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Adsorption
Adsorption is the adhesion[1] of atoms, ions or molecules from a gas, liquid or
dissolved solid to a surface.[2] This process creates a film of the adsorbate on the
surface of the adsorbent. This process differs from absorption, in which a fluid (the
absorbate) is dissolved by or permeates a liquid or solid (the absorbent).[3] While
adsorption does often precede absorption, which involves the transfer of the
absorbate into the volume of the absorbent material, alternatively, adsorption is Brunauer, Emmett and Teller's
distinctly a surface phenomenon, wherein the adsorbate does not penetrate through model of multilayer adsorption is a
the material surface and into the bulk of the adsorbent.[4] The term sorption random distribution of molecules on
the material surface.
encompasses both adsorption and absorption, and desorption is the reverse of
sorption.

Like surface tension, adsorption is a consequence of surface energy. In a

bulk material, all the bonding requirements (be they ionic, covalent or IUPAC definition
metallic) of the constituent atoms of the material are fulfilled by other adsorption: An increase in the
atoms in the material. However, atoms on the surface of the adsorbent are concentration of a dissolved substance
not wholly surrounded by other adsorbent atoms and therefore can attract at the interface (https://doi.org/10.13
adsorbates. The exact nature of the bonding depends on the details of the 51/goldbook.I03082) of a condensed
species involved, but the adsorption process is generally classified as and a liquid phase due to the
physisorption (characteristic of weak van der Waals forces) or operation of surface forces.
Adsorption can also occur at the
chemisorption (characteristic of covalent bonding). It may also occur due
interface of a condensed and a gaseous
to electrostatic attraction.[6][7] The nature of the adsorption can affect the
structure of the adsorbed species. For example, polymer physisorption phase. [5]
from solution can result in squashed structures on a surface.[8]

Adsorption is present in many natural, physical, biological and chemical systems and is widely used in industrial
applications such as heterogeneous catalysts,[9][10] activated charcoal, capturing and using waste heat to provide cold
water for air conditioning and other process requirements (adsorption chillers), synthetic resins, increasing storage
capacity of carbide-derived carbons and water purification.[11] Adsorption, ion exchange and chromatography are
sorption processes in which certain adsorbates are selectively transferred from the fluid phase to the surface of
insoluble, rigid particles suspended in a vessel or packed in a column. Pharmaceutical industry applications, which use
adsorption as a means to prolong neurological exposure to specific drugs or parts thereof, are lesser known.

The word "adsorption" was coined in 1881 by German physicist Heinrich Kayser (1853–1940).[12]

Isotherms
The adsorption of gases and solutes is usually described through isotherms, that is, the amount of adsorbate on the
adsorbent as a function of its pressure (if gas) or concentration (for liquid phase solutes) at constant temperature. The
quantity adsorbed is nearly always normalized by the mass of the adsorbent to allow comparison of different materials.
To date, 15 different isotherm models have been developed.[13]

Freundlich
The first mathematical fit to an isotherm was published by Freundlich and Kuster (1906) and is a purely empirical
formula for gaseous adsorbates:

where is the mass of adsorbate adsorbed, is the mass of the adsorbent, is the pressure of adsorbate (this can be
changed to concentration if investigating solution rather than gas), and and are empirical constants for each
adsorbent–adsorbate pair at a given temperature. The function is not adequate at very high pressure because in reality

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has an asymptotic maximum as pressure increases without bound. As the temperature increases, the constants
and change to reflect the empirical observation that the quantity adsorbed rises more slowly and higher pressures are
required to saturate the surface.

