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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 ASTROPHYSICS AND SPACE TECHNOLOGY 4-31
1.1 SOLAR SYSTEM & ITS COMPONENTS
1.2 COMETS, METEORS, METEORITES & METEOROID
1.3 STRUCTURE OF SUN & ITS ENERGY SOURCE
1.4 SUNSPOT CYCLE, SOLAR FLARES & CORONAL MASS EJECTIONS
1.5 DWARF PLANETS, MOONS & ASTEROIDS
1.6 LIFE CYCLE OF A STAR
1.7 STANDARD MODEL OF PARTICLE PHYSICS
1.8 BIG BANG THEORY, HIGGS BOSON & UNIVERSE CREATION
1.9 SPECIAL & GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY & STRING THEORY
1.10 GRAVITATIONAL WAVES, GRAVITATIONAL LENSING
1.11 TYPES OF ORBITS
1.12 INDIAN SPACECRAFTS/SATELLITES
1.13 INDIAN LAUNCH VEHICLES
1.14 BHARATIYA ANTARIKSH STATION (BAS)
1.15 OTHER SPACE PROJECTS
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
2 DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY 32-52
2.1 INTRODUCTION: MISSILE SYSTEM
2.2 INDIAN MISSILE SYSTEM
2.3 INDIA’S INTEGRATED GUIDED MISSILE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (IGMDP)
2.4 OTHER MISSILE SYSTEMS
2.5 TANKS
2.6 SHIPS
2.7 DRONES & UAVs
2.8 INDIA’S NUCLEAR DOCTRINE & NO FIRST USE POLICY
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
3 COMPUTERS, ICT AND RELATED INNOVATIONS 53-74
3.1 BARCODE, QR CODE & BHARAT QR CODE
3.2 GSM & CDMA TELECOM TECHNOLOGY
3.3 Wi-Fi, Li-Fi & Wi-MAX TECHNOLOGIES
3.4 TELECOM RELATED TECHNOLOGIES
3.5 GENERATIONS OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES: 1G TO 5G
3.6 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE & IoT
3.7 CLOUD COMPUTING, EDGE COMPUTING, COGNITIVE & QUANTUM COMPUTING
3.8 CONCEPTS OF AUGMENTED & VIRTUAL REALITY
3.9 SUPERCOMPUTERS & INDIA
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
4 ENERGY, NANOTECHNOLOGY AND ROBOTICS 75-103
ENERGY
4.1 ATOMS AND MOLECULES
4.2 RADIOACTIVITY
4.3 RADIOACTIVE RADIATIONS AND RADIOCARBON DATING
4.4 TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS: NUCLEAR FISSION & FUSION REACTIONS

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4.5 FUNCTIONING OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR

4.6 FISSIONABLE, FISSILE & FERTILE NUCLEAR FUEL
4.7 ENRICHMENT OF NUCLEAR FUEL
4.8 TYPES OF NUCLEAR FISSION REACTORS
4.9 INDIA’S THREE STAGE NUCLEAR ENERGY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
4.10 INTERNATIONAL THERMONUCLEAR EXPERIMENTAL REACTOR (ITER)
4.11 NUCLEAR SCIENCE APPLICATIONS
4.12 SMALL MODULAR REACTORS (SMR)
4.13 HYDROGEN FUEL CELL
4.14 LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES
4.15 DIRECT METHANOL FUEL CELLS (DMFCS)
4.16 BIOFUELS
NANOTECHNOLOGY
4.17 TECHNOLOGY AT NANO-SCALE
4.18 FOUR GENERATIONS OF NANOTECH & NANO-PRODUCTS
4.19 TYPES OF NANOMATERIALS
4.20 APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECH
4.21 MISSION ON NANO SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (NANO MISSION)
ROBOTICS
4.22 ROBOTS & TYPES
4.23 ASIMOV’S LAWS OF ROBOTICS
4.24 MAIN COMPONENTS OF A ROBOT
4.25 ROBOTIC PROCESS & AUTOMATION (RPA)
4.26 PROBOTS, KNOWBOTS & CHATBOTS
4.27 APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTICS
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
5 GENERAL BIOLOGY, HUMAN HEALTH & DISEASES 104-120
5.1 FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING BEINGS
5.2 KINGDOM MONERA & BACTERIA
5.3 KINGDOM PROTISTA & PROTOZOA
5.4 KINGDOM FUNGI & YEAST
5.5 KINGDOM PLANTAE
5.6 KINGDOM ANIMALIA
5.7 ORGANIC & INORGANIC EVOLUTION
5.8 DARWIN & NATURAL SELECTION
5.9 MUTATIONS & EVOLUTION
5.10 ACQUIRED DISEASE
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
6 GENETICS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 121-143
6.1 CONCEPT OF HEREDITY & VARIATIONS
6.2 ABO BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM IN HUMANS
6.3 CHEMISTRY OF BLOOD TRANSFUSION
6.4 GENOME SEQUENCING & HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
6.5 BIOTECHNOLOGY & ITS TYPES
6.6 PRINCIPLES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
6.7 GENETIC ENGINEERING & RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

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6.8 TOOLS OF GENETIC ENGGINEERING

6.9 VECTORLESS TRANSFER OF GENES
6.10 APPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
6.11 CONCEPT OF STEM CELLS
6.12 GEAC & CARTAGENA PROTOCOL
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

====================================================================================

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1 ASTROPHYSICS AND SPACE TECHNOLOGY

MOST REPEATED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS
• Planets, stars, and Galaxy
• Big Bang Theory & Singularity
• Dark matter and energy Black holes
• Gravitational Waves
• Basics of communication
• Navigation
• Remote sensing/Earth Observation
• Space Exploration - Satellites Different types of orbits/satellites
• Space-Indian initiatives (Current Affairs Driven)
• Space-International initiatives by NASA, European Space Agency etc (Current Affairs Driven)

FURTHER EXPECTED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS

• Sunspot
• Magnetars and Neutron stars
• Cepheids, Pulsars and Fast Radio Burst (FRB)
• CHANDRAYAAN-3
• GAGANYAAN
• MARS ORBITER MISSION
• SMALL SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE (SSLV)
• NAVIC (NAVIGATION WITH INDIAN CONSTELLATION)

1.1 SOLAR SYSTEM & ITS COMPONENTS

• There are many planetary systems, like Earth, in the universe, with planets orbiting a host star. Earth’s
planetary system is named the ‘solar’ system because its Sun is named Sol, after the Latin word for Sun,
"solis," and anything related to the Sun is called as ‘solar’.
• The solar system consists of star, the Sun and everything bound to it by gravity — the planets, dwarf
planets, moons, asteroids, comets
and meteoroids.
• The solar system extends much
farther than the eight planets that
orbit the Sun and includes the
Kuiper Belt that lies past Neptune's
orbit.
• The order and arrangement of the
planets and other bodies in the
solar system is because its initial
formation:
- Nearest the Sun, only rocky
material could withstand the
heat when the solar system
was young. For this reason, the
first four planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars—are terrestrial planets. They are small with
solid, rocky surfaces.

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- Meanwhile, materials like the ice, liquid or gas settled in the outer regions of the young solar system.
Gravity pulled these materials together, and that is where gas giants Jupiter and Saturn and ice giants
Uranus and Neptune are found.
1.1.1 PLANETS
• Definition according to International Astronomical Union (IAU): A planet is a celestial body that with the
following three conditions:
(a) It is in orbit around the Sun.
(b) It has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a
hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape.
(c) It has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.
• Until 2006, there were nine planets (including Pluto), but in 2006, the 9th Pluto was categorized as the
dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).

MERCURY VENUS
• Mercury is the nearest to the Sun. • Venus is nearly as big as the Earth with a diameter of
• Mercury takes 58.65 Earth days to complete its 12,104 km.
rotation (on its axis) and takes 88 days to complete • It is made up of a central iron core, rocky mantle and
its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun). silicate crust.
• Mercury is the fastest planet and it has no moon • A year on Venus takes 225 Earth days.
(satellite). • Venus’ thick atmosphere makes it the hottest
(4710C) planet in the solar system.
• Venus has no satellite and it spins in the opposite
direction of the Earth’s spin.
EARTH MARS
• Earth takes 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 40 seconds to • Mars is known as the ‘Red Planet’ of the solar
complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 365.26 system.
days to complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit • Mars takes 24 hours, 37 minutes, and 30 seconds to
around the Sun). complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 687 days
• Earth is 93 million miles away from sun and it has to complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around
diameter of 7926 miles. the Sun).
• The major atmospheric components of the Earth are • Mars has two satellites namely Phobos (means fear)
Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (20.95%), Argon (0.930%), and Deimos (means terror).
and Carbon Dioxide (0.039%).
• It has one natural satellite called moon.
JUPITER SATURN
• It is largest planet in the solar system. • It composed of liquid and gas.
• It is composed of helium and hydrogen. • It has a diameter of 74600 miles.
• It has a diameter of 88729 miles. • Saturn has the brightest, most massive and most
• Jupiter takes 9 hours, 50 minutes, and 30 seconds to complex ring system of any planet.
complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 12 earth • Saturn takes 10 hours and 14 minutes to complete
years to complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit its rotation (on its axis) and takes 30 years to
around the Sun). complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around
• Jupiter has 79 natural satellites/moon. the Sun
• Jupiter’s dark red spot is a storm larger than Earth. • Saturn is the planet with the highest number of
moons (82) against 79 moons of Jupiter.
URANUS NEPTUNE
• Uranus turns on its axis once every 17 hours, 14 • Neptune is the farthest planet which appears
minutes. greenish through a telescope.
• Uranus is tipped on its axis by almost 90-degrees.

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• It has a diameter of 36,600 miles • Neptune takes 18 hours to complete its rotation (on
• Uranus makes one trip around the Sun every 84 its axis) and takes 165 years to complete its one
Earth years. revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).
• It is often referred to as an “ice giant” planet. • Neptune has 13 satellites/moons; significant of
• It has two sets of very thin dark coloured rings. them are ‘Triton’ and ‘Nereid.

1.2 COMETS, METEORS, METEORITES & METEOROID

1.2.1 COMETS
• Comets are frozen leftovers from the formation of the solar system composed of dust, rock and ices.
• They range from a few miles to tens of miles wide, but as they orbit closer to the sun, they heat up and
spew gases and dust into a glowing head that can be larger than a planet. This material forms a tail that
stretches millions of miles.
• There are likely billions of comets orbiting Earth’s Sun in the Kuiper Belt and even more distant Oort
cloud.
• The current number of known comets is 3,690.
1.2.2 METEORS, METEORITES & METEOROID
• They’re all related to the flashes of light called “shooting stars” sometimes seen streaking across the sky.
• Meteoroids are objects in space that range in size from dust grains to small asteroids.
• When meteoroids enter Earth’s atmosphere (or that of another planet, like Mars) at high speed and burn
up, they are called meteors.
• When a meteoroid survives a trip through the atmosphere and hits the ground, it’s called a meteorite.
1.3 STRUCTURE OF SUN & ITS ENERGY SOURCE
• The Sun is an average (medium sized) star - There are other stars which are much hotter or much cooler,
and intrinsically much brighter or fainter. However, since it is by far the closest star to the Earth, it looks
bigger and brighter in the sky than any other star.
• With a diameter of about 1.4 million kilometres it would
take 110 Earths strung together to be as long as the
diameter of the Sun.
• The Sun is mostly made up of hydrogen (about 92% of the
number of atoms, 75% of the mass). Helium can also be
found in the Sun (7.8% of the number of atoms and 25% of
the mass). The other 0.1% is made up of heavier elements,
mainly carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, magnesium,
silicon and iron.
• The Sun is neither a solid nor a gas but is actually a plasma.
This plasma is tenuous and gaseous near the surface, but
gets denser down towards the Sun's fusion core.
• The Sun can be divided into 6 layers: Core, Radiative zone,
Convective zone, Photosphere, Chromosphere and Corona.
• The sun’s energy comes from within the sun itself (core of
the sun). Like most stars, the sun is made up mostly of hydrogen and helium atoms in a plasma state.
The sun generates energy from a process called nuclear fusion.

1.4 SUNSPOT CYCLE, SOLAR FLARES & CORONAL MASS EJECTIONS

1.4.1 SOLAR ACTIVITY
• Solar flares, coronal mass ejections (CMEs), high-speed solar wind, & solar energetic particles are all
forms of solar activity.

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• All solar activity is driven by the solar magnetic field.

