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LECTURE NOTE ON

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS

FOR STUDENTS OF BUILDING, QUANTITY SURVERVING, AND URBAN AND

REGIONAL PLANNING

PART 2

BY

DR. EMEKA MMA AGBAGHA

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING,

SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES,

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY,OWERRI.

October, 2024
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FORMWORK

Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials because of its exceptional

properties and importance in construction. However, in most cases, concrete cannot be used

without being poured into a specially designed mould known as formwork, form, or shuttering.

For instance, to create building elements like beams, slabs, lintels, columns etc., formwork must

be used.

Formwork is a temporary mould or structure that is created to support and shape wet concrete

until the concrete becomes strong enough to support itself.

Essentially, formwork mould concrete to the required size and shape. It provides the necessary

framework for concrete to be poured and take on the desired shape and structure.

Formworks are built to have the shape of the building element they are constructed to produce.

In other words, they are constructed in accordance to the shape of the building structures, parts

or elements they are intended to produce. For example, a formwork for a beam will be

constructed to have the shape and size of a beam. In essence, when concrete is poured into the

formwork, the concrete will take the shape and size of the beam after drying and the formwork

removed.

 The process of producing a building element

After a formwork is constructed in line with the shape and size of the desired building element

or structure, concrete is poured into it and filled to the brim. Equipment like poker vibrator or

any other compaction tool, is used to compact the concrete to ensure there are no airpores in the

concrete.

Afterwards, the concrete is left to dry. After drying, the formwork is stripped. The stripping of

the formwork brings the whole process to an end.

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Note: Once the concrete has gained sufficient strength the formwork can bestripped (removed).

The formwork should under no circumstances be removed until the concrete reaches a strength
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of atleast twice the stresses to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of removal of the

formwork.

The process of removing the formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork can be

reused. Reusable forms are known as panel forms while non-reusable forms are called

stationary forms.

Time of formwork removal depends on the following factors:

1. Type of Cement: Rapid Hardening Cements(RHC) require less time than Ordinary

Portland Cement (OPC)

2. Ratio of Concrete Mix: Rich ratio concrete gain strength earlier as compared to

weak ratio concrete.

3. Weather Condition: Hydration process accelerates in hot weather conditions unlike

in cold and humid weather conditions.

Types of formworks

Type of formwork can be classified based on the material used in constructing the formwork

and also based on the building structure or element the formwork is intended to be used to

produce.

 Based on materials used in constructing the formwork, this includes; timber

formwork, plywood formwork, steel formwork, aluminum formwork, fibre glass

formwork, plastic formwork etc.

 Based on the building element the formwork is intended to be used to produce,

this includes; beam formwork, lintelformwork, slab formwork, column formwork etc.
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A good formwork must satisfy the followings:

1. Must best strong enough to withstand all the types of dead loads and live loads.

Note: Dead load of any structure refers to the structure's static, non-moving weight or any

permanent components that form an integral part of the structure. Dead load consists of the

weight of the structure and any fixed installations attached to it. Essentially, the dead load of a

structure remains constant and does not change over time unless modifications are made to

the structure. The live load of any structure refers to the transient or moving loads the

structure experiences due to human activities, forces, and other temporary factors. Live loads

vary in

magnitude and location over time. Since live loads are not constant, they impose dynamic forces

on a structure.

2. Rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both horizontally and vertically

to retain its shape after concrete has been poured

3. The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout

4. Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired sequence

without damage to concrete

5. Material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available, and should be suitable for reuse

6. It should be as light as possible

7. Material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when concrete is introduced

8. It should rest on firm base

9. It sould be constructed according to the size and shape of the intended building element or
structure.
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Timber is the most common type of formwork. This is because, it is cheaper than steel

formwork. But the disadvantage with timberformwork is that it is susceptible to warping,

swelling, and shrinking. Essentially, the initial cost of steel formwork is more than that of

timber

formwork but the number of reuses of steel formwork is higher than that of timber. Hence, in

the long run, steel formwork can be more economical than timber.