Langmuir
Irving Langmuir was the first to derive a scientifically based adsorption isotherm in 1918.[14] The model applies to gases
adsorbed on solid surfaces. It is a semi-empirical isotherm with a kinetic basis and was derived based on statistical
thermodynamics. It is the most common isotherm equation to use due to its simplicity and its ability to fit a variety of
adsorption data. It is based on four assumptions:

1. All of the adsorption sites are equivalent, and each site can only accommodate one molecule.
2. The surface is energetically homogeneous, and adsorbed molecules do not interact.
3. There are no phase transitions.
4. At the maximum adsorption, only a monolayer is formed. Adsorption only occurs on localized sites on the surface,
not with other adsorbates.
These four assumptions are seldom all true: there are always imperfections on the surface, adsorbed molecules are not
necessarily inert, and the mechanism is clearly not the same for the first molecules to adsorb to a surface as for the last.
The fourth condition is the most troublesome, as frequently more molecules will adsorb to the monolayer; this problem
is addressed by the BET isotherm for relatively flat (non-microporous) surfaces. The Langmuir isotherm is nonetheless
the first choice for most models of adsorption and has many applications in surface kinetics (usually called Langmuir–
Hinshelwood kinetics) and thermodynamics.

Langmuir suggested that adsorption takes place through this mechanism: , where A is a gas molecule,
and S is an adsorption site. The direct and inverse rate constants are k and k−1. If we define surface coverage, , as the
fraction of the adsorption sites occupied, in the equilibrium we have:

or

where is the partial pressure of the gas or the molar concentration of the solution. For very low pressures ,
and for high pressures .

The value of is difficult to measure experimentally; usually, the adsorbate is a gas and the quantity adsorbed is given
in moles, grams, or gas volumes at standard temperature and pressure (STP) per gram of adsorbent. If we call vmon the
STP volume of adsorbate required to form a monolayer on the adsorbent (per gram of adsorbent), then , and

we obtain an expression for a straight line:

Through its slope and y intercept we can obtain vmon and K, which are constants for each adsorbent–adsorbate pair at a
given temperature. vmon is related to the number of adsorption sites through the ideal gas law. If we assume that the
number of sites is just the whole area of the solid divided into the cross section of the adsorbate molecules, we can easily
calculate the surface area of the adsorbent. The surface area of an adsorbent depends on its structure: the more pores it
has, the greater the area, which has a big influence on reactions on surfaces.

If more than one gas adsorbs on the surface, we define as the fraction of empty sites, and we have:

Also, we can define as the fraction of the sites occupied by the j-th gas:

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where i is each one of the gases that adsorb.

Note:

1) To choose between the Langmuir and Freundlich equations, the enthalpies of adsorption must be investigated.[15]
While the Langmuir model assumes that the energy of adsorption remains constant with surface occupancy, the
Freundlich equation is derived with the assumption that the heat of adsorption continually decrease as the binding sites
are occupied.[16] The choice of the model based on best fitting of the data is a common misconception.[15]

2) The use of the linearized form of the Langmuir model is no longer common practice. Advances in computational
power allowed for nonlinear regression to be performed quickly and with higher confidence since no data
transformation is required.

BET
Often molecules do form multilayers, that is, some are adsorbed on already adsorbed molecules, and the Langmuir
isotherm is not valid. In 1938 Stephen Brunauer, Paul Emmett, and Edward Teller developed a model isotherm that
takes that possibility into account. Their theory is called BET theory, after the initials in their last names. They modified
Langmuir's mechanism as follows:

A(g) + S ⇌ AS,

A(g) + AS ⇌ A2S,

A(g) + A2S ⇌ A3S and so on.

The derivation of the formula is more complicated than Langmuir's (see links for
complete derivation). We obtain:

where x is the pressure divided by the vapor pressure for the adsorbate at that
temperature (usually denoted ), v is the STP volume of adsorbed adsorbate,
Langmuir (blue) and BET (red)
vmon is the STP volume of the amount of adsorbate required to form a monolayer,
isotherms
and c is the equilibrium constant K we used in Langmuir isotherm multiplied by the
vapor pressure of the adsorbate. The key assumption used in deriving the BET
equation that the successive heats of adsorption for all layers except the first are equal to the heat of condensation of the
adsorbate.