1.4.2 SUNSPOTS AND SUNSPOT CYCLE
• Sunspots are areas that appear dark on the surface of the Sun.
• They appear dark because they are cooler than other parts of the Sun’s surface. The temperature of a
sunspot is still very hot though—around 6,500 degrees Fahrenheit.
• They are cool because they form at areas where magnetic fields are particularly strong. These magnetic
fields are so strong that they keep some of the heat within the Sun from reaching the surface.
• The number of sunspots observed on the "surface" of the Sun varies from year to year. This rise and fall
in sunspot counts varies in a cyclical way; the length of the cycle is around 11 years on average. The
cyclical variation in sunspot counts is called "the Sunspot Cycle".
• A peak in the sunspot count is referred to as a time of "solar maximum" (or "solar max"), whereas a
period when few sunspots appear is called a "solar minimum" (or "solar min").
1.4.3 CORONAL MASS EJECTIONS
• Coronal Mass Ejections are large clouds of plasma and magnetic field that erupt from the sun.
• The outer solar atmosphere (corona), is structured by strong magnetic fields. Where these fields are
closed, often above sunspot groups, the confined solar atmosphere can suddenly and violently release
bubbles of gas and magnetic fields called coronal mass ejections.
• A large CME can contain a billion tons of matter that can be accelerated to several million miles per hour
in a spectacular explosion.
• CMEs are sometimes associated with flares but can occur independently.
1.4.4 SOLAR WIND
• It is a steady stream of energized, charged particles, primarily electrons and protons, flowing outward
from Corona due to their high energy gained from the sun’s interior.
• The solar wind is what blows the tails of comets back away from the bodies of comets as they go through
the solar system.
1.4.5 SOLAR FLARES
• It is an intense burst of radiation coming from the sudden release of magnetic energy, built up in the
solar atmosphere. It is associated with sunspots.
• On the Sun's surface are huge magnetic loops called prominences. When they touch, they short circuit
each other, setting off explosions.
• The amount of energy released is the equivalent of millions of 100-megaton hydrogen bombs exploding
at the same time, and is released from the Sun in a relatively short amount of time (a few minutes).
• Flares are more contained than coronal mass ejections.
Flares emit radiation in several bands of the electromagnetic spectrum (white light, ultraviolet, x-rays,
gamma rays) and are observed by ground based and space based telescopes.

1.5 DWARF PLANETS, MOONS & ASTEROIDS

1.5.1 DWARF PLANETS
• Definition according to IAU – A dwarf planet is a celestial body that must fulfil following 4 conditions:
(a) It is in orbit around the Sun.
(b) It has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a
hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape.
(c) It has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.
(d) It is not a satellite.
• The first five recognized dwarf planets are Ceres, Pluto, Eris, Makemake and Haumea and they are all
uniquely mysterious.

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CERES PLUTO
• Ceres is located in the main asteroid belt between • Pluto was long considered Earth’s solar system’s
Mars and Jupiter. ninth planet.
• Scientists describe Ceres as an ‘embryonic planet’. • After the discovery of similar bodies deeper in the
Gravitational perturbations from Jupiter billions of distant Kuiper Belt, icy Pluto was reclassified as a
years ago prevented it from becoming a full-fledged dwarf planet.
planet. • Pluto is named for the Roman god of the
• It is named for the ancient Roman goddess of corn underworld.
and harvests.
ERIS MAKEMAKE
• Located in the Kuiper belt, Eris is often so far from the • Makemake, along with Eris, was one of the objects
sun that its atmosphere collapses and freezes on the whose discovery prompted the IAU to reconsider the
surface in an icy glaze. The coating gleams brightly, definition of a planet and to create the new group of
reflecting as much sunlight as freshly fallen snow. dwarf planets.
• Eris is named for the ancient Greek goddess of discord • It is also located in the Kuiper Belt.
and strife. • Makemake is named after the god of fertility in
Rapanui mythology.
HAUMEA
• Oddly-shaped Haumea is one of the fastest rotating large objects in our solar system. The quick spin elongated
the dwarf planet into the unique shape.
• It is roughly the same size as Pluto and is too located in the Kuiper Belt.
• Haumea is named for the Hawaiian goddess of childbirth and fertility.
1.5.2 MOONS
• Moons – also known as natural satellites – orbit planets and asteroids in our solar system.
• Earth has one moon, and there are more than 200 moons in our solar system.
• Most of the major planets – all except Mercury and Venus – have moons.
• Pluto and some other dwarf planets, as well as many asteroids, also have small moons.
• Saturn and Jupiter have the most moons, with dozens orbiting each of the two giant planets.
• Moons come in many shapes, sizes and types. A few have atmospheres and even hidden oceans beneath
their surfaces.
• Most planetary moons probably formed from the discs of gas and dust circulating around planets in the
early solar system, though some are ‘captured’ objects that formed elsewhere and fell into orbit around
larger worlds.
1.5.3 ASTEROID
• Asteroids, sometimes called minor planets, are rocky
remnants left over from the early formation of the solar
system.
• The current known asteroid count is: 1,027,289.
• Most of this ancient space rubble can be found orbiting the sun
between Mars and Jupiter within the main asteroid belt.
• Asteroids range in size from Vesta—the largest at about 329
miles (530 kilometers) in diameter - to bodies that are less than
33 feet (10 meters) across.
• The total mass of all the asteroids combined is less than that
of Earth's Moon.
• Most asteroids are irregularly shaped, though a few are nearly
spherical, and they are often pitted or cratered.

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• As they revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits, the asteroids also rotate; varies from 3 to 10 years.
• More than 150 asteroids are known to have a small companion moon (some have two moons). There
are also binary (double) asteroids, in which two rocky bodies of roughly equal size orbit each other, as
well as triple asteroid systems.
• Asteroids are too small to have their own atmosphere.
(Note – Further discussion in class.)
1.6 LIFE CYCLE OF A STAR
• A star's life cycle is determined by its mass. The larger its mass, the shorter its life cycle.
• The mass is determined by the amount of matter that is available in its nebula, the giant cloud of gas and
dust from which it was born.
• The starting phase for all stars, including our Sun, begins when a dense region in a nebula begins to
shrink and warm up.
• Over time, the hydrogen gas in the nebula is pulled together by gravity and it begins to spin. As the gas
spins faster, it heats up and becomes a protostar.
• Eventually the temperature reaches 15,000,000 degrees and nuclear fusion occurs in the cloud's core.
• The cloud begins to glow brightly, contracts a little and becomes stable. It is now a main sequence star
and will remain in this stage, shining for millions to billions of years to come. This is the stage Earth’s Sun
is at right now.
• As the main sequence star glows, hydrogen in its core is converted into helium by nuclear fusion. When
the hydrogen supply in the core begins to run out, and the star is no longer generating heat by nuclear
fusion, the core becomes unstable and contracts.
• The outer shell of the star, which is still mostly hydrogen, starts to expand, it cools and glows red. The
star has now reached the red giant phase. It is red because it is cooler than it was in the main sequence
star stage and it is a giant because the outer shell has expanded outward.
• In the core of the red giant, helium fuses into carbon. All stars evolve the same way up to the red giant
phase.
1.7 STANDARD MODEL OF PARTICLE PHYSICS
• The Standard Model is a set of mathematical formulae and measurements describing elementary
particles and their interactions.
• The theories and discoveries of thousands of physicists since the 1930s have resulted in a remarkable
insight into the fundamental structure of matter: everything in the universe is found to be made from a
few basic building blocks called fundamental particles, governed by four fundamental forces.
• The Standard Model of particle physics is the theory which describes three of the four known
fundamental forces (the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions, and not including the
gravitational force) in the universe, as well as classifies all known elementary particles.
• 12 Elementary Particles
- These particles occur in two basic types called quarks and leptons.
- Each group consists of six particles, which are related in pairs, or ‘generations’.
- The lightest and most stable particles make up the first generation, whereas the heavier and less-
stable particles belong to the second and third generations.

1.7.1 FERMIONS
• Fermions are particles which have half-integer spin and therefore are constrained by the Pauli Exclusion
Principle.

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• Fermions include electrons, protons and neutrons.

• Fermions include all quarks and leptons.
• Examples of Fermions: Leptons (Electrons, Neutrinos etc), Quarks (Up, Down etc.), Baryons (Protons,
Neutrons etc.)
1.7.2 BOSON

• Boson is a collective name given to particles that carry forces. Unlike Fermions they have integer spin.
• It has been named after Indian scientist Satyendra Nath Bose.
• Gravity as a force of nature is yet not accepted by the Standard Model due to the failure to discover its
Boson.
• Examples of bosons: Photons, gluons, and W and Z bosons, the Higgs boson, and the still-theoretical
graviton of quantum gravity; composite particles (e.g. mesons and stable nuclei of even mass number
such as deuterium (with one proton and one neutron, mass number = 2), helium-4, or lead-208.
1.8 BIG BANG THEORY, HIGGS BOSON & UNIVERSE CREATION
• The Higgs boson is part of a theory first proposed by Higgs and others in the 1960s to explain how
particles obtain mass as the Standard Model of particle physics fails to explain how particles actually get
their mass.

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• Particles of matter range in size and can be larger or smaller than atoms. Electrons, protons and neutrons,
for instance, are the subatomic particles that make up an atom. Scientists believe that the Higgs boson
is the particle that gives all matter its mass.
• The theory proposes that a so-called Higgs energy field exists everywhere in the universe, consisting
Higgs bosons. As particles zoom around in this field, they interact with and attract Higgs bosons, which
cluster around the particles in varying numbers.
• In the history of the universe, particles interacted with the Higgs field just 10-12 seconds after the Big
Bang. Before this phase transition, all particles were massless and travelled at the speed of light. After
the universe expanded and cooled, particles interacted with the Higgs field and this interaction gave them
mass.
• The more a particle interacts with the Higgs field, the heavier it is. Particles like the photon that do not
interact with it are left with no mass at all.

Particles Particles gain

scattered and mass and slow
Big bang
crossed higgs as weight
field increases

1.9 SPECIAL & GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY & STRING THEORY

1.9.1 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

• The Special Theory shows that the movement over a straight line at a constant speed is always relative
to any observer. It is based on a basic assumption that the speed of light is always the same regardless
of the speed of the light source or observer.
• Another important idea of the Special Theory of Relativity is the equivalence of mass and energy; mass
can be converted into energy and vice versa. This relationship is expressed in the equations, e=mc2
1.9.2 GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
• The theory asserts that accelerated motion is relative to the observer, as the Special theory did for the
uniform motion.

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• It shows that inertia and gravity are equivalent forces, two sides of the same phenomenon.
1.9.3 THE STRING THEORY
• It is also known as the “Theory of everything” as it tries to explain all fundamental forces and matters of
the universe.
• It is the theory in which point like sub-atomic particles were replaced by strings.
• It is the combination of quantum mechanics (QM) and the general theory of relativity (GTR).
• Previously, quantum mechanics (QM) and GTR were in conflict with each other, since QM describes
fundamental particles of stars, while GTR describes stars, galaxies, and the universe as a whole.
• However, since it did not make any sense to have one theory for stars and another theory for subatomic
particles, string theory solves this problem as it can be used to construct unified theories of gravity with
other forces.
• Physicists believe that the standard model is incomplete and there could be new particles which are
supersymmetric partners of known ones (such property = supersymmetry).
• SUSY is a necessary ingredient of string theory = discovery of supersymmetric particles would strengthen
the position of string theory.

1.10 GRAVITATIONAL WAVES, GRAVITATIONAL LENSING

1.10.1 GRAVITATIONAL WAVES
• Gravitational waves are distortions or 'ripples' in the fabric of space-time caused by some of the most
violent and energetic processes in the Universe.
• They transport energy as gravitational radiation and pass through matter without interacting with it.
• Gravitational waves were first predicted in 1916 by Einstein on the basis of his theory of general relativity.
• Strongest sources of gravitational waves are among enigmatic objects in our universe like black holes,
supernova, neutron stars and Big Bang.
1.10.2 GRAVITATIONAL LENSING
• The phenomenon of gravitational lensing occurs when a huge amount of matter, such as a massive galaxy,
cluster of galaxies or a black hole, creates a gravitational field that distorts and magnifies the light from
objects behind it.
• It is based on Einstein's theory of general relativity (Mass bend light).
• Normal lenses such as the ones in a magnifying glass work by bending light rays that pass through them
in a process known as refraction, in order to focus the light somewhere else. Similarly, the gravitational
field of a massive object causes light rays passing close to that object to be bent and refocused
somewhere else.
• The more massive
the object, the
stronger its
gravitational field
and hence the
greater the
bending of light
rays.
• In effect,
gravitational
lenses act like
natural cosmic
telescopes.
• The effect allows researchers to study the details of early galaxies too far away to be seen otherwise with
even the most powerful space telescopes.