Comparison between Steel and Timber Formwork

a. Steel forms are stronger, more durable, and have a longer life span than timber

formwork and their reuses are more in number.

b. Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and speed.

c. The quality of exposed concrete surface from steel formwork is good and such surfaces

need no further treatment. This is because the surface of steel is smooth and therefore,

produces smooth surface after the formwork is stripped, while timber doesn’t have a

smooth surface. As a result, after timber formwork is removed, the surface of the

concrete will not be smooth (eg., there will be lines, bumps and other distortions on the

surface of the concrete with timber formwork after stripping).

d. Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete.

e. Steel formwork does not shrink or warp.

Loads that act on a Formwork

i. Dead weight or dead load (E.g., the formwork’s own weight)

ii. Live load (e.g., a. the force of the concrete as the concrete is being poured, b.

labourers leaning on the formwork while trying to pour concrete into the formwork

etc.)

iii. The hydrostatic pressure of the fluid concrete acting against the vertical or inclined

faces of the formwork

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iv. Impact due to pouring concrete.

v. Vibrational load due to vibrator while being used to compact the concrete inside the
formwork.

vi. Erection stresses due to movable equipment.

A Picture of Timber Formwork

Honey Comb

Apart from formworks being constructed very well and tightly to avoid any hole or gap where
cement grout can leak from, there is also need for thorough and adequate compaction. Thorough
compaction and vibration are very necessary to avoid honey comb. Honey comb refers to
excessive amounts of air voids created in set concrete as a result of insufficient filling of space
between the coarse aggregate. It is caused either by
inadequate compaction or by holes or gaps in the formwork allowing cement grout to drain out.

Unfortunately, honey combs are only discovered after the concrete has set, and the formwork

stripped. This is why it is expedient for concrete to be compacted very well apart from ensuring

that the formwork is leak proof.

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To avoid honey combing, the following measures are recommended:

1. The mix should contain sufficient fine aggregate. Using concrete with a large proportion

of large aggregates increases the risk of honeycombing;

2. The fresh (wet) concrete mix should have the correct workability.

Note: a. Set concrete is a concrete that has dried

b. The term workability is used to describe the ease at which the concrete can be placed and

consolidated without segregation or separation.

3. Sufficient compaction should be provided.Compaction with the use of vibrators reduces the

risk of honey combing;

4. Particular attention should be given to pouring concrete into tight spaces, such as

between reinforcement bars and formwork;

5. Care must be taken to ensure that the formwork doesn’t have leakages, allowing mortar to

exit the form.

 If the honeycombed area is small and does not compromise the structure, it can be

repaired by patching with mortar (Mortar is a mixture of cement, sand and water).

Before applying the mortar, any loose or lightly attached stones should be chiselled out

in order to establish the full extent of the air voids. The essential task is to make sure

that the reinforcement is properly covered and is not exposed to air and humidity, thus

avoiding any future corrosion.

 If the damage is extensive and appears to compromise the integrity and strength of

the structure, the section needsbto be fully removed and replaced with new concrete.
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A Picture of Honey Comb on a set Concrete

SCAFFOLDING

A scaffold, also called scaffolding or staging, is a temporary structure that allows people to

stand on a stable platform and work at a height. It can also be defined as a temporary

structure used to support

labourers and materials in the construction, maintainance,or repair of buildings and other

large structures, when performing tasks at heights above the ground. Also, scaffold is a

temporary structure used to provide a platform at different levels of a building for workers

and materials.

Essentially, scaffold is used to support workmen during construction when the work has to

bedone at higher height, for example, block laying, rendering (plastering), and painting or

renewal or repainting of structures, etc., at the top floor of a building. Scaffold can also be

described as a temporary support system provided for the construction and maintenance

purposes.It consists of a support and working platform forworkers and materials.