The Langmuir isotherm is usually better for chemisorption, and the BET isotherm works better for physisorption for
non-microporous surfaces.

Kisliuk
In other instances, molecular interactions between gas molecules previously
adsorbed on a solid surface form significant interactions with gas molecules in the
gaseous phases. Hence, adsorption of gas molecules to the surface is more likely to
occur around gas molecules that are already present on the solid surface, rendering
the Langmuir adsorption isotherm ineffective for the purposes of modelling. This
effect was studied in a system where nitrogen was the adsorbate and tungsten was Two adsorbate nitrogen molecules
the adsorbent by Paul Kisliuk (1922–2008) in 1957.[17] To compensate for the adsorbing onto a tungsten
adsorbent from the precursor state
increased probability of adsorption occurring around molecules present on the
around an island of previously
substrate surface, Kisliuk developed the precursor state theory, whereby molecules
adsorbed adsorbate (left) and via
would enter a precursor state at the interface between the solid adsorbent and random adsorption (right)
adsorbate in the gaseous phase. From here, adsorbate molecules would either
adsorb to the adsorbent or desorb into the gaseous phase. The probability of
adsorption occurring from the precursor state is dependent on the adsorbate's proximity to other adsorbate molecules
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that have already been adsorbed. If the adsorbate molecule in the precursor state is in close proximity to an adsorbate
molecule that has already formed on the surface, it has a sticking probability reflected by the size of the SE constant and
will either be adsorbed from the precursor state at a rate of kEC or will desorb into the gaseous phase at a rate of kES. If
an adsorbate molecule enters the precursor state at a location that is remote from any other previously adsorbed
adsorbate molecules, the sticking probability is reflected by the size of the SD constant.

These factors were included as part of a single constant termed a "sticking coefficient", kE, described below:

As SD is dictated by factors that are taken into account by the Langmuir model, SD can be assumed to be the adsorption
rate constant. However, the rate constant for the Kisliuk model (R’) is different from that of the Langmuir model, as R’
is used to represent the impact of diffusion on monolayer formation and is proportional to the square root of the
system's diffusion coefficient. The Kisliuk adsorption isotherm is written as follows, where θ(t) is fractional coverage of
the adsorbent with adsorbate, and t is immersion time:

Solving for θ(t) yields:

Adsorption enthalpy
Adsorption constants are equilibrium constants, therefore they obey the Van 't Hoff equation:

As can be seen in the formula, the variation of K must be isosteric, that is, at constant coverage. If we start from the BET
isotherm and assume that the entropy change is the same for liquefaction and adsorption, we obtain

that is to say, adsorption is more exothermic than liquefaction.

Single-molecule explanation
The adsorption of ensemble molecules on a surface or interface can be divided into two processes: adsorption and
desorption. If the adsorption rate wins the desorption rate, the molecules will accumulate over time giving the
adsorption curve over time. If the desorption rate is larger, the number of molecules on the surface will decrease over
time. The adsorption rate is dependent on the temperature, the diffusion rate of the solute (related to mean free path for
pure gas), and the energy barrier between the molecule and the surface. The diffusion and key elements of the
adsorption rate can be calculated using Fick's laws of diffusion and Einstein relation (kinetic theory). Under ideal
conditions, when there is no energy barrier and all molecules that diffuse and collide with the surface get adsorbed, the
number of molecules adsorbed at a surface of area on an infinite area surface can be directly integrated from Fick's
second law differential equation to be:[18]

where is the surface area (unit m2), is the number concentration of the molecule in the bulk solution (unit #/m3),
is the diffusion constant (unit m2/s), and is time (unit s). Further simulations and analysis of this equation[19] show
that the square root dependence on the time is originated from the decrease of the concentrations near the surface
under ideal adsorption conditions. Also, this equation only works for the beginning of the adsorption when a well-
behaved concentration gradient forms near the surface. Correction on the reduction of the adsorption area and slowing
down of the concentration gradient evolution have to be considered over a longer time.[20] Under real experimental
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conditions, the flow and the small adsorption area always make the adsorption rate faster than what this equation
predicted, and the energy barrier will either accelerate this rate by surface attraction or slow it down by surface
repulsion. Thus, the prediction from this equation is often a few to several orders of magnitude away from the
experimental results. Under special cases, such as a very small adsorption area on a large surface, and under chemical
equilibrium when there is no concentration gradience near the surface, this equation becomes useful to predict the
adsorption rate with debatable special care to determine a specific value of in a particular measurement.[19]