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• However, gravitational lensing is very rare as it requires a distant star, black hole and the observer on
earth to be well-aligned.
1.11 TYPES OF ORBITS
1.11.1 GEO EARTH ORBIT
A. Geostationary Orbit
• The satellites in GSO are almost at a distance
of 36,000 km (35,784 km) to the earth.
• They are always in a circular path (ie. The
distance from the Earth remains the same at
all times.)
• The orbit lies in the equatorial plane (ie. Can
only be above equator) such that the satellite
moves along with the Earth. Thus, there can be
only 1 geostationary orbit. The satellites don’t
change latitude.
1 revolution of Satellite in GSO = 1 rotation of Earth = 24 hours.
• Since it moves in the same direction as the Earth, it appears stationary above the same point on the
Earth's surface. Weather, communication and global positioning satellites are often in a geostationary
orbit.
• 3 geostationary satellites are required to cover entire Earth.
B. Geo Synchronous Orbits (GSnO)
• Like GSO, satellites in GSnO are almost at a
distance of 36,000 km (35,784 km) to the
earth.
• The orbit is elliptical ((ie. The distance from
the Earth may change)
• Orbit may be inclined and may not lie on the
equatorial plane. Thus, there can be many geo
synchronous orbits. The satellites may change
latitude
1 revolution of Satellite in GSnO = 1 rotation of Earth = 24 hours.
• Since it changes distance with Earth, it appears oscillating above the same point on the Earth's surface.
This position is a valuable spot for monitoring weather, communications and surveillance.

C. Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits (GTO)

• It is considered economical to reach the geo
stationary/geosynchronous orbit in stages.
• Transfer orbits are a special kind of orbit used to get from one orbit
to another, by using relatively little energy from built-in motors,
the satellite or spacecraft can move from one orbit to another.
• The satellite is first placed along the perigee, and then an on board
rocket (called apogee motor) is fired when the satellite reached
apogee.
• The rocket will give it enough velocity to circularise the elliptical
orbit to attain geo stationary orbit.
• This allows a satellite to reach, for example, a high-altitude orbit
like GEO without actually needing the launch vehicle to go all the
way to this altitude, which would require more effort.

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• Thus, a satellite can be placed finally in GEO using even a Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV).
1.11.2 LOW EARTH ORBIT (LEO)
• LEO is an orbit that is relatively close to Earth’s surface.
• It is normally at an altitude of less than 1000 km but could
be as low as 160 km above Earth.
• LEO satellites do not always have to follow a particular path
around Earth – their plane can be tilted. This means there
are more available routes for satellites in LEO, which is one of
the reasons why LEO is a very commonly used orbit.
• It is the orbit most commonly used for satellite imaging, as
being near the surface allows it to take images of higher
resolution.
• It is also the orbit used for the International Space Station
(ISS), as it is easier for astronauts to travel to and from it at a
shorter distance.
• Satellites in this orbit travel at a speed of around 7.8 km per
second; at this speed, a satellite takes approximately 90 minutes to circle Earth.
1.11.3 MEDIUM EARTH ORBIT (MEO)
• MEO comprises a wide range of orbits anywhere between LEO and GEO.
• It is similar to LEO in that it also does not need to take specific paths around Earth, and it is used by a
variety of satellites with many different applications.
• It is very commonly used by navigation satellites (GPS satellites), like the European Galileo system.
1.11.4 POLAR ORBIT AND SUN-SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT (SSO)
• Satellites in polar orbits usually travel past Earth from north to south rather than from west to east,
passing roughly over Earth's poles.
• Polar orbits are a type of low Earth orbit, as they are at low altitudes between 200 to 1000 km.
• Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) is a particular kind of polar orbit. Satellites in SSO, travelling over the Polar
Regions, are synchronous with the Sun.
• This means they are synchronised to always be in the same ‘fixed’ position relative to the Sun., observing
a point on the Earth as if constantly at the same time of the day, which serves a number of applications.
• For example - to investigate how weather
patterns emerge, to help predict weather or
storms; monitoring emergencies like forest
fires or flooding; or to accumulate data on
long-term problems like deforestation or
rising sea levels.
• A satellite in a Sun-synchronous orbit would
usually be at an altitude of between 600 to
800 km. At 800 km, it will be travelling at a
speed of approximately 7.5 km per second.

1.12 INDIAN SPACECRAFTS/SATELLITES

INDIAN SPACE RESEARCH ORGANISATION (ISRO)

• Formed in 1969, ISRO superseded the erstwhile Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR)
established in 1962.
• Vision: To harness space technology for national development while pursuing space science research and
planetary exploration. Headquarter: Bengaluru

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• Chairperson ISRO is also Chairperson of India’s Space Commission & Secretary, Dept. of Space.

EARTH OBSERVATION SATELLITES COMMUNICATION SATELLITES

A remote-sensing satellite studies & gathers data They are used for communicating over large distances,
regarding the Earth's surface and atmosphere. through a wireless communication, using a transponder to
send and receive data from Earth.
Applications: agriculture, water resources, urban
planning, rural development, mineral prospecting, Applications: Telecommunications, television
environment & biodiversity mapping, forestry, ocean broadcasting, satellite newsgathering, societal
resources and disaster management. applications, weather forecasting, disaster warning and
Search and Rescue operations.
Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) Satellite system is one of Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system is one of the
the largest constellations of remote sensing satellites in largest domestic communication satellite systems in Asia-
operation. Pacific region

Includes: RESOURCESAT-1, 2, 2A CARTOSAT-1, 2 series, • Includes - INSAT-3A, 3C, 4A, 4B, 4CR, Kalpana and GSAT
RISAT-1, 2 & 2B, OCEANSAT-2, Megha-Tropiques, • Note: Kalpana and INSAT 3A are both, a
SARAL and SCATSAT-1, HysIS etc. communication & an Earth Observation satellite
(source: ISRO)
• INSAT 3D & 3DR are Weather satellites (Thus,
sometimes included under Earth Observation Satellite)
(source: ISRO)
Earth observation satellites are placed mostly in Sun- All Communication satellites are placed in Geo-stationary
synchronous Polar orbit or Geo-synchronous orbits
Earth observation satellites are launched using PSLV Communication satellites are primarily launched using
(Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) GSLV (Geo Synchronous Launch Vehicle)

1.12.1 ADITYA-L1 MISSION

• Launched by: PSLV-C57.
• Payload mass: 244 Kg.
• Lifespan: Around 178 days.
• Placement: It will be placed in the halo orbit around the
Lagrangian point 1 (L1) of the Sun-Earth system which has
the major advantage of continuously viewing the Sun
without any occultation/ eclipses.
• Payloads: Aditya-L1 has seven payloads. Out of seven
payloads:
- Four will carry out remote sensing of the Sun:
1. Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC) for
Corona/Imaging & Spectroscopy;
2. Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT) for
Photosphere and Chromosphere Imaging;
3. Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer (SoLEXS),
Soft X-ray spectrometer, to observe Sun-as-a-star;
4. High Energy L1 Orbiting X-ray Spectrometer
(HEL1OS), Hard X-ray spectrometer to observe
Sun-as-a-star

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- Three will carry in-situ observations:

5. Aditya Solar wind Particle Experiment
(ASPEX) with capability of Solar
wind/Particle Analyzer Protons & Heavier
Ions with directions;
6. Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya (PAPA)
with Solar wind/Particle Analyzer Electrons
& Heavier Ions with directions;
7. Advanced Tri-axial High Resolution Digital
Magnetometers for studying magnetic field.

LAGRANGE POINTS
• They are positions in space where the gravitational pull of two large masses (Sun-Earth or Earth-Moon) precisely
equals the centripetal force required for a small object to move with them.
• These can be used by spacecraft
to reduce fuel consumption
needed to remain in position.
• There are 5 Lagrange Points in
the orbital plane of the Earth-
Sun system (L1 to L5).
• The L1 point Among the five
Lagrange points, L1 is the most
favoured to get an unhindered
view of the Sun. It is about 1.5
million km from Earth, or about
1/100th of the way to the Sun.
• L2 is located behind the Earth,
and thus obstructs the view of
the Sun.
• L3 is behind the Sun which is not
a great position to communicate
with Earth.
• L4 and L5 are good and stable locations, but are much farther from Earth compared to L1, which is directly between
the Sun and the Earth.
• Named in honour of Italian-French mathematician Josephy-Louis Lagrange. The L1 point is home to the Solar and
Heliospheric Observatory Satellite (SOHO), an international collaboration project of NASA & European Space
Agency (ESA).

OTHER SOLAR MISSION

MISSION DETAILS
• Launched in 2018, it is NASA robotic
spacecraft and aims to probe the outer The probe is named after Eugene
corona of Sun. Parker, who first hypothesized
• It is humanity's first mission to the Sun and that high-speed matter and
PARKER SOLAR PROBE holds the record for closest approach to the magnetism constantly escaped
Sun by a human-made object. the sun, and that it affected the
planets and space throughout the
• Aim of the Mission: The mission will reveal
solar system. This phenomenon is
fundamental science behind what drives the
now known as solar wind.
solar wind, that shapes planetary
atmospheres and affects space weather near Earth.

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- It will trace how energy and heat move through the solar corona.
- It will study why the surface of the Sun (photosphere), is not as hot as its
atmosphere (corona).
GEOTAIL • NASA’s Geotail provides information about the way the magnetic envelope
surrounding Earth, called the magnetosphere, responds to incoming material and
energy from the Sun.
• Launched in 2020
• Collaborative mission between ESA (European Space Agency) and NASA to study the
Sun. It follows a previous ESA-NASA mission, Ulysses, launched in 1990.
• Objective: To perform a close-up study of the Sun & inner heliosphere to understand
SOLar Orbiter mission how the Sun creates and controls the heliosphere.
(SOLO) • Significance: Solar Orbiter will be the first satellite to provide close-up views of the
Sun's polar regions, which are very difficult to see from Earth, providing images from
high latitudes.
• SOHO is the longest-lived Sun-watching satellite to date.
• Cooperative international project between ESA (lead agency) & NASA.
SOHO • Numerous mission extensions have enabled the spacecraft to observe two 11-year
solar cycles and to discover thousands of comets.
• Focusing Optics X-ray Solar Imager (FOXSI) is a sounding rocket mission by NASA and
the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency.
• Aim: It is the first instrument built specially to image high-energy X-rays from the Sun
by directly focusing them.
FOXSI • Sounding rocket like FOXSI, make brief 15-minute journeys above Earth’s
atmosphere for a peek at space and search for nanoflares using its X-ray vision,
before falling back to the ground.
• Significance: Studying “nanoflares” may explain why parts of Sun’s corona can reach
tens of millions of degrees
• Nanoflares: They are miniature explosions, invisible to the naked eye, that happens
in the corona, the external atmosphere of the Sun.
- The energy they release accelerates particles to near light speed and heats the solar
atmosphere to million-degree Fahrenheit temperature.
FUTURE SOLAR MISSIONS
• The Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP) mission is a science mission
planned for launch in 2025 by NASA.
• Objective:
- Enable better understanding of the boundary of heliosphere, a sort of magnetic
bubble surrounding & protecting the solar system
IMAP MISSION - To learn more about generation of cosmic rays in the heliosphere.
• Cosmic rays, created locally and from the galaxy and beyond, affect human explorers
in space and can harm technological systems, and likely play a role in the presence of
life itself in the universe.
• Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere (PUNCH) mission, expected to be
launched in 2025 by NASA.
• PUNCH will consist of a ‘constellation’ of 4 microsats that will orbit the Earth and
PUNCH MISSION directly study the Sun’s outer atmosphere, ie. Sun’s corona, and how it generates
the solar winds and the coronal mass ejections (CME) – which are huge masses of
plasma that get thrown out of the Sun’s atmosphere.

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1.12.2 CHANDRAYAAN-3

• Chandrayaan-3 is a follow-on mission to Chandrayaan-1

Chandrayaan-2 to demonstrate end-to-end • About: India's first mission to Moon, launched
capability in safe landing and roving on the lunar successfully in 2008 from Sriharikota.
surface. - The spacecraft was orbiting around the
• Objectives: Moon at a height of 100 km from the lunar
- To demonstrate Safe and Soft Landing on Lunar surface for chemical, mineralogical and
Surface photo-geologic mapping of the Moon.
- To demonstrate Rover roving on the moon and • Launched by: PSLV-C11.
- To conduct in-situ scientific experiments. • Greatest discovery: The widespread presence
• Components of Chandrayaan-3: of water molecules in the lunar soil.
- It consists of an indigenous propulsion Chandrayaan-2
module, lander module, and a rover with an • About: It is the second lunar
objective of developing and demonstrating exploration mission launched in July 2019.
new technologies required for inter-planetary - Scheduled to land on the near side of the
missions. Moon, in the south polar region at a
✓ Propulsion module (PM): The propulsion latitude of about 70° south.
module will carry the lander and rover - However, the lander crashed when it
from injection orbit to till 100 km lunar deviated from its intended trajectory while
orbit. attempting to land on 6 September 2019.
✓ Lander: The Lander will have the
• It consisted: The Vikram lander and
capability to soft land at a specified lunar
the Pragyan rover.
site and deploy the Rover.
• Launched by: LVM3-M1 rocket.
✓ Rover: To carry out in-situ chemical
analysis of the lunar surface during the course of its mobility.

Details Specifications
Launch Vehicle Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM-3) rocket LVM3.
Launched from Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota.
Mission Life (Lander & Rover) One lunar day (~14 Earth days).
Mass Propulsion Module: 2148 kg
Lander Module: 1752 kg including Rover of 26 kg
Total: 3900 kg
Trajectory of Chandrayaan-3

Reason for Landing on South Pole:

• The region hosts water in the form of ice:

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- It can act as a coolant for equipment and even provide rocket fuel. The latter could be especially
useful for a staging mission to Mars launched from the moon someday.
- They could provide a record of lunar volcanoes, material that comets and asteroids delivered to
Earth, and the origin of oceans.
- It could be a source of drinking water for moon exploration and could help cool equipment.
- It could also be broken down to produce hydrogen for fuel and oxygen to breathe, supporting
missions to Mars or lunar mining.
• Name of landing Site: India has named the landing site of the lander as - Shiv Shakti Point.

WHY STUDY MOON?

• Moon provides the best linkage to Earth’s early history.
• It offers an undisturbed historical record of the inner Solar system environment and its origins.
• The Moon is the closest cosmic body at which space discovery can be attempted and documented.
• It is also a promising test bed to demonstrate technologies required for deep-space missions.

FAR SIDE OF THE MOON

• Far side refers to hemisphere of Moon that always faces away from Earth (visible side is called the ‘near side’)
• From Earth, only 59% of the moon is visible over a period of time because:
- Earth's gravity has slowed the Moon's rotation in such a way that the Moon takes same amount of time (27.3
days or a Sidereal Month) to revolve around the Earth as it takes to rotate around its spin axis (w.r.t background
stars).
- Thus, the far side is never visible from Earth.
- Ideally 50% of the moon should be visible but we see 59% because of north-south rocking and east-west
wobbling of moon – called as lunar vibrations.
LUNAR DAY
• A lunar day is period of time for Earth's Moon to complete one rotation on its axis with respect to the Sun.
• In this sense, a Lunar day in terms of Earth time is 29.5 days or a Synodic month.
• But, if it refers to amount of time a particular spot-on Moon is in sunlight, then 1 Lunar Day = 14 Earth Days
• Due to tidal locking, it is also the time the Moon takes to complete one orbit around Earth and return to the same
phase (from new Moon to new Moon).
• The difference between the sidereal and synodic months occurs because as Moon moves around Earth, the Earth
also moves around Sun.
• Thus, Moon must travel a little farther in its path to make up for the added distance & complete the phase cycle.

1.12.3 GAGANYAAN: INDIA’S FIRST MANNED SPACE MISSION

• It is India’s first manned space mission that will be fully indigenously developed by ISRO.
• Significance: It will make India one of the only 4 countries in the HUMAN SPACE FLIGHT CENTRE
world to launch a human spaceflight mission (after USA, Russia and (HSFC)
China). • Inaugurated at Challakere in
• Key details: Chitradurga district of
- It aims to send a 3-member crew to space for a period of 5-7 Karnataka.
days. • Mandate - It will be responsible
- Estimated Project Cost - < 10, 000 cr. for the implementation of
- Launch vehicle - Crew will travel in a 7000-kg crew capsule, Gaganyaan project, under the
taken into orbit by a GSLV-MK III rocket. Indian Human Spaceflight
- Spacecraft to be placed in a low earth orbit of 300-400 km. Programme (HSP).
- Crew to be selected by Indian Air Force (IAF) and ISRO jointly
after which they will undergo training for two-three years.

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- 2 unmanned Gaganyaan missions will be undertaken

INDIANS IN SPACE
prior to sending humans.
• Indian National Rakesh Sharma. The
• Key Significance/Benefits of the Mission
first Indian to travel to space. He was a
- Enhancement of science & tech levels and capability of
part of Soviet Union’s Soyuz T-11
observing galactic phenomenon & Earth.
expedition, launched on April 2, 1984,
- Promotes collaboration as it is a national project involving as part of the Inter-cosmos
several institutes, academia & industry. programme.
- Improvement of industrial growth and inspiring youth to • Indian-born Kalpana Chawla (1997)
take challenges in S&T.
• Indian origin, Sunita Williams (2006)
- Improving international collaboration and India’s voice in
international space governance policies.
- Spin off benefits in medical sciences - such as Telemedicine, laser surgery, robotic surgery,
miniaturized ultrasound units and remote monitoring systems.
Vyommitra
• Vyommitra (vyoma = space, mitra = friend) is a “half-humanoid”, that will be sent on the unmanned Gaganyaan
mission.
- It is half-humanoid since she will only have a head, two hands and a torso, and no lower limbs
- It recently undergone pre-flight ground tests at the ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU)
• Developed by ISRO in collaboration with IISc at a robotics lab in Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC),
Thiruvananthapuram.
• ISRO will use the Vyommitra to test the efficacy of its GSLV Mk III rocket to transport a human to space.
- Vyommitra, is built to mimic crew activity inside the crew module of Gaganyaan.
- Once flown into space, Vyommitra will be able to test systems in the crew module meant for the survival and
safe travel of the first Indian astronaut.
• IISU has successfully integrated Vyommitra with a computer ‘brain’ which enables it to ‘read’ control panels aboard
the unmanned test flights and communicate with the ISRO ground stations.

1.12.4 ISRO’S SHUKRAYAAN

• About: It is a combination of two words 'Shukra', meaning Venus, and 'Yaana', meaning craft, in Sanskrit.
It is a proposed Venus orbiter mission.
• Objectives: To investigate the surface processes and shallow subsurface stratigraphy, and solar wind
interaction with Venusian Ionosphere.
- To study the structure, composition and dynamics of the atmosphere.
• Duration – The proposed Venus orbiter mission aims to study the planet for more than four years.
• International collaborations: Includes "collaborative contributions" from Russia, France, Sweden &
Germany.
• Expected Launch – either in 2024 or 2026. It was noted that the optimal launch window (when Venus is
closest to the Earth) comes about every 19 months.
• Launch vehicle - planned to be launched onboard GSLV Mk II rocket.
• Estimated Payload capability of proposed 2500-kg satellite is likely to be 175 kg with 500W of power.
Other Missions to Venus:
• Venus Express: By European Space Agency (ESA), which orbited the planet from 2006 until 2016, and
• Akatsuki Venus Climate Orbiter: By Japan, which has been in orbit since 2016.
• NASA's Parker Solar Probe: It has conducted multiple flybys of Venus.

ABOUT VENUS
• Venus as a "twin sister" of Earth because of the similarities in size, mass, density, bulk composition and gravity.

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- It is believed that both planets share a common origin, forming at the same time out of a condensing
nebulosity around 4.5 billion years ago.
• Distance from Sun: Venus is around 30% closer to the Sun as compared to Earth, resulting in much higher solar
flux.
• Direction of Rotation: Venus is one of just two planets that rotate from east to west (other is Uranus) instead
of west to east. It completes one rotation in 243 Earth days — the longest day of any planet in our solar system.
• Day Night Cycle: On Venus, one day-night cycle takes 117 Earth
days because Venus rotates in the direction opposite of its orbital Phenomenon, called the ‘runaway
revolution around the Sun. greenhouse’ effect, occurs when a planet
• Orbit around the Sun - It is the most circular of any planet — absorbs more energy from the sun than it
nearly a perfect circle. Other planet's orbits are more elliptical, or can radiate back to space. Under these
oval-shaped. circumstances, the hotter the surface
• No Seasons: With an axial tilt of just 3 degrees, Venus spins nearly temperature gets, faster it warms up.
upright, and so does not experience noticeable seasons.
• Venus’ Atmosphere: The planet’s thick atmosphere traps heat and is the reason that it is the hottest planet in
solar system. With runaway greenhouse effect, surface temperatures reach 471 degrees Celsius.

1.12.5 NAVIGATION WITH INDIAN CONSTELLATION (NAVIC)

• IRNSS, India’s regional

geo-positioning system, is
officially called NAVIC
(NAVigation with Indian
Constellation).
• Indigenously Designed in
India by ISRO.
• First announced in 2007,
and the first of the seven
satellite was sent into
orbit in 2013.
• NAVIC satellite
constellation: 7 Satellites -
3 in geostationary orbit
(GEO), 4 in
geosynchronous orbits
(GSO).
• Coverage: Whole of India's
landmass and up to 1,500
km from its boundaries.
• IRNSS provides two types
of services, namely,
1. Standard Positioning
Service (SPS) which is
provided to all the users and
2. Restricted Service (RS), which is an encrypted service provided only to the authorised users.
• Position accuracy of better than 20 m in primary service area.
• Applications of IRNSS:
- Terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation & Mapping
- Disaster Management & emergency warning alerts to fishermen
- Vehicle tracking and fleet management

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- Visual and voice navigation for drivers

- Integration with mobile phones
- Precise Timing.
SAGAR SAMPARK:
About: It is an indigenous Differential Global Navigation Satellite System (DGNSS).
• DGNSS: It is a terrestrial based enhancement system which corrects the errors and inaccuracies in the Global
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) allowing for more
accurate positioning information.
- The DGNSS service will help mariners in safe
navigation and will reduce the risk of collisions,
groundings, and accidents in the port and
harbour areas.
- Working: It operates on the principle of error
correction by using reference stations on the
ground that send correction signals to GPS
receivers.
✓ These correction signals help the receivers to
correct any errors or inaccuracies in the
satellite signals they receive.
• The installation of Sagar Sampark at six locations will
enable the Director General of Lighthouses and Lightships (DGLL) to offer radio aids to facilitate marine navigation
for ships.
Significance of Sagar Sampark:
• The navigation system helps mariners to improve their positioning within 5 meters after recapitalisation with
multiple satellite constellations like the Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Global Navigation Satellite System
(GLONASS).
• Sagar Sampark significantly improves the accuracy of GPS positioning and reduces errors caused by atmospheric
inferences, satellite clock drift, and other factors.
• The error correction accuracy has been improved from 5 to 10 meters to less than 5 meters for 100 Nautical Miles
(NM) from Indian coastlines.
Global Navigation Satellite System
• About: Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is a general term describing any satellite constellation that
provides positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) services on a global or regional basis.
• Several GNSS constellations around the world:
- BeiDou – China
- Galileo – European Union
- GLONASS – Russia
- GPS - United States
- IRNSS – India (also known as NavIC)
- QZSS – Japan
1.13 INDIAN LAUNCH VEHICLES

1.13.1 SMALL SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE (SSLV)

• Number of Stages: Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is a 3 stage Launch Vehicle configured with three
Solid Propulsion Stages and liquid propulsion-based Velocity Trimming Module (VTM) as a terminal stage.
• Payload: SSLV is capable to deliver 500 kg to low Earth orbit (500 km) or 300 kg to Sun-synchronous
orbit (500 km).

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• Key benefits of SSLV: Low cost, with low turn-around time, flexibility in accommodating multiple
satellites, Launch on demand feasibility, minimal launch infrastructure requirements, etc.
• Use of SSLV: The maiden flight SSLV-D1 was
conducted in August 2022, but failed to orbit.
- A second flight SSLV D2 was conducted in
February 2023 that successfully delivered
payloads to orbit. It injected the ISRO's EOS-07
satellite, US-based firm Antaris' Janus-1 and
Chennai-based space start-up Space Kidz's
AzaadiSAT-2 satellites into a 450-km circular
orbit.
• Maiden flight of SSLV - SSLV-D1 Mission:
- Lunched in: August 2022.
- It launched two major satellites including the Earth Observation Satellite-2 (EOS-2) (135 kg) and a
students’ satellite named AzadiSAT (8 kg).
- The mission aimed to place the EOS-2 in a circular low-Earth orbit at a height of about 350 km above
the Equator.
- However, mission failed to place the satellites in their required orbits (placing them in wrong
elliptical orbit).

India’s Launch Vehicles:

Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 (SLV-3): It was India's first experimental satellite launch vehicle which was an all solid, four
stage capable of placing 40 kg payloads in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV): With a lift off weight of 40 tonnes, the 24 m tall ASLV was configured as a
five stage, all-solid propellant vehicle, with a mission of orbiting 150 kg class satellites into 400 km circular orbits.
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV):
• Number of Stages: 4. (2 solid, 2 liquid).
• Payload: to SSPO (Sun Synchronous Polar Orbit): 1,750 kg

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• to Sub GTO: 1,425 kg.

• PSLV earned its title 'the workhorse of ISRO' through consistently delivering various satellites into low earth orbits,
particularly the IRS Series of satellites.
• The vehicle successfully launched two spacecraft "Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and Mars Orbiter Spacecraft in 2013"
that later travelled to Moon and Mars respectively.
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark II (GSLV Mk II):
• It is the launch vehicle developed by India, to launch communication satellites in geo transfer orbit using cryogenic
third stage.
• Number of Stages: 3.
• Payload to Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO): 2,250 kg.
• Payload to LEO (Low Earth Orbit): 6,000 kg
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV Mk III):
• Known as LVM3 is configured as a three-stage vehicle with two solid strap-on motors (S200), one liquid core stage
(L110) and a high thrust cryogenic upper stage (C25).
• It was used in Chandrayaan 3.
• Number of Stages: 3.
• Payload to GTO: 4000 kg.
• Payload to LEO: 8,000 kg.

