Chapter 5 - Reactivity

●​ Reactivity:
Reactivity refers to how easily a substance undergoes a chemical reaction. More
reactive elements react quickly and vigorously, while less reactive ones react slowly or
not at all.

●​ Reactivity Series:
The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in order of decreasing reactivity. Highly
reactive metals like potassium, sodium, and calcium react strongly with acids and
water, while less reactive metals like silver and gold do not react easily.
●​ Displacement Reactions:
A displacement reaction occurs when a more reactive element takes the place of a less
reactive element in a compound. For example, when zinc is added to copper sulfate
solution, zinc displaces copper, forming zinc sulfate and copper metal.

●​ Displacement Using Carbon:

Metals that are less reactive than carbon can be extracted from their ores using carbon
in a displacement reaction. This process helps in obtaining pure metal from its
compound.

●​ Thermite Reaction:
The thermite reaction is a highly exothermic reaction between a reactive metal (like
aluminum) and a metal oxide (like iron oxide). It is used to produce molten metal,
especially for welding railway tracks and repairing machinery.
Word Equation: Aluminum + Iron(III) Oxide → Aluminum Oxide + Iron
Symbol Equation: 2Al+Fe2o3​→Al2o3​+2Fe

●​ Iron Extraction in the Blast Furnace:

Iron is extracted from iron ore (hematite, Fe₂O₃) using carbon (coke) in a blast furnace.
This process removes oxygen from iron oxide to produce pure iron. Carbon is more
reactive than iron, so it reduces iron oxide by taking away its oxygen, forming iron
metal and carbon dioxide. This process is an example of a displacement reaction, where
a more reactive element (carbon) replaces a less reactive one (iron) in a compound.
Word Equation: Iron(III) Oxide + Carbon → Iron + Carbon Dioxide

●​ Making Salts:
Salts can be made in different ways. When a metal reacts with an acid, it produces a salt
and hydrogen gas. Metal oxides reacting with acids form salt and water. Metal
carbonates reacting with acids form salt, water, and carbon dioxide. Neutralization of
an acid with a base also produces salt and water.
●​ Different Ways of Making Salts:
1. Hydrochloric Acid Reactions: Metal + Hydrochloric Acid → Metal Chloride +
Hydrogen
Example: Iron + Hydrochloric Acid → Iron(II) Chloride + Hydrogen
2. Metal Oxide Reactions: Metal Oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
Example: Magnesium Oxide + Hydrochloric Acid → Magnesium Chloride + Water
3. Sulfate Reactions: Metal + Sulfuric Acid → Metal Sulfate + Hydrogen
Example: Zinc + Sulfuric Acid → Zinc Sulfate + Hydrogen
4. Carbonate Reactions: Metal Carbonate + Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
Example: Calcium Carbonate + Hydrochloric Acid → Calcium Chloride + Water +
Carbon Dioxide
5. Neutralisation Reactions: Acid + Alkali → Salt + Water:
Example: Hydrochloric Acid + Sodium Hydroxide → Sodium Chloride + Water

●​ Making Salts (Crystallization):

Making Salts from a Metal Oxide: A beaker is filled with 100 cm³ of acid, and copper
oxide is added. The mixture is gently heated and stirred until it changes color. More
copper oxide is added in excess to ensure all the acid reacts. The solution is then
filtered to remove any unreacted copper oxide. The clear solution is heated in an
evaporating basin until crystals start to form at the edges. It is then left for a few days
to fully crystallize, forming pure copper sulfate crystals.
Making Salts from a Metal Carbonate: A metal carbonate (like sodium carbonate) is
added slowly in excess to an acid while stirring. The reaction produces carbon dioxide,
water, and salt. Once no more carbonate dissolves, the solution is filtered to remove
any leftover solid. It is then gently heated in an evaporating basin until crystals begin to
appear, then left to cool and form larger crystals.
Making Salts by Neutralization: A burette is filled with hydrochloric acid, and a set
amount of sodium hydroxide solution is placed in a flask with a few drops of universal
indicator. The acid is slowly added from the burette while swirling the flask. As the pH
changes, the indicator shows when neutralization is complete. The neutral solution is
then evaporated gently to form salt crystals, which are left to crystallize.
●​ Salts in Rocks:
Salts are naturally found in minerals like limestone (calcium carbonate) and halite
(sodium chloride). These minerals are often used in industry and everyday life.

●​ Alkalis and Bases:

Metal oxides are called bases because they can react with acids to form salts and water.
When a metal oxide dissolves in water, it forms an alkaline solution, making it an alkali.
For example, Sodium Oxide + Water → Sodium Hydroxide, which is an alkali. However,
not all metal oxides are soluble in water. Some, like iron oxide and copper oxide, do not
dissolve and therefore do not form alkalis. Even though they are insoluble, they can still
react with acids to produce salts and water. For instance, Copper(II) Oxide + Sulfuric
Acid → Copper Sulfate + Water.

●​ Chemical Reactions:
A chemical reaction occurs when bonds between atoms break and rearrange to form
new substances. These reactions can be classified as exothermic or endothermic.

●​ Rearranging Atoms:
During a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created nor destroyed but are
rearranged to form new compounds. No element that is present in the reactant
disappears from the products. No new element appears in the products. This follows
the law of conservation of mass.

●​ Conservation of Mass:
The law of conservation of mass states that the total mass of reactants is always equal
to the total mass of products in a chemical reaction. This means that no atoms are lost
or gained, only rearranged.

●​ Why Does Mass Sometimes Change After a Reaction?

According to the Law of Conservation of Mass, the total mass of reactants should equal
the total mass of products in a closed system. However, in some reactions, the mass
appears to change because gases can escape or be absorbed from the surroundings.

●​ Balancing Equations:
Chemical equations must be balanced to follow the law of conservation of mass. This
means the number of atoms on the reactant side must be equal to the number of atoms
on the product side.
Example: H₂ + O₂ → H₂O is balanced as 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O.
 ●​ Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions:
Exothermic reactions release heat energy to the surroundings, such as combustion.
Endothermic reactions absorb heat energy, like photosynthesis.

Endothermic Reaction Exothermic Reaction

A reaction that absorbs energy from its A reaction that releases energy from the
surroundings in the form of heat. system in the form of heat.

Energy is absorbed from the surroundings Energy is released from the system to its
into the reaction. environment.

Energy is taken in as heat. Energy is released as heat, electricity, light,

or sound.

Examples: Melting ice, Evaporation, Examples: Chemical Bonds, Explosions.

Cooking, Photosynthesis.
 Chapter 8 - Rates of Reaction

●​ Rate of Reaction:
The rate of reaction measures how fast reactants turn into products. It is affected by
factors like temperature, concentration, and surface area. A faster reaction means
reactants are used up more quickly, and products form in less time.

●​ Measuring the Rate of Reaction:

Collection of Gas: A gas syringe measures the volume of gas produced over time,
allowing scientists to track the reaction rate accurately. For example, when magnesium
reacts with hydrochloric acid, it produces hydrogen gas, which is collected in the gas
syringe. The volume of gas recorded at different time intervals helps determine how
fast the reaction occurs.
Loss of Mass: If a gas is released, the mass of the reaction mixture decreases over time
as the gas escapes into the surroundings. For example, when calcium carbonate reacts
with acid, it produces carbon dioxide, which is released into the air. As the gas leaves,
the total mass of the reaction mixture reduces, and this change in mass can be
measured to determine the rate of reaction.

Why does the Rate of Reaction Change?

As the reaction progresses, the reactants are gradually used up, leading to fewer
available particles to collide, which causes the reaction to slow down over time. The
rate of reaction is also influenced by factors such as surface area, temperature, and
concentration.

●​ Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction:

Surface area: When a solid reactant is broken into smaller pieces, its surface area
increases, exposing more particles for collisions. A larger surface area allows more
 frequent collisions, increasing the rate of reaction. For example, powdered calcium
carbonate reacts faster with acid than a large marble chip.
Temperature: Increasing temperature gives particles more kinetic energy, making
them move faster and collide more frequently with greater force. This leads to more
successful collisions and a faster reaction rate. For instance, food cooks faster at higher
temperatures because heat speeds up chemical reactions.
Concentration: A higher concentration of reactants means more particles are present
in the same volume, leading to more frequent collisions and a faster reaction. For
example, a strong acid reacts faster with metals than a diluted acid because there are
more acid particles available to react.
Catalyst: A catalyst is a substance that makes a reaction happen faster without being
used up. It lowers the energy needed for the reaction to start. For example, in making
oxygen from hydrogen peroxide, manganese dioxide (MnO₂) helps speed up the
reaction. Another example is enzymes in the body, like amylase, which helps break
down food faster during digestion.

●​ Using a Graph to Analyze Reaction Rates:

Steeper Line (Faster Reaction): At the start of a reaction, the line on the graph is
usually very steep, indicating a fast reaction. A steep slope means that the reactants are
quickly turning into products, as there are plenty of reactant particles available. This
leads to frequent and successful collisions between particles, making the reaction
proceed at a high rate. For example, when magnesium reacts with concentrated
hydrochloric acid, it produces hydrogen gas rapidly, resulting in a steep curve on the
graph.
Less Steep Line (Slower Reaction): As the reaction progresses, reactants are gradually
used up, leading to fewer available particles for collisions. With fewer collisions
occurring, the reaction slows down, and the graph starts to curve, becoming less steep.
This indicates a gradual decrease in the reaction rate. For example, if diluted
hydrochloric acid is used instead of concentrated acid, the reaction takes place more
slowly, and the graph shows a gentler slope instead of a steep rise.
Flat Line (Reaction Has Stopped): Eventually, the graph levels off, meaning no more
product is being formed. This happens because all the reactants have been completely
used up, and the reaction has stopped. At this stage, the final amount of product
remains constant, as no further reaction can take place. For example, in the reaction
between calcium carbonate and acid, carbon dioxide gas is produced. Once all the
calcium carbonate has reacted, no more gas is formed, and the graph flattens, showing
that the reaction is complete.