shows direction of current flow and the curl of fingers show
the direction of magnetic field lines. The magnetic field lines are circular
and farther from the wire, the greater the distance/space between the
circular lines and thus lesser is the magnetic field strength.
● ( . ) represents current going out of the plane
● ( X ) represents current going into the plane
● Solenoid: is a length of wire wound to form a coil

● Electric motor: in an electric motor there is a coil of wire which has

current in it, so it has its own magnetic field. Permanent magnets or
electromagnets produce a magnetic field in which the coil is present.
The result of this is the turning effect on the coil which causes it to spin
around.
● DC motor consists of:
1. A coil of wire which acts as an electromagnet when a direct current
flows through it
2. Two magnets to provide a magnetic field passing through the wire
3. A split-ring commutator, through which current reaches the coil
4. Two carbon brushes which are springy wires, press against the two
metal
sections of the commutator.
● Working of a DC motor: ( DC motor converts electrical energy into
mechanical
energy)
1. A current flows in through the right hand brush (red) and flows out
through
the left hand brush (green).
2. Since the current is flowing, the wire acts as an electromagnet. So
the part
of the wire near the north pole of the wire becomes the north pole and
wire near the south pole becomes the south pole. Since the north pole
is attracted to the south pole, the wire starts turning in that direction
(anticlockwise).
3. The commutators are used in this stage because, once the north pole
gets attracted to the south pole it stops there. To avoid that, the brush
connections to the split rings are reversed, so that the electricity flows
the other way around.
4. So now we have north pole on the uppermost side of the coil and
thus it turns 180 degrees anticlockwise again. This continues which
causes the movement until the electricity is supplied.
● The axle of this setup can be connected to a pulley, a wheel or a
pump, to make use of it which are parts of fans and vehicles.
● Speed of the DC motor can be increased by:
1. Increasing number of turns of coil
2. Increasing strength of the magnet
3. Passing more current
● Motor effect is a force all motors experience.