1.13.2 RLV-TD (REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE – TECHNOLOGY DEMONSTRATOR)/PUSHPAK

•About: It is a space plane/shuttle, which

can travel to low earth orbits to deliver
payloads and return to earth for use again
(fully reusable launch vehicle).
- It is designed as an all-rocket, fully
reusable single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO)
vehicle.
• Aim: To enable low-cost access to space
i.e. capable of launching satellites into
orbit around earth and then re-enter the
atmosphere.
• Evolution:
- January 2012: ISRO's reusable launch
vehicle received the green light from
the National Review Committee.
- April 2023: The successful
autonomous landing mission conducted marked a critical milestone, bringing it closer to achieving
orbital re-entry capabilities.
- 2024: ISRO completed its third reusable launch vehicle (RLV) landing experiment (LEX).
• RLV is dubbed as India’s own Space Shuttle. (The ‘Space Shuttle’ was a partially reusable low Earth orbital
spacecraft system operated by the U.S. NASA as part of the Space Shuttle program).
- NASA grounded its space shuttle programme in 2011 after using its reusable vehicles like Discovery,
Endeavor, Columbia and Challenger for over three decades to launch various missions, including the
International Space Station (ISS) and the Hubble telescope.
• Features: The configuration of RLV-TD is like that of an aircraft and combines the complexity of both launch
vehicles and aircraft.

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- Winged RLV-TD: configured to act as a flying test bed to evaluate various technologies, namely,
hypersonic flight (HEX), autonomous landing (LEX), return flight experiment (REX), powered cruise
flight, and Scramjet Propulsion Experiment (SPEX).
• Two RLV tests so far: The two instruments are the pseudolite (pseudo satellite) navigation system and the
Ka-band radar altimeter.
- Pseudolites are ground-based radio transmitters that send satellite navigation system-like signals.
They act as navigation satellites but are operated from the ground.
- Ka-band radar altimeter provides altitude information even when 10km above the landing site with
an accuracy of 0.3m, while the pseudolite navigation system guides the RLV to carry out a horizontal
approach towards the airstrip while landing.
• In future, this vehicle will be scaled up to become the first stage of India’s reusable two stage orbital launch
vehicle.
AVATAR (Aerobic Vehicle for Trans atmospheric Hypersonic Aerospace TrAnspoRtation)
• It is ISRO’s planned reusable launch vehicle platform which will carry out satellite launches like normal aircraft,
takes off vertically and lands back on a runway. It is designed to use ramjets and scramjets for thrust.
• Note: It is to develop this fully functional AVATAR RLV, that ISRO is conducting a series of RLV – TD technology
demonstration missions.
• RAMJET:
- It is a form of air-breathing jet engine that uses the Rocket Engine’s used by ISRO
vehicle’s high speed (supersonic) forward motion to • Vikas Engine: It is a family of liquid fuelled
compress incoming air for combustion (there is no rocket engines conceptualized and designed
compressor). by the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre.
- The vehicle carries only fuel (& uses incoming air as - It is used to power the second stage PSLV,
oxidizer). The fuel is injected within combustion boosters and second stage of GSLV Mark II
chamber and the incoming compressed hot air is slowed and also for the GSLV Mark III.
down to sub-sonic speed to mix with fuel & get ignited. • CE-20 Engine: It is a cryogenic rocket engine.
- The expansion of hot gases after fuel injection and - It has been developed to power the upper
combustion accelerates the exhaust air to a velocity stage of the GSLV Mark III.
higher than that at the inlet and creates positive push.
- Disadvantage: Ramjets cannot produce thrust from zero speed or a standstill position. The air entering the
engine should be at supersonic speeds. Therefore, it requires an assisted take off like a rocket to accelerate
it to a supersonic speed (Mach 3-6), where it begins producing thrust to force air into the inlet.
• SCRAMJET: it is an acronym for Supersonic Combustion Ramjet, an improvement over RAMJET engine.
- Need: Ramjet works best only at supersonic speed (Mach 3-6); however, its efficiency decreases at
hypersonic speeds (>Mach 5).
- Difference between scramjet and ramjet: in Scramjet, combustion takes place at supersonic air velocities
throughout the engine (incoming air is not slowed down to sub sonic speeds).
- At very high speed (Hypersonic), if the air is slowed down to sub-sonic, it would produce unmanageable
heat and pressure. Thus, at higher speed there is a need to keep combustion at supersonic speed.
- Theoretical speed of Scramjet – Mach 12-24
- India is the 4th country (after USA, Russia & European Space Agency) to demonstrate the flight testing of a
Scramjet Engine.

Cryogenic Engine
• A Cryogenic Engine is a rocket engine that uses cryogenic propellants.
• Cryogenic propellants are cryogenic fuels such as Liquid Hydrogen and cryogenic oxidizer like liquid oxygen
• Cryogenic fuel/oxidizer are gases that are liquefied and stored at very low temperatures (Liquefied Hydrogen
at -253 deg C and liquid oxygen at – 183 deg C)
• The combustion of fuel releases great amount of thermal energy that provides massive thrust to launch vehicle.

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• A Cryogenic rocket stage is more efficient and provides more thrust for every kilogram of propellant it burns
compared to solid and earth-storable liquid propellant rocket stages (very high propulsion efficiency). Hence,
they are especially used to carry heavy satellites.
• ISRO's Cryogenic Upper Stage Project (CUSP) envisages the design and development of the indigenous
Cryogenic Upper Stage to replace the stage procured from Russia and used in earlier GSLV flights.
1.13.3 SOUNDING ROCKETS
• Sounding rockets are one or two stage solid propellant rockets used for probing the upper atmospheric
regions and for space research.
• They also serve as easily affordable platforms to test or prove prototypes of new components or
subsystems intended for use in launch vehicles and satellites.
• The launch of the first sounding rocket from Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala on 21 November
1963, marked the beginning of the Indian Space Programme.

1.14 BHARATIYA ANTARIKSH STATION (BAS)

• India’s planned space station for scientific research.
• Orbit: BAS will orbit 400–450 km above Earth’s surface.
• Structure: It will consist of five modules, built in phases.
• Launch Timeline: The first module (Base Module) will be launched in 2028.
• Full Operation: BAS is expected to be fully operational by 2035.
• Current Phase: BAS is in the conceptualization phase, focusing on architecture, and types of modules,
docking ports, and other design elements.

1.15 OTHER SPACE PROJECTS

CURRENT CONNECT
1. NISAR Satellite: ‘NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar’ (NISAR) is currently under development.
• Collaboration: Developed jointly by NASA and ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation).
• Purpose: To produce high-resolution maps of the Earth's landmasses using radar imaging.
• Payload:
- L-band Radar: Frequency: 1.25 GHz, Wavelength: 24 cm, Built by NASA
- S-band Radar: Frequency: 3.2 GHz, Wavelength: 9.3 cm, Built by ISRO
• Functionality: Tracks and records changes in Earth's natural processes.
• Launch Details: Scheduled for 2025, to be launched aboard an ISRO GSLV Mk II rocket.
• Cost: Total estimated cost of $1.5 billion, with most expenses covered by NASA.

2. SPADEX: A Hyderabad-based company recently handed over two 400 kg class satellites to ISRO, set to be part of
the Space Docking Experiment scheduled for later this year.
• About: It is a critical ISRO mission aimed at developing autonomous docking technology.
• Involves two vehicles— ‘Chaser’ and ‘Target’—connecting in space to demonstrate docking capabilities.
- Docking systems enable spacecraft to connect in orbit for operations like assembling space stations,
refueling, or transferring astronauts and cargo.
- It tests how well the combined spacecraft maintains stability and control post-docking for future mission
efficiency.
- First successful space docking occurred in 1967 by the Soviet Union with the automated docking of Kosmos
186 and Kosmos 188.

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3. Proba-3 Mission: India’s rocket PSLV is all set to launch European Space Agency’s (ESA) Proba-3 mission on ISRO’s
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV).
• About mission: It is the world’s first precision formation flying mission. The mission will demonstrate precision
formation flying, a technique that involves two satellites operating in tandem as if they were a single, large
structure.
• Aim of the mission: To study the Sun’s corona by creating an artificial eclipse, allowing scientists to observe
solar phenomena with unprecedented clarity.
• Working process: One Proba-3 spacecraft will line up in front of the other, around 150 m away, to cast its
shadow precisely onto the other. The shade provided by the first spacecraft will cover the fiery face of the Sun
so that its faint surrounding ‘coronal’ atmosphere becomes visible.
- Satellites: Two small satellites, Coronagraph and Occulter, form a virtual giant satellite with millimetre-
level precision.
- Significance of the mission: The success could revolutionise space observation techniques by proving that
complex tasks can be accomplished with smaller, agile satellites.

4. World's First Private Spacewalk:

• Polaris Dawn Mission: Privately funded and operated mission led by Jared Isaacman with SpaceX.
• Objective: Study the impact of space radiation on human health.
• High-Radiation Zones: Recently traveled through Earth’s high-radiation areas—the South Atlantic Anomaly
and Van Allen Radiation Belt—to observe radiation effects.

5. Square Kilometer Array (SKA):

• World's Largest Radio Telescope: Recently conducted its first observations and is now partially operational.
• Aim: Build a radio telescope with a collecting area over one square kilometre.
• Structure: Functions as a global observatory with two main telescopes located in South Africa and Australia.
• Objectives:
- Study the birth of the Universe.
- Detect gravitational waves.
- Investigate galaxy evolution, dark matter, and cosmic magnetism.

6. Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover (VIPER) Mission: NASA recently cancelled its VIPER mission to
the moon due to development delays and rising costs.
• VIPER is a lunar volatiles detection and measurement mission that will be launched as a payload on the CLPS
(Commercial Lunar Payload Services) provided Astrobotic's Griffin lander to the lunar south polar region.
• The VIPER rover is also designed to excavate volatiles such as hydrogen, oxygen, and water from the Moon.

7. Europa: A NASA spacecraft (Europa Clipper) is ready to set sail for Jupiter and its moon Europa, one of the best
bets for finding life beyond Earth.
• Europa Clipper: Its massive solar panels make Clipper the biggest craft built by NASA to investigate another
planet.
• Europa: It is one of Jupiter's largest moons, among over 90 moons orbiting the planet.
- It ranks as the sixth-closest moon to Jupiter.
- The Hubble Space Telescope has spotted what appear to be geysers erupting from the surface.
- Discovered by Galileo in 1610, Europa is one of the four so-called Galilean moons of Jupiter, along with
Ganymede, Io and Callisto.
- Europa is primarily composed of silicate rock with a water-ice crust and likely an iron-nickel core.

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8. LingoSat: Japanese researchers launched the world's first wooden satellite LingoSat into space, marking an early
test of using timber for lunar and Mars exploration.
• About: LingoSat, the innovative satellite was launched aboard an unmanned SpaceX rocket from NASA's
Kennedy Space Center in Florida, and will later be released from the
International Space Station (ISS).
• Objective: To explore the eco-friendliness and cost-effectiveness of wood in
space exploration, and address a critical environmental concern: the
accumulation of harmful metal particles in Earth's upper atmosphere from
deorbiting satellites.
• Purpose: To demonstrate the potential of renewable wood material for space
living.
• Material: Constructed from magnolia wood, known for its durability and adaptability, using traditional
Japanese woodworking techniques, without glues or screws.

9. Aqua and Suomi-NPP satellites: The Indian government is currently using data from two NASA satellites called
Aqua and Suomi-NPP to track the stubble burning and air pollution in northern region.
• Aqua satellite: NASA launched Aqua in 2002 and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
(MODIS) instrument onboarded on this was built to track changes in the lower atmosphere, especially over
land, through time.
• Suomi-NPP satellite: NASA launched it in 2011, the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS)
instrument onboarded on this is the successor of MODIS.
• Other important satellites in News: INSAT-3DR (by India), GEO-KOMPSAT 2-AMI/ Cheollian 2A (South Korea),
Meteosat-9, Feng Yun-4A/4B (China), and HIMAWARI-8 (Japan).

OTHER MISSIONS
Galileo mission (NASA) It was the first spacecraft to fly past asteroids Gaspara in 1991 and Ida in 1993.