The desorption of a molecule from the surface depends on the binding energy of the molecule to the surface and the
temperature. The typical overall adsorption rate is thus often a combined result of the adsorption and desorption.

Quantum mechanical – thermodynamic modelling for surface area

and porosity
Since 1980 two theories were worked on to explain adsorption and obtain equations that work. These two are referred
to as the chi hypothesis, the quantum mechanical derivation, and excess surface work (ESW).[21] Both these theories
yield the same equation for flat surfaces:

where U is the unit step function. The definitions of the other symbols is as follows:

where "ads" stands for "adsorbed", "m" stands for "monolayer equivalence" and "vap" is reference to the vapor pressure
of the liquid adsorptive at the same temperature as the solid sample. The unit function creates the definition of the
molar energy of adsorption for the first adsorbed molecule by:

The plot of adsorbed versus is referred to as the chi plot. For flat surfaces, the slope of the chi plot yields the
surface area. Empirically, this plot was noticed as being a very good fit to the isotherm by Michael Polanyi[22][23][24] and
also by Jan Hendrik de Boer and Cornelis Zwikker[25] but not pursued. This was due to criticism in the former case by
Albert Einstein and in the latter case by Brunauer. This flat surface equation may be used as a "standard curve" in the
normal tradition of comparison curves, with the exception that the porous sample's early portion of the plot of
versus acts as a self-standard. Ultramicroporous, microporous and mesoporous conditions may be analyzed using this
technique. Typical standard deviations for full isotherm fits including porous samples are less than 2%.

Notice that in this description of physical adsorption, the entropy of adsorption is consistent with the Dubinin
thermodynamic criterion, that is the entropy of adsorption from the liquid state to the adsorbed state is approximately
zero.

Adsorbents

Characteristics and general requirements

Adsorbents are used usually in the form of spherical pellets, rods, moldings, or
monoliths with a hydrodynamic radius between 0.25 and 5 mm. They must have
high abrasion resistance, high thermal stability and small pore diameters, which
results in higher exposed surface area and hence high capacity for adsorption. The
adsorbents must also have a distinct pore structure that enables fast transport of the
gaseous vapors.[26] Most industrial adsorbents fall into one of three classes:

Oxygen-containing compounds – Are typically hydrophilic and polar, including

materials such as silica gel, limestone (calcium carbonate)[27] and zeolites. Activated carbon is used as an
Carbon-based compounds – Are typically hydrophobic and non-polar, including adsorbent
materials such as activated carbon and graphite.
Polymer-based compounds – Are polar or non-polar, depending on the
functional groups in the polymer matrix.
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Silica gel
Silica gel is a chemically inert, non-toxic, polar and dimensionally stable (< 400 °C
or 750 °F) amorphous form of SiO2. It is prepared by the reaction between sodium
silicate and acetic acid, which is followed by a series of after-treatment processes
such as aging, pickling, etc. These after-treatment methods results in various pore
size distributions.

Silica is used for drying of process air (e.g. oxygen, natural gas) and adsorption of
heavy (polar) hydrocarbons from natural gas.

Silica gel adsorber for NO2, Fixed

Zeolites Nitrogen Research Laboratory,
ca.1930s
Zeolites are natural or synthetic crystalline aluminosilicates, which have a repeating
pore network and release water at high temperature. Zeolites are polar in nature.

They are manufactured by hydrothermal synthesis of sodium aluminosilicate or another silica source in an autoclave
followed by ion exchange with certain cations (Na+, Li+, Ca2+, K+, NH4+). The channel diameter of zeolite cages usually
ranges from 2 to 9 Å. The ion exchange process is followed by drying of the crystals, which can be pelletized with a
binder to form macroporous pellets.

Zeolites are applied in drying of process air, CO2 removal from natural gas, CO removal from reforming gas, air
separation, catalytic cracking, and catalytic synthesis and reforming.

Non-polar (siliceous) zeolites are synthesized from aluminum-free silica sources or by dealumination of aluminum-
containing zeolites. The dealumination process is done by treating the zeolite with steam at elevated temperatures,
typically greater than 500 °C (930 °F). This high temperature heat treatment breaks the aluminum-oxygen bonds and
the aluminum atom is expelled from the zeolite framework.

Activated carbon
The term "adsorption" itself was coined by Heinrich Kayser in 1881 in the context of uptake of gases by carbons.[28]

Activated carbon is a highly porous, amorphous solid consisting of microcrystallites with a graphite lattice, usually
prepared in small pellets or a powder. It is non-polar and cheap. One of its main drawbacks is that it reacts with oxygen
at moderate temperatures (over 300 °C).

Activated carbon can be manufactured from carbonaceous material, including coal

(bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite), peat, wood, or nutshells (e.g., coconut).
The manufacturing process consists of two phases, carbonization and
activation.[29][30] The carbonization process includes drying and then heating to
separate by-products, including tars and other hydrocarbons from the raw
material, as well as to drive off any gases generated. The process is completed by
heating the material over 400 °C (750 °F) in an oxygen-free atmosphere that
cannot support combustion. The carbonized particles are then "activated" by
exposing them to an oxidizing agent, usually steam or carbon dioxide at high
temperature. This agent burns off the pore blocking structures created during the Activated carbon nitrogen isotherm
carbonization phase and so, they develop a porous, three-dimensional graphite showing a marked microporous type I
behavior
lattice structure. The size of the pores developed during activation is a function of
the time that they spend in this stage. Longer exposure times result in larger pore
sizes. The most popular aqueous phase carbons are bituminous based because of their hardness, abrasion resistance,
pore size distribution, and low cost, but their effectiveness needs to be tested in each application to determine the
optimal product.

Activated carbon is used for adsorption of organic substances[31] and non-polar adsorbates and it is also usually used
for waste gas (and waste water) treatment. It is the most widely used adsorbent since most of its chemical (e.g. surface
groups) and physical properties (e.g. pore size distribution and surface area) can be tuned according to what is
needed.[32] Its usefulness also derives from its large micropore (and sometimes mesopore) volume and the resulting
high surface area. Recent research works reported activated carbon as an effective agent to adsorb cationic species of
toxic metals from multi-pollutant systems and also proposed possible adsorption mechanisms with supporting
evidences.[33]
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Water adsorption
The adsorption of water at surfaces is of broad importance in chemical engineering, materials science and catalysis.
Also termed surface hydration, the presence of physically or chemically adsorbed water at the surfaces of solids plays an
important role in governing interface properties, chemical reaction pathways and catalytic performance in a wide range
of systems. In the case of physically adsorbed water, surface hydration can be eliminated simply through drying at
conditions of temperature and pressure allowing full vaporization of water. For chemically adsorbed water, hydration
may be in the form of either dissociative adsorption, where H2O molecules are dissociated into surface adsorbed -H and
-OH, or molecular adsorption (associative adsorption) where individual water molecules remain intact [34]

Adsorption solar heating and storage

The low cost ($200/ton) and high cycle rate (2,000 ×) of synthetic zeolites such as Linde 13X with water adsorbate has
garnered much academic and commercial interest recently for use for thermal energy storage (TES), specifically of low-
grade solar and waste heat. Several pilot projects have been funded in the EU from 2000 to the present (2020). The
basic concept is to store solar thermal energy as chemical latent energy in the zeolite. Typically, hot dry air from flat
plate solar collectors is made to flow through a bed of zeolite such that any water adsorbate present is driven off.
Storage can be diurnal, weekly, monthly, or even seasonal depending on the volume of the zeolite and the area of the
solar thermal panels. When heat is called for during the night, or sunless hours, or winter, humidified air flows through
the zeolite. As the humidity is adsorbed by the zeolite, heat is released to the air and subsequently to the building space.
This form of TES, with specific use of zeolites, was first taught by John Guerra in 1978.[35]

Carbon capture and storage

Typical adsorbents proposed for carbon capture and storage are zeolites and MOFs.[36] The customization of
adsorbents makes them a potentially attractive alternative to absorption. Because adsorbents can be regenerated by
temperature or pressure swing, this step can be less energy intensive than absorption regeneration methods.[37] Major
problems that are present with adsorption cost in carbon capture are: regenerating the adsorbent, mass ratio,
solvent/MOF, cost of adsorbent, production of the adsorbent, lifetime of adsorbent.[38]

In sorption enhanced water gas shift (SEWGS) technology a pre-combustion carbon capture process, based on solid
adsorption, is combined with the water gas shift reaction (WGS) in order to produce a high pressure hydrogen
stream.[39] The CO2 stream produced can be stored or used for other industrial processes.[40]

Protein and surfactant adsorption

Protein adsorption is a process that has a fundamental role in the field of biomaterials. Indeed, biomaterial surfaces in
contact with biological media, such as blood or serum, are immediately coated by proteins. Therefore, living cells do not
interact directly with the biomaterial surface, but with the adsorbed proteins layer. This protein layer mediates the
interaction between biomaterials and cells, translating biomaterial physical and chemical properties into a "biological
language".[41] In fact, cell membrane receptors bind to protein layer bioactive sites and these receptor-protein binding
events are transduced, through the cell membrane, in a manner that stimulates specific intracellular processes that then
determine cell adhesion, shape, growth and differentiation. Protein adsorption is influenced by many surface properties
such as surface wettability, surface chemical composition [42] and surface nanometre-scale morphology.[43] Surfactant
adsorption is a similar phenomenon, but utilising surfactant molecules in the place of proteins.[44]

Adsorption chillers
Combining an adsorbent with a refrigerant, adsorption chillers use heat to provide a cooling effect. This heat, in the
form of hot water, may come from any number of industrial sources including waste heat from industrial processes,
prime heat from solar thermal installations or from the exhaust or water jacket heat of a piston engine or turbine.

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Although there are similarities between adsorption chillers and absorption
refrigeration, the former is based on the interaction between gases and solids. The
adsorption chamber of the chiller is filled with a solid material (for example zeolite,
silica gel, alumina, active carbon or certain types of metal salts), which in its neutral
state has adsorbed the refrigerant. When heated, the solid desorbs (releases)
refrigerant vapour, which subsequently is cooled and liquefied. This liquid
refrigerant then provides a cooling effect at the evaporator from its enthalpy of
vaporization. In the final stage the refrigerant vapour is (re)adsorbed into the A schematic diagram of an
adsorption chiller: (1) heat is lost
solid.[45] As an adsorption chiller requires no compressor, it is relatively quiet.
through evaporation of refrigerant,
(2) refrigerant vapour is adsorbed
onto the solid medium, (3)
Portal site mediated adsorption refrigerant is desorbed from the
solid medium section not in use, (4)
Portal site mediated adsorption is a model for site-selective activated gas adsorption refrigerant is condensed and
in metallic catalytic systems that contain a variety of different adsorption sites. In returned to the start, (5) & (6) solid
such systems, low-coordination "edge and corner" defect-like sites can exhibit medium is cycled between
adsorption and desorption to
significantly lower adsorption enthalpies than high-coordination (basal plane) sites.
regenerate it.
As a result, these sites can serve as "portals" for very rapid adsorption to the rest of
the surface. The phenomenon relies on the common "spillover" effect (described
below), where certain adsorbed species exhibit high mobility on some surfaces. The model explains seemingly
inconsistent observations of gas adsorption thermodynamics and kinetics in catalytic systems where surfaces can exist
in a range of coordination structures, and it has been successfully applied to bimetallic catalytic systems where
synergistic activity is observed.

In contrast to pure spillover, portal site adsorption refers to surface diffusion to adjacent adsorption sites, not to non-
adsorptive support surfaces.

The model appears to have been first proposed for carbon monoxide on silica-supported platinum by Brandt et al.
(1993).[46] A similar, but independent model was developed by King and co-workers[47][48][49] to describe hydrogen
adsorption on silica-supported alkali promoted ruthenium, silver-ruthenium and copper-ruthenium bimetallic
catalysts. The same group applied the model to CO hydrogenation (Fischer–Tropsch synthesis).[50] Zupanc et al.
(2002) subsequently confirmed the same model for hydrogen adsorption on magnesia-supported caesium-ruthenium
bimetallic catalysts.[51] Trens et al. (2009) have similarly described CO surface diffusion on carbon-supported Pt
particles of varying morphology.[52]

Adsorption spillover
In the case catalytic or adsorbent systems where a metal species is dispersed upon a support (or carrier) material (often
quasi-inert oxides, such as alumina or silica), it is possible for an adsorptive species to indirectly adsorb to the support
surface under conditions where such adsorption is thermodynamically unfavorable. The presence of the metal serves as
a lower-energy pathway for gaseous species to first adsorb to the metal and then diffuse on the support surface. This is
possible because the adsorbed species attains a lower energy state once it has adsorbed to the metal, thus lowering the
activation barrier between the gas phase species and the support-adsorbed species.

Hydrogen spillover is the most common example of an adsorptive spillover. In the case of hydrogen, adsorption is most
often accompanied with dissociation of molecular hydrogen (H2) to atomic hydrogen (H), followed by spillover of the
hydrogen atoms present.

The spillover effect has been used to explain many observations in heterogeneous catalysis and adsorption.[53]

Polymer adsorption
Adsorption of molecules onto polymer surfaces is central to a number of applications, including development of non-
stick coatings and in various biomedical devices. Polymers may also be adsorbed to surfaces through polyelectrolyte
adsorption.

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In viruses
Adsorption is the first step in the viral life cycle. The next steps are penetration, uncoating, synthesis (transcription if
needed, and translation), and release. The virus replication cycle, in this respect, is similar for all types of viruses.
Factors such as transcription may or may not be needed if the virus is able to integrate its genomic information in the
cell's nucleus, or if the virus can replicate itself directly within the cell's cytoplasm.

In popular culture
The game of Tetris is a puzzle game in which blocks of 4 are adsorbed onto a surface during game play. Scientists have
used Tetris blocks "as a proxy for molecules with a complex shape" and their "adsorption on a flat surface" for studying
the thermodynamics of nanoparticles.[54][55]

See also
Adatom
Cryo-adsorption
Dual-polarization interferometry
Fluidized bed concentrator
Kelvin probe force microscope
Micromeritics
Molecular sieve
Polanyi adsorption
Pressure swing adsorption
Random sequential adsorption
Hydrogen-bonded organic framework

References
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Further reading
Cussler, E. L. (1997). Diffusion: Mass Transfer in Fluid Systems (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
pp. 308–330. ISBN 978-0-521-45078-2.

External links
Derivation of Langmuir and BET isotherms (http://www.jhu.edu/%7Echem/fairbr/OLDS/derive.html), at JHU.edu
Carbon Adsorption (https://web.archive.org/web/20090105233739/http://www.megtec.com/solvent-recovery-carbon-
adsorption-p-685-l-en.html), at MEGTEC.com

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