Types of Scaffolds

1. Single Scaffolds

2. Double Scaffolds
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3. Ladder Scaffolds

4. Cantilever Scaffolds

5. Suspended Scaffolds

6. SteelorTubular Scaffolds

Parts of a Scaffold

Scaffolding contains the following parts;

1. Standards: The vertical posts (also called uprights).

2. Ledgers: The horizontal members parallel to the wall.

3. Braces: The bracing system.

4. Putlogs: Horizontal members normal to the wall.

5. Transoms: Putlogs whose both ends are supported on ledgers in double scaffolding.

6. Bridle: Member used to bridge openings.

7. Boarding: Planks on which work men stand. It is the platform the workers stand to work

8. Guardrail: Rail provided at about 1metre level to guard the men standing on the

boarding to work.

9. Toe board: Boards placed parallel to boarding near the wall to give protection to workers.

Benefits of using scaffolds for work at a height:

i. Access - Scaffolding can allow unhindered and stable access to almost any area of

astructure.

ii. Balance - Scaffolds put workers on a firmbfooting, giving them the ability to

balance themselves in different positions while working.

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iii. Ease of construction - Scaffolding is relatively easy to assemble and disassemble,

and can be put up and taken down fairly fast.

iv. Durability - Most scaffolds can last for a very long time, whether they are made

from timber (wood) or from steel.

v. Safety - Safety is one of the most significant advantages of scaffolding, since it

gives workers a stable platform do their work.

vi. Serves as a bridge - A number of construction activities require workers to take

long and winding routes to reach certain locations on the job site, which is an

enormous waste of time.Bridging points in scaffolding can help solve this problem

by reducing the distance that workers have to travel.

Dangers associated with working on scaffolds

a. Defects. Scaffolding-related accidents are often caused by faulty scaffolding.

b. Falling objects. Falling objects like tools, construction materials, or debris are a

common cause of injury and accident when you using scaffolds.

c. Weather. It can be extremely dangerous to work at height on a partially-constructed

building when the weather is changing. Rain or snow can make the planking slippery,

and temperature fluctuations can compromise attachment points and cause planks to

loosen, crack, and fail.

d. Ignoring safetybstandards. For example, overloading scaffolding and

placing scaffolding too close to hazardous energy sources could lead to

fatality.

e. Inadequate training. Working on scaffolding and constructing scaffolding both call

for specialized training. Scaffold builders and erectors must be trained in scaffolding
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construction and safety standards for the particular scaffolding they are erecting.

Also, scaffold workers must be knowledgeable about the risks associated with

scaffolding.

f. Inadequate or weak planking. Scaffolding for all types of work must have sturdy

planking for safety of workers. Fall risks can result from weakened or inadequate

scaffolding supports, posts, mast climbers, pump jacks, and other mechanisms.

g. Inexperience, incompetence, or negligence. It is extremely dangerous to work on a

construction site with individuals who lack training or experience, or don’t take

safety risks seriously. The negligence of coworkers can be especially dangerous when

scaffolding is involved.

h. Insufficient supply of safety equipment. It is still necessary to provide workers with

access to appropriate safety equipment even when scaffolds are designed,

manufactured, and constructed properly.

i. Poor construction. Accidents on construction sites are often caused by improper

scaffold construction, which includes failing to attach all attachment points properly,

failure to install bracing, or failure to install guardrails.

j. Poor maintenance. To remain structurally sound, scaffolding needs to be properly

maintained. Old materials can wear out with time, and slippery surfaces and other safety hazards

can also occur as a result of inadequate maintenance.

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Pictures of scaffolds
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SHORING

Shoring is the process of temporarily supporting a building, structure or trench with shores

(props) when in danger of collapse or during repairs or alterations. It is the method of providing

temporarysupport (shores) to an unsafe structure.

Necessity of Shoring

Shoring is necessary in the following situations;

1. The stability of a structure is endangered due to removal of a defective portion of

the structure.

2. The stability of a structure is endangered due to unequal settlement during

construction or after construction.

3. Certain alterations are to be done in a structure.E.g., remodeling of walls, changing

position of windows, etc.

4. Alterations are carried out in adjacent building for remodeling, strengthening

of foundation, etc.

Reasons for Shoring

Shoring is required for the following reasons;

1. To support a structure that is sinking or tilting due to poor soil or instability of

the superstructure.

2. As a safeguard against possible settlement of a structure when excavating close to or

below its foundation level.

3. To support a structure while making alterations to its foundations or main

supporting members.
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Types of Shoring

a. Horizontal shoring or flying shoring

b. Vertical shoring or dead shoring
c. Inclined shoring or flying shoring

Horizontal shoring or flying shoring: It consists of Horizontal beam or strut, Wallplates,

Cleats, and Straining beams. It is used to support two adjacent buildings.

Horizontal shoring or flying shoring

Vertical shoring or dead shoring: It consists of Deadshores, Soleplates, Needles, and Props.It

is used for rebuilding of walls.

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Vertical shoring or dead shoring

Inclined Shoring or flying shoring: consists of Rackers, Needles, Cleats, Braces, Soleplate. It

is used to strengthen a wall.

Inclined shoring or flying shoring

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UNDERPINNING

Existing buildings, could experience excessive settlement (sinking into the ground) under their

design load or face the prospect of excessive settlement in the future if a change of building use

is required and increased foundation loadings may occur.Also, there are situations where a

failure in foundation or footing happens unexpectedly after the completion of the whole

structure (both substructure and superstructure). Under such emergency situations, a remedial

method has to be suggested to regain structural stability. Underpinning is a broad term used to

describe the process of modifying an existing foundation to stop it from excessive settlement

and also increase the capacity of the foundation to carry the new load that came about from the

new use of the building.

Underpinning method helps to strengthen the foundation of an existing building or any other

infrastructure.

Underpinning is the process of repairing, strengthening or supporting and stabilizing the existing

structure of the foundation. It involves the installation of permanent or temporary support to an

existing foundation so that additional depth and bearing capacity is achieved.

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A picture of a settled buildings (A building affected by settlement {that is, sinking

foundation})
A

Reasons for Underpinning

Various reasons or situations may necessitate the need for underpinning. These include;

1. To enable the foundations to be deepened for structural reasons, for example to

construct a basement beneath a building.

2. To increase the width of a foundation to permit heavier loads to be carried, for

example when increasing the height of a building.

3. To enable a building to be moved bodily to a new site.

4. Construction of a new project with a deeper foundation adjacent to an existing building

5. To strengthen an existing foundation which has settled and caused cracks in the wall.

6. To deepen an existing foundation resting on poor strata so as to rest it on deeper soil

strata of higher bearing power.

7. To construct a basement in an existing building.

8. Settlement of an existing structure

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9. Change in use of a structure (Change in use of a building has to do with, when the load

on a building changes because the initial use of the building has changed {for example,

when a building that was built for residence is now being used as a church. Because of

this change in use, there will be more load on the building, more than the load the

building was originally designed to carry as a residential building. This increased load is

because the church will attract and have more people, there will be dancing, jumping,

praying, running about etc. which will translate to more load on the foundation, more

than the original load that was anticipated and designed for the building} or additional

structure has been made on the building {for example, when additional floors are added

to an existing building like making a one storey building two storey, three storey or

more storeys)

10. The original foundation is not strong or in stable condition.

11. The properties of the soil supporting the foundation may have changed or

were mischaracterized during design.

12. To increase the foundation depth or load bearing capacity of existing foundations

to support the addition of another storey to the building.

13. When it is more economical, due to land price or other reasons, to use an existing

structure's foundation than to build a new structure.

14. Earthquake, flood, drought or other natural disasters have caused the structure to move,

requiring stabilization of foundation soils and footings.

Prior to the start of excavation for a new structure, it is advisable to have a professional examine

all structures in close proximity to the construction site, to determine whether or not

underpinning is necessary. This is because, if the foundation of the new structure is deeper than

that of the existing structure, the excavation for the new structure could cause the foundation of

the existing structureto settle or even collapse. Hence, there is need to examine existing
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structures.

Methods of Underpinning

Underpinning can becarried out by the following methods:‐

a. Pit method

b. Pile method
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c. Underpinning to walls

d. Jack pile underpinning

e. Needle and pile underpinning

f. Pynford Stool method of underpinning

g. Root pile or angle Piling underpinning columns

DOORS AND WINDOW SCHEDULE

DOORS

A door is a hinged cover to an opening in a wall. It is a screen used to seal an opening into

a building or between rooms within a building. The function of a door is to give access to a

building and to different parts of the building and to deny the access whenever necessary.

Number of doors should be as minimum as possible. The size of the door should be of such

dimension as will facilitate the movement of the largest object likely to use the doors. Apart from

the door for bathrooms and water closets, the size of the other doors in a building should not be

less than 0.9 metres by 2.1 metres (where 0.9 metres is the width of the door and 2.1 metres is the

height of the door). Larger doors are usually provided at the main entrance to a building to

enhance the aesthetic view.

The door for bathrooms and water closets are usually smaller than doors in other parts of a

building. The standard size recommended for bathrooms and water closets is 0.75 metres by 2.1

metres (where 0.75 metres is the width of the door and 2.1 metres is the height of the door).

2.1m

0.9m
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Functions of a door

These include;

1. To allow access into a building

2. To allow access to other parts of a building

3. To prevent outside elements such as rain and snow to enter the building

4. To prevent the passage of fire from one room to the next

5. To provide a thermal and sound insulation barrier

6. To offer security and privacy.

Classification of doors

1. Doors can be classified according to where they are used in a building:

a. Doors used to enter a building are called external doors (External doors are usually

thicker and stronger than other doors in a building)

b. Doors used within a building are called internal doors.

2. Doors can also be classified by their method of operation:

i. Hinged or swinging doors

ii. Sliding doors

iii. Folding doors

3. Door can also be classified based on their construction and design:

a. Match board doors

b. Single panel doors

c. Two panel doors

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d. Three panel doors

e. Four panel doors

f. Six panel doors

g. Eight panel doors

h. Flush plain doors

i. Flush doors with vision panel.

4. Door can also be classified according to the material used in manufacturing it

o wood

o glass

o metal

o flexible rubber

o Composite (a combination of two or more of the above materials)

Wooden Doors

The B.S. (British Standard) for wooden doors is divided into four parts, each being a different

method of construction: Accordingto B.S. 459, the four parts include

Part 1:Panelled and glazed wood doors

Part 2: Flush doors

Part 3: Fire-check doors

Part 4: Match boarded doors.

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Panelled and glazed wood doors

- The wide variety of types is based upon the one, two, three or four panel format.

- They are constructed of timber which should be in accordance with BS1186 with plywood or

glass panels.

- Panelled doors –can be internal or external.

Panelled doors
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Flush doors

- Is very popular (with both the designer and the occupier)- it has a plain face which is easy to

clean and to paint and is also free of the mouldings which collect dust.

Flush doors –usually internal doors, although some plywood faced ones can be manufactured for

external use.

Flush doors
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Fire-check flush doors

- Provides an effective barrier to the passage of fire for the time designated by their type -but,

to achieve this they must be used in conjunction with the correct frame.

According to BS 459, there are two fire-check flushdoors:

• Half-hour resistance

• One-hourresistance

Half-hour Type Fire-check Door and Frame

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Match-boarded doors

- These doors can be used as external and internal doors.

Match-boarded doors

WINDOWS

Windows are provided to give light and ventilation.They are located at a height of 0.75 metres

to 0.90 metres from the floor level. But the windows for bathrooms and water closets are

different. They are located at a height of 1.35 metres to 1.5 metres from the floor level. For a

room, it is recommended that there should be at least

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two windows, which should not be on the same wall, but on different walls. Among others, this

is for cross ventilation.

Types of Windows

Type of windows can be classified on four bases

a. Materials used for manufacture

b. Type of shutters

c. Type of openings of shutter

d. The position of windows.

Primary Functions of Windows

1. Provide a means for admission of natural daylight to the interior of a building.

2. Provide a means ventilation for buildings

3. Provides a view of the external surroundings, which is vital for occupants.

 Windows, like doors, can be made from different materials;

 Timber

 Glass

 Metal

 Plastic

 Composite (That is, a combination of two or more of the above materials)