Near Earth Asteroid It was the first spacecraft launched in 1996 to successfully orbit Eros, an asteroid
Rendezvous (NEAR) mission - near Earth, and also land on the asteroid.
(NASA)
Dawn Mission (NASA) Launched in 2007, aims to study 2 out 3 protoplanets in asteroid belt between
Mars & Jupiter i.e. Vesta & Ceres (Pallas is 3rd).
• Dawn is first to visit any dwarf planet (i.e. Ceres), first to orbit a body in the
region between Mars and Jupiter (Vesta), and only mission ever to orbit two
extra-terrestrial targets.
NEOWISE (NASA) NASA space telescope (2009) detects, tracks, and studies near-Earth asteroids.
Its replacement mission, NEO Surveyor, is scheduled to launch in 2028.
Mission Lucy (NASA) NASA’s mission (Discovery programme), launched in Oct, 2021, to explore the
Jupiter Trojan asteroids.
Psyche (NASA) NASA’s mission (Discovery programme), launched in Oct, 2023, to orbit and
studying the metallic asteroid 16 Psyche beginning in 2029.
OSIRIS-REx mission (NASA) In 2016, NASA launched the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft to study Bennu, an asteroid
near Earth.

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Hera Mission (ESA) It is an asteroid deflection mission which is scheduled to be launched in 2024 to
measure the impact crater produced by the DART collision and study the change
in the asteroid’s orbital trajectory. It will arrive at the Didymos system in 2027.
• It is the replacement of Asteroid Impact and Deflection Assessment (AIDA)
mission.
Hayabusa Mission (JAXA) By Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA).
• Hayabusa (2003) brought back samples from asteroid “Itokawa” to help
elucidate the origin of the solar system.
• Hayabusa 2 (2014) targets asteroid “Ryugu” to study the origin and evolution
of the solar system.

====================================================================================

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

Q1. Consider the following pairs: Bombardment System” often talked about in media?
S. No. Objects in space Description (2022)
1. Cepheids - Giant clouds of dust and gas in space (a) A hypersonic missile is -launched into space to
2. Nebula - Stars which brighten and dim periodically counter the asteroid approaching the Earth and
3. Pulsars - Neutron stars that are formed when explode it in space.
massive stars run out of fuel and collapse (b) A spacecraft lands on another planet after making
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched? several orbital motions.
(2023) (c) A missile is put into a stable orbit around the Earth
(a) Only one and deorbits over a target on the Earth.
(b) Only two (d) A spacecraft moves along a comet with the same
(c) All three speed and places a probe on its surface.’
(d) None
Q4. Which one of the following is a reason why
Q2. If a major solar storm (solar-flare) reaches the astronomical distances are measured in light-years?
Earth, which of the following are the possible effects (2021)
on the Earth? (a) Distances among stellar bodies do not change.
1. GPS and navigation systems could fail. (b) Gravity of stellar bodies does not change.
2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions. (c) Light always travels in a straight line.
3. Power grids could be damaged. (d) Speed of light is always the same.
4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the
Q5. For the measurement/estimation of which of the
Earth.
following are satellite images/remote sensing data
5. Forest fires could take place over much of the
used?
planet.
1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific
6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.
location.
7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft
2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a
flying over Polar Regions could be interrupted.
specific location
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location.
(2022)
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only
(2019)
(b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only
(a) 1 only
(c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
(c) 3 only
Q3. Which one of the following statements best (d) 1, 2 and 3
reflects the idea behind the “Fractional Orbital

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Q6. Recently, scientists observed the merger of giant Q10. With reference to the Indian Regional Navigation
'blackholes' billions of light- years away from the Earth. Satellite System (IRNSS), consider the following
What is the significance of this observation? (2019) statements:
(a) 'Higgs boson particles' were detected. 1. IRNSS has three satellites in geostationary and four
(b) 'Gravitational waves' were detected. satellites in geosynchronous orbits.
(c) Possibility of inter-galactic space travel through 2. IRNSS covers entire India and about 5500 sq. km
'wormhole' was confirmed. beyond its borders.
(d) It enabled the scientists to understand 3. India will have its own satellite navigation system
'singularity'. with full global coverage by the middle of 2019.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Q7. Consider the following statements:
(2018)
1. Light is affected by gravity.
(a) 1 only
2. The Universe is constantly expanding.
(b) 1 and 2 only
3. Matter warps its surrounding space-time.
(c) 2 and 3 only
Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions
(d) None
of Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, often
discussed in media? (2018) Q11. Consider the following statements: The
(a) 1 and 2 only Mangalyaan launched by ISRO:
(b) 3 only 1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission
(c) 1 and 3 only 2. made India the second country to have a
(d) 1, 2 and 3 spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
3. made India the only country to be successful in
Q8. The terms 'Event Horizon', 'Singularity', `String
making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first
Theory' and 'Standard Model' are sometimes seen in
attempt
the news in the context of (2017)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) Observation and understanding of the Universe
(2016)
(b) Study of the solar and the lunar eclipses
(a) 1 only
(c) Placing satellites in the orbit of the Earth
(b) 2 and 3 only
(d) Origin and evolution of living organisms on the
(c) 1 and 3 only
Earth
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Q9. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles,
Q12. In which of the following activities are Indian
consider the following statements:
Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites used?
1. Polar satellite launch vehicles (PSLVs) launch
1. Assessment of crop productivity
satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring
2. Locating groundwater resources
whereas Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
3. Mineral exploration
(GSLVs) are designed mainly to launch
4. Telecommunications
communication satellites.
5. Traffic studies
2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
permanently fixed in the same position in the sky,
(2015)
as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch vehicle with the
(b) 4 and 5 only
first and third stages using solid rocket motors,
(c) 1 and 2 only
and the second and fourth stages using liquid
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Q13. The term 'IndARC', sometimes seen in the news,
(2018) is: (2015)
(a) 1 only (a) An indigenously developed radar system inducted
(b) 2 and 3 into Indian Defence.
(c) 1 and 2 (b) India's satellite to provide services to the countries
(d) 3 only of Indian Ocean Rim.

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(c) A scientific establishment set up by India in (c) Both 1 and 2

Antarctic region. (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(d) India's underwater observatory to scientifically
Q18. What is ‘Greased Lightning-10 (GL-10)’, recently
study the Arctic region.
in the news? (2016)
Q14. Which one of the following countries has its own (a) Electric plane tested by NASA
Satellite Navigation System? (2023) (b) Solar-powered two-seater aircraft designed by
(a) Australia Japan
(b) Canada (c) Space observatory launched by China
(c) Israel (d) Reusable rocket designed by ISRO
(d) Japan
Q19. In the context of modern scientific research,
Q15. The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft consider the following statements about 'IceCube', a
flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral particle detector located at South Pole, which was
triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, recently in the news:
with lasers shining between the craft." The 1. It is the world's largest neutrino detector,
experiment in question refers to: (2020) encompassing a cubic kilometre of ice.
(a) Voyager-2 2. It is a powerful telescope to search for dark
(b) New Horizons matter.
(c) LISA Pathfinder 3. It is buried deep in the ice.
(d) Evolved LISA Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(2015)
Q16. What is the purpose of 'evolved Laser
(a) 1 only
Interferometer Space Antenna (eLISA)' project? (2017)
(b) 2 and 3 only
(a) To detect neutrinos
(c) 1 and 3 only
(b) To detect gravitational waves
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) To detect the effectiveness of missile defence
system Q20. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly
(d) To study the effect of solar flares on our matched?
communication systems Spacecraft Purpose
1. Cassini-Huygens - Orbiting the Venus and
Q17. With reference to ‘Astrosat’, the astronomical
transmitting data to the Earth
observatory launched by India, which of the following
2. Messenger - Mapping and investigating the
statements is/are correct?
Mercury
1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only
3. Voyager 1 and 2 - Exploring the outer solar system
country to have launched a similar observatory
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
into space.
(2014)
2. Astrosat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at
(a) 1 only
1650 km above the surface of the Earth.
(b) 2 and 3 only
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(c) 1 and 3 only
(2016)
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only

ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (d) 16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (b)

===================================================================================

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NEEV GS+CSAT
Foundation
Strong Foundation,
Sure Results!
DIVYA MA’AM MK YADAV SIR

Build strong Foundation to crack UPSC 2026 in the very 1st Attempt!

Admission
Open
Daily, Weekly
24 months
and Monthly
Current Affairs
Assessment
coverage
(Pre + Mains)

Comprehensive
Prelims Booster
syllabus coverage
and
-700+ hours
Mains Booster
live classes
Series

Dedicated
Comprehensive
Mentor support
coverage of
& Report card
NCERTs
generation

COURSE
HIGHLIGHTS
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2 DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
MOST REPEATED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS
• India`s flagship initiatives (Current Affairs Driven)

FURTHER EXPECTED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS

• Important joint exercises
• International defence treaties
• Basics of different technologies (cruise vs ballistic etc.)
• Emerging weapons, Advanced Defence Systems and technologies in news- e.g. Ramjet, Scramjet and
Dual Mode Ramjet

2.1 INTRODUCTION: MISSILE SYSTEM

• A missile is an intelligent unmanned rocket designed to carry the payload to a designated point with an
aim of destroying the object/target.
• The missile is designed keeping in mind its target, trajectory, warhead, range, velocity and launch
platform.
• Today, India is one of the few countries in the world to have indigenously developed missile systems.
2.1.1 MAJOR TECHNOLOGIES/MECHANISMS USED IN MISSILE
• Propulsion system: Read Ahead
• Guidance system: The function of the guidance system is to maintain the missile in its desired flight path
by using altitude control mechanism.
- In some missiles, the guidance commands are generated internally by the missile’s computer. In
others, the commands are transmitted to the weapon by some external source.
• Aerodynamic features (air frame, wings and fins) - Also called controlling surfaces, are used to control
the missile’s flight.
- The fins, wings and tail are the three major aerodynamic control surfaces used to steer the missile.
The missile’s course can be altered by moving these controlling surfaces.
• Terminal guidance in case of precision guided weapons - In case of precision weapons, the target seeker
comes into picture when the missile starts detecting its target. The mechanism also works to determine
the time of activating the warhead. After finding out the target, the device sends an electrical impulse to
trigger the activation system. The target seeker is based either on radar, infra-red (IR) or laser devices.
• Warhead – (1) Conventional Warheads (high explosives, metal fragments, etc.) and (2) Strategic
Warheads (Nuclear, Biological, Chemical etc.)

2.1.2 PROPULSION SYSTEM

• To launch a missile, a thrust is needed, which is provided by the Propulsion System (Based on Newton’s
Third Law of Motion).
• The missile is propelled either by rockets or jet engines (Turbo jet, Ramjet, Scramjet), that use
propellants/fuels (solid, liquid, hybrid, cryogenic fuel).

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• To produce thrust, a chemical mixture is burned that consists of Fuel (solid, liquid, cryogenic fuel) and an
Oxidizer (an agent that releases oxygen that combines with fuel to produce gases for propulsion).
• A propulsion system is required to achieve terminal conditions like range, speed and warhead carrying
capability.
2.1.3 TYPES OF PROPULSION SYSTEM
• Solid Propulsion:
- Solid fuel is used in solid propulsion, generally aluminium powder (mixed together with oxidizer).
- Advantages
✓ Can be easily stored and handled in fuelled condition. It is densely packed and of compact size.
✓ Can reach very high speeds quickly. Ideal for military applications where large thrust is need at
✓ Simplicity and lower cost. low cost.
- Disadvantage
✓ Provides lower thrust than liquid fuel.
✓ No control over combustion. Once they start burning, cannot be stopped until entire fuel is burnt.

SOLID FUEL

• Liquid Propulsion:
- The liquid propulsion technology uses liquid fuel. The fuels are hydrocarbons (highly refined
Kerosene).
- Fuel and Oxidizer are stored in separate tanks (not mixed together, unlike Solid Fuel). They are
combined in a combustion chamber to produce thrust.
- Advantages
✓ Liquid fuel gives high specific impulse as compared to solid fuel, thus, provides large thrust.
✓ Propulsion can be controlled easily by restricting the fuel flow by using valves and it can also be
controlled even under emergency conditions.
✓ Capable of being shutdown & restarted (throttle).
- Disadvantages
✓ The storage and handling of missile with liquid fuel is difficult and complex.
✓ Preparation of missile takes considerable time.
✓ Requires larger storage tanks for fuel, thus, weighing down the missile.

LIQUID FUEL

• Hybrid Propulsion:
- There are two stages in hybrid propulsion - solid propulsion and liquid propulsion.

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- This kind of propulsion compensates the disadvantages of both propulsion systems and has the
combined advantages of the two propulsion systems.
- Advantages:
✓ Throttle or restart possible, just like
liquid fuel.
✓ Higher specific impulse
✓ Safer to handle
- Disadvantages - Complex to prepare and
less researched.
• Cryogenic:
- Cryogenic propellants are cryogenic fuels
such as Liquid Hydrogen and cryogenic
oxidizer like liquid oxygen.
- Cryogenic fuel/oxidizer are gases that are
liquefied and stored at very low
temperatures (Liquefied Hydrogen at -253
0
C and liquid oxygen at – 183 0C).
- Cryogenic propellants require special
insulated containers and vents which allow
gas to escape from the evaporating liquids.
- The liquid fuel and oxidizer are pumped
from the storage tanks to an expansion
chamber and injected into the combustion
chamber where they are mixed and ignited
by a flame or spark.
- The fuel expands as it burns, and the hot
exhaust gases are directed out of the nozzle
to provide thrust.
- The combustion of cryogenic fuel provides
massive thrust to launch vehicle, hence,
especially used to carry very heavy satellites for Space missions.
- Because of their low temperature and need for special insulated container, the overall weight is
increased. Thus, less desirable in military rockets.
ROCKET ENGINES Vs. JET ENGINES
Jet engines and rockets work on the same principle. They produce thrust through an internal pressure difference
and, as explained by Newton’s Third Law of Motion, eject exhaust gases in an equal and opposite direction.

The Main Differences are:

• While Jets get the oxygen to burn fuel from the air and rockets carry their own oxygen, which allows them to
operate in space.
• Jet engines have two openings (an intake and an exhaust nozzle). Rocket engines only have one opening (an
exhaust nozzle).
NEED FOR JET ENGINES
• At present, the launch vehicles/missiles are usually designed for one-time use. Also, their efficiency is low as
they able to carry payloads just 2-4% of their lift off mass.
• Thus, they are expensive and there is a need to reduce Launch cost.
• Oxidizer comprises 70% of propellants (Fuel + Oxidizer). Thus, next generation propulsion system must be able
to use atmospheric oxygen, instead of carrying it. Hence, need for “Air Breathing Propulsion” such a RAMJET
& SCRAMJET.

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The main types of Jet engines based on how air is compressed in the engine:
• TURBO JET: Turbo jet engine is an air-breathing jet engine. This is one of the most common types of jet engines.
It is still widely used in airplanes.
• TURBOFAN ENGINES: Turbofans differ from the turbojets in the way they have an additional component – a
fan. The fan sucks in the air and then further gets compressed and combustion takes place in the burner.
• RAMJET
• SCRAMJET READ AHEAD
• DUAL MODE RAMJET (DMRJ)
• Ramjet:
- A ramjet is a form of air-breathing jet
engine that uses the vehicle’s high
speed (supersonic) forward motion to
compress incoming air for combustion
(there is no compressor).
- The vehicle carries only the fuel. The
fuel is injected within the combustion
chamber and the incoming compressed
hot air is slowed down to sub-sonic
speed to mix with fuel and get ignited.
- The expansion of hot gases after fuel
injection and combustion accelerates
the exhaust air to a velocity higher than that at the inlet and creates positive push.
- However, Ramjets cannot produce thrust from zero speed or a standstill position. The air entering
the engine should be at supersonic speeds.
- Therefore, it requires an assisted take off like a rocket to accelerate it to a supersonic speed (Mach
3-6), where it begins producing thrust to force air into the inlet.

• Scramjet:
- Scramjet is an acronym for Supersonic
Combustion Ramjet.
- Need for Scramjet - Ramjet works best
HYPERSONIC
only at supersonic speed (Mach 3-6), AIR STREAM
however, its efficiency decreases at HYPERSONIC
EXHAUST
hypersonic speeds (>Mach 5).
- The difference between scramjet and
ramjet is that, in Scramjet, combustion
takes place at supersonic air velocities
throughout the engine (incoming air is
not slowed down to sub sonic speeds)

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- At very high speed (Hypersonic), if the air is slowed down to sub-sonic, it would produce
unmanageable heat and pressure. Thus, at higher speed there is a need to keep combustion at
supersonic speed.
- Theoretical speed of Scramjet – Mach 12-24.
DUAL MODE RAMJET (DMRJ): Type of jet engine where a ramjet transforms into scramjet over Mach 4-8
range, therefore, it can operate both in subsonic and supersonic combustion modes.

2.2 INDIAN MISSILE SYSTEM

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2.2.1 BALLISTIC & CRUISE MISSILES

BALLISTIC MISSILES CRUISE MISSILES

Follow an arc-like trajectory (Ballistic). Rely on Earth’s Self-Propelled and Guided by jet engines (just like
gravity to fly down once launched. Initially powered airplanes). Fly in relatively straight line, close to the
by rocket. terrain.
Exit/Re-enter Earth’s Atmosphere Eg. ICBMs Fly within Earth’s atmosphere at extremely low
altitude
Launched from Land or sea. Launched from Land, sea or Air
Often Classified by Range – Often Classified by Speed
- Short (<1000 KM) - Sub Sonic (0.8 MACH) – For eg. Nirbhay
- Medium (1000-3000 KM) - Super Sonic (2-3 MACH) – For eg. Brahmos I
- Intermediate (3000-5500 KM) - Hyper Sonic (> 5 MACH) - For eg. Brahmos II
- ICBMs (<5500 KM)
Note: Sonic = Speed of Sound = Mach 1
- SLBM (Range Varies)

2.3 INDIA’S INTEGRATED GUIDED MISSILE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (IGMDP)

• The Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) was conceived by Dr. A P J Abdul
Kalam to enable India attain self-sufficiency in the field of missile technology.
• After keeping in mind, the requirements of various types of missiles by the defense forces, the program
recognized the need to develop five missile systems.
• The IGMDP formally got the approval of Indian government on July 26, 1983, and the programme
completed in March 2012
• It is Ministry of Defence programme for development of the comprehensive range of missiles. 5 missiles
(P-A-T-N-A) developed under this are:
1. Prithvi - Short range surface-to-surface ballistic missile.
2. Agni - Intermediate range surface to surface ballistic missile– Initially conceived as a technology
demonstrator project in the form of a re-entry vehicle under IGMDP. It was later upgraded to a
ballistic missile with different ranges.
3. Trishul - Short range low-level surface-to-air missile.
4. Nag - Third-generation anti-tank missile.
5. Akash - Medium range surface-to-air missile.

MISSILE FEATURES
• Range – Short or medium range (700 -1200 km),
Surface to Surface missile can
(SURFACE TO

nuclear capable, ballistic missile.

SURFACE)

Agni I be launched from a hand-

•
AGNI

Propulsion - Single-stage engine powered by solid

fuel. held, vehicle mounted, trailer
• Warhead - It can carry a conventional payload of mounted or fixed
1,000 kg or a nuclear warhead. installation.

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• Current status - already inducted

Agni II • First Test fired in 1999.
• Range - Medium-range (2000-3000 km), nuclear capable, ballistic missile.
• Propulsion - Two-stage engine powered by solid fuel
• Warhead - It can carry a conventional payload of 1,000 kg or a nuclear warhead.
• Current status - already inducted
• First successful Test flight in 2007.
• Range - Intermediate-range (3,500-4,500 km), nuclear capable, ballistic missile.
Agni III
• Propulsion - Two-stage engine powered by solid fuel
• Warhead - It can carry a conventional payload of about 2,500 kg or a nuclear warhead.
• Current status - already inducted
• First Test flight in 2011 (earlier known as Agni II prime)
• Range - Intermediate-range (3,000 - 4, 000 km), nuclear capable, ballistic missile.
• Propulsion - Two-stage engine powered by solid fuel
Agni IV • Warhead - It can carry a conventional payload of about 800 kg or a nuclear warhead.
• Current status – already inducted
• First successful Test flight in 2012.
• Range - Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) with a range of 5,500 to 5,800 km.
• Propulsion - Three-stage engine powered by solid fuel
• Warhead - Nuclear capable, with a payload capacity of 1,500 kg of high-explosive
warhead.
• Current status – DRDO successfully tested
• Other details:
- The very high accuracy Ring Laser Gyro based Inertial Navigation System (RINS)
Agni V and the most modern and accurate Micro Navigation System (MINS) ensures
accuracy.
- It can be transported and swiftly launched from anywhere.
- It can be equipped with Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles
(MITRV) capable of delivering multiple warheads at different targets at long
distances. The MIRV technology is under development.
- Once the Agni-V is inducted, India will join the super-exclusive club of countries
with ICBMs (missiles with a range of over 5,000-5,500km) alongside the US, Russia,
China, France and the UK.
- The missile will eventually be inducted into the tri-service, Strategic Forces
Command, which manages India’s nuclear arsenal.
• Range - Short Range Ballistic Missile (Tactical – Battlefield), 150 Km
• Propulsion – Single stage, liquid fuel
PRITHVI (SURFACE TO SURFACE)

• Warhead - It can carry a conventional payload of about 1, 000 Kg. Nuclear Capable.
Prithvi I • Current status - already inducted
(Army • Prahaar is expected to replace the Prithvi-I short-range ballistic missile, due to its high
Version) accuracy. However, recently, Pranash is being developed as the army wanted a
weapon with a better range of 200 km (more details in current affairs factsheet).
PRAHAAR MISSILE (SURFACE TO SURFACE)
• Range - It is a surface-to-surface, short-range (150 Km), tactical ballistic missile,
altitude – 35 Km
• Propulsion – Solid-fuelled
• Warhead - It is capable of carrying multiple types of warheads weighing around
200 kg and can also engage multiple targets in different directions.

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• Other features –
- The missile is equipped with state-of-the-art navigation, guidance and
electromechanical actuation systems with advanced on board computer.
- It is quick-reaction, all-weather, all-terrain, highly accurate battlefield support
tactical missile with advance manoeuvring capability.
• Range - Short Range Ballistic Missile (Tactical – Battle field), 350 Km
Prithvi II
• Propulsion – Single stage, liquid fuel
(Air Force
Version) • Warhead - It can carry a conventional payload of about 500 Kg (smaller warhead,
hence, longer distance than Prithvi I). Nuclear Capable.
• Current status - already inducted
Prithvi III • Range - Short Range Ballistic Missile (Tactical – Battle field), 350 Km, launched from
or Dhanush sea.
(Naval • Propulsion – Two stage, Solid 1st stage, liquid 2nd stage
Version) • Warhead - It can carry a conventional payload of about 1000 Kg. Nuclear Capable.
• Range - Mid-range (30 Km), surface-to-air anti-aircraft missile. Nuclear capable.
• Propulsion - Akash is powered by high-energy solid propellant and Ramjet-rocket
propulsion system
AKASH (SURFACE TO • Warhead - Nuclear capable, and can carry 55- kg fragmentation warhead.
AIR) • Current status – already inducted
• Speed – Supersonic - Mach 2.8 to 3.5
• Other details: It has multi target engagement capability. It is multi directional, all
weather air-defence system consisting of surveillance and tracking radars.
Surface to Air missile can be launched from the ground to destroy aerial targets like
aircrafts, helicopters and even ballistic missiles. They are generally called air defence
systems as they defend any aerial attacks by the enemy.

Types of Air Defence Systems

- Quick reaction Range Surface to Air Missile (QRSAM)
- Short Range Surface to Air Missile (SRSAM)
- Medium Range Surface to Air Missile (MRSAM)
- Long Range SAM (LRSAM)
The existing stationary Akash short range SAM (surface-to-air missile) is expected
to be complemented by the mobile (canister mounted) Quick Reaction Surface to
Air Missile (QR-SAM), which was test fired by DRDO.

• Trishul is a short range (9 km) Surface to Air Missile.

TRISHUL (SURFACE TO • Can also be used as anti-sea skimmer from a ship against low flying attacking missiles
AIR) • Propulsion - It employs dual thrust propulsion stage using high-energy solid
propellant.
• Current status – The missile did not enter production or induction and the project
was closed in 2008 and substituted by Barak missiles.
BARAK – 8

• Barak (Hebrew word for ‘lightening’) – 8 is an Indian-Israeli, nuclear capable

surface-to-air ballistic missile.
• Jointly developed by Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) and DRDO
• Range - It includes Long Range Surface-to-Air Missile (LR-SAM) and Medium Range
Surface-to-Air Missile (MRSAM). Maximum range of 70 - 100 km

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• LR-SAM is the Ship Launch Version and MR-SAM is the Land Launch Version of
Barak-8 Missile system.
• Speed – Supersonic (Mach 2)
• It is designed to defend against any type of airborne threat including aircraft,
helicopters, anti-ship missiles, and UAVs as well as cruise missiles and combat jets.
• Capability to simultaneously engage multiple targets, day and night, and in all
weather conditions
NAG MISSILES (ANTI-
• Nag is a third generation "fire-and-forget" anti-tank missile.
TANK MISSILE)
• Estimated Range - 4 kilometers.
• It is equipped with highly advanced Imaging Infrared Radar (IRR) seeker and has
integrated avionics technology in its arsenal.
• With successful testing, complete functionality of the Nag missile has been
established with NAMICA (Nag Missile Carrier).
• NAMICA can launch Nag missiles from a retractable armoured launcher that contains
four launch tubes (the armoured vehicle can carry up to 12 missiles in total) and the
guidance package including a thermal imager for target acquisition.
• The missile’s targeting system is based on visual identification prior to its launch
(‘lock-on-before-launch system’)
• HELINA - India has also been working on a more advanced air-launched variant of the
Nag, the Helina ATGM with a maximum range of up to 7 kilometers.
ANTI-TANK MISSILES
An anti-tank missile is a guided missile primarily designed to hit and destroy heavily-armored tanks and other
armored fighting vehicles. Anti-tank missiles could be launched from aircraft, helicopters, tanks and also from
shoulder mounted launcher.

NAME DEVELOPER DETAILS

• 1st Generation
DRDO Anti -Tank Defence Research and Development • Speed: 300 ft/s (91 m/s)
Missile (DRDO - Organization (DRDO) • Range: up to 1.6 km
ATM) • Warhead: 106mm HEAT Warhead
• 2nd Generation
• Range: up to 2.8 km
AMOGHA Bharat Dynamics Ltd (BDL) • Various versions of AMOGHA: AMOGHA 2-
Land Version and AMOGHA 3 - Improved
version
• 3rd Generation
• Fire and Forget Technology
NAG Bharat Dynamics Ltd (BDL) • Range: 500m – 20km
• Various versions of NAG: Land version, Air
Version, HeLiNa- Helicopter Launched NAG
and NAMICA – NAG missile Carrier
Rafael Advanced Defense Systems of • 4th Generation
Spike ATGMs Israel • Can engage a target with precision at ranges
up to 4 km.

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2.4 OTHER MISSILE SYSTEMS

2.4.1 ASTRA MISSILE (AIR TO AIR MISSILE)
• It is beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile (BVRAAM) developed by DRDO, inducted in the Indian
Airforce.
• This would be the Indian Airforce's first indigenous air-to-air BVR missile, a practical alternative to
expensive Russian, French and Israeli missiles.
• It is designed to engage targets at varying range and altitudes allowing for engagement of both short-
range targets (up to 20 km) and long-range targets (up to 80–110 km) using alternative propulsion
modes.
• Astra uses a smokeless propulsion system.
• Speed - over 4.5 mach.
• The missile guidance is provided by a terminal active radar-seeker and an updated mid-course internal
guidance system, which locates and tracks targets
• Astra is equipped with electronic counter-countermeasures to allow operation even during enemy
attempts to jam the seeker using electronic countermeasures.
• Astra has been integrated with Indian Air Force's Sukhoi Su-30MKI and will be integrated with Dassault
Mirage 2000, HAL Tejas and Mikoyan MiG-29 in the future.
• With Astra India has joined the league of other countries having this technology such as France, Germany,
UK, South Africa etc.
2.4.2 INDIA’S BALLISTIC MISSILE DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM
• A Ballistic Missile Defence system (BMD) is missile defence system that acts as a shield against ballistic
missile attacks.
• The Indian Ballistic Missile Defense Program is an initiative to develop and deploy a Multi-layered Ballistic
Missile Defense System (BMD). It is a two tiered defense shield.
• The BMD consists of two interceptor missiles, the Prithvi Defense Vehicle (PDV) and the Advanced Area
Defense (AAD) missile.
1. Prithvi Defense Vehicle (PDV): It is capable of killing an incoming missile with a strike range of around
2,000 km outside the earth’s atmosphere (exo-atmospheric interception).
- It is developed by DRDO.
- It will replace the existing Prithvi Air Defense (PAD) which has a maximum interception altitude
of 80 kilometres. It’s designed for High altitude interception (exo-atmospheric interception).
- It has two-stage missile, both with solid propellants.
2. Advanced Air Defense (AAD): It is the endo-atmospheric missile, capable of intercepting incoming
targets at an altitude of 15 to 30 km successfully destroyed the incoming missile.
- It is also called as Ashwin Ballistic Missile Interceptor.
- It’s endo-atmospheric interception system (for low altitude interception).
- It has single-stage solid fuelled missile.
2.4.3 CRUISE MISSILE SYSTEMS
A. Brahmos
• World’s fastest Supersonic cruise missile, operates on fire and forget principal.
• Designed and developed by - BrahMos Aerospace, a joint venture of India and Russia.
• Derives its name from the names of two rivers, India’s Brahmaputra River and Russia’s Moskva River.
• Max Range:
- Its range was initially capped at 290 km as per obligations of the Missile Technology Control Regime
(MTCR).
- Since India’s entry into MTCR, the range has been extended to 450 km and the plan is to increase it
to 600 km.
• Warhead: can carry conventional warhead upto 300 Kg

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• Speed: Mach 3 (that is, three times the speed of sound) ➔ supersonic throughout
• Propulsion:
- Two-stage missile with a solid propellant booster engine as its first stage which brings it to supersonic
speed and then gets separated.
- The liquid ramjet or the second stage then takes the missile closer to 3 Mach speed in cruise phase.
• Current status: BrahMos missile already has been inducted into the Indian Army and Navy. Indian Air
Force has recently formally inducted Squadron of Su-30 MKI equipped with BrahMos Supersonic Cruise.
• BRAHMOS is the first supersonic cruise missile known to be in service.
• Special features - Stealth technology and guidance system with advanced embedded software and pin
point accuracy with high lethal power.
B. Nirbhay
• Long range, surface-to-surface, sub sonic cruise missile (0.7 Mach), indigenously developed by DRDO.
• It takes off vertically like a missile and cruise horizontally like an aircraft.
• Can carry conventional as well as nuclear war-head. It can operate in all type of weathers.
• It is a terrain hugging missile which keeps on encircling the area of its target for several minutes and then
hits bull’s eye’ on an opportune time. Can fly at altitude as low as 100 metre.
• Stealth features - It is difficult to detect by enemy’s radars.
CURRENT CONNECT
S-400 Air Defence System:
• Deployment: Indian Air Force deployed S-400 missile units along China and Pakistan borders.
• Advanced System: One of the most advanced air defence systems globally.
• Origin: Developed by Russian State-owned enterprise.
• Capabilities: Can counter drones, missiles, rockets, and fighter jets.
• Key Features of S-400:
- Components: Includes command and control center, tracking
and targeting systems, launchers, and support vehicles.
- Radar Range: Detects targets up to 400 km (surveillance up to
600 km).
- Targeting: Simultaneously engages up to 80 targets.
- Altitude Range: Can hit targets up to 30 km in altitude.
Project Kusha (India’s LR-SAM System):
• Expected Deployment: 2028-29.
• Developed by: Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO).
• Capabilities: Designed to detect and destroy stealth fighters, aircraft, drones, and cruise missiles.
• Three-Tier Range: Missiles with ranges of 150, 250, and 350 km.

2.5 TANKS
2.5.1 INDIA’S FIRST UNMANNED TANK - MUNTRA
• Muntra (Mission UNmanned TRAcked), developed by the Defence Research and Development
Organisation (DRDO) has been rolled out of the Chennai lab.
• It is an unmanned remotely operated tank, launched in three variants:
- Muntra-S: For surveillance
- Muntra-M: For mine detection
- Muntra-N: For reconnaissance in areas with nuclear and biological threats. It is also likely to be used
in Naxal-hit areas.
• The Muntra variants have surveillance radar, an integrated camera along with laser range finder which
can be used to spy on ground target (heavy vehicles or crawling men) 15 km away.

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2.6 SHIPS
2.6.1 TYPES OF NAVAL SHIPS
• Aircraft Carriers – a large warship with a deck from which aircraft can take off and land. For eg.
- INS Vikramaditya (Kiev class aircraft carrier acquired from Russia)
- INS Vikrant (indigenous aircraft carrier, commissioned in September 2022).
- INS Vishal (on hold as of now, it was intended to be a ‘super carrier’)
- INS Viraat – (Decommissioned in 2017. A Centaur-class aircraft carrier commissioned in 1959 as the
British Navy's HMS Hermes and later sold to India in 1987)
• Destroyers - fast, manoeuvrable, long-endurance warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet,
convoy or battle group and defend them against powerful short-range attackers. For eg. Visakhapatnam
Class, Kolkata class, and Delhi Class destroyers.
• Frigates - smaller ships than destroyers, designed primarily to protect other ships (such as merchant
convoys), and perform some Anti-Submarine Warfare duties. For e.g. Shivalik class, Talwar class,
Brahmaputra class, Godavari class frigates etc.
• Corvettes - smaller ships than frigates, they are the smallest class of vessel considered as a warship. For
eg. Karmota class, Kora class, Khukri class, Veer class, Abhay class etc
• Patrol Ships - small naval vessels generally designed for coastal defence duties. Mostly operated by Indian
Coast Guard.
• Amphibious assault ships –
- Employed to land and support ground forces on enemy territory by an amphibious assault.
- Amphibious vessels fall into two broad categories - those that roll onto the beach and those
(typically much larger) that carry landing crafts or hovercrafts which in turn are disgorged onto the
beach.
- For eg. INA Jalashwa acquired from USA (Jalashwa cannot be used during a war or offensive
operation, unless such action is granted by the US).
• Submarines - a ship capable of remaining underwater for extended periods.
CLASS TYPE SUBMARINE ORIGIN
Nuclear-powered Submarines
Chakra (Akula II) Class Attack submarine INS Chakra Russia -India
Arihant Class Ballistic Missile INS Arihant India
submarine
Diesel-electric Submarines
INS Shishumar
Shishumar Class Attack submarine INS Shankush Germany
INS Shalki India
INS Shankul
INS Kalavari
Scorpene Class (Project Attack submarine INS Khanderi France
75I) INS Karanj India
Vela, Vagir & Vagsheer
INS Sindhughosh
INS Sindhudhvaj
INS Sindhuraj
Sindhughosh Class Attack submarine INS Sindhuvir Russia
INS Sindhuratna
INS Sindhukesari
INS Sindhukirti

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INS Sindhuvijay
INS Sindhurashtra

2.6.2 PROJECT 15 (DESTROYERS)

• The design and development of India’s Destroyer class began as "Project 15" in 1980, known as Delhi-
class destroyers, which include INS Delhi, INS Mumbai and INS Mysore.
• Project 15A or Kolkata-class destroyers, is a follow-on of the Project 15 and includes INS Kolkata, INS
Kochi and INS Chennai.
• Project 15B or Visakhapatnam Class destroyer, is an improved variant of the Kolkata-class destroyers
(Project 15A), with enhanced stealth characteristics and a high degree of automation.
• Project 15B Comprises 4 ships – Visakhapatnam (launched), Mormugao (launched), Imphal (launched in
April 2019) and Porbandar (not launched yet). Built by - Mazagon Dock Limited (MDL), for Indian Navy.

CURRENT CONNNECT
• INS IMPHAL: It is the third of four stealth-guided missile destroyers under Project 15B, was recently
commissioned into the Indian Navy.
• Features:
- Indigenous Content: 75%.
- Enhanced Stealth: Reduced Radar Cross Section, efficient hull shaping, full beam superstructure desgn,
plated masts.
- Armament: Surface-to-Surface Missiles, Surface-to-Air Missiles, Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) roket
launchers & Torpedo launchers, ASW helicopters, radars, sonar, and Electronic Warfare systems.
- Capability: Fight under Nuclear, Biological and Chemical warfare conditions.

2.6.3 PROJECT P-28 (CORVETTES)

• A Karmota class of anti-submarine warfare corvettes, currently in service with the Indian Navy, built
under naval modernization project P-28.
• 4 Karmota Class anti-submarine warfare corvettes - INS Kamorta, INS Kadmatt, INS Kiltan, and INS
Kavaratti (all 4 commissioned).
• Indigenously designed by Directorate of Naval Design and constructed by Garden Reach Shipbuilders &
Engineers Limited, Kolkata.
2.6.4 LANDING CRAFT UTILITY (LCU) MK-IV (AMPHIBIOUS SHIP)
• LCU MK-IV ship is an amphibious ship.
• Its primary role is to transport and deploy Main Battle Tanks, Armoured Vehicles, troops and equipment
from ship to shore.
• LCU L52 is the second Landing Craft Utility (LCU) Mk-IV class to be inducted into the Indian Navy.
• It has been indigenously designed and built by Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers, Kolkata.
• These ships would be based in the Andaman and Nicobar Command.
• They can be deployed for multirole activities like beaching operations, search and rescue, disaster relief
operations, supply and replenishment and evacuation from distant islands.
• The remaining six ships of the same class are in advanced stages of construction at M/S GRSE, Kolkata
• The induction of these ships will contribute to the nation’s maritime security needs and is in consonance
with India’s drive for ‘Make in India’.
2.6.5 INC CHAKRA (NUCLEAR SUBMARINE)
• INS Chakra is a Russia-made, nuclear-propelled, hunter-killer submarine.
• The Akula class submarine is a nuclear powered attack submarine (SSN), and will provide escort support
to INS Arihant, the indigenously constructed ballistic missile submarine that would carry nuclear missiles.

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• INS Chakra has been taken on lease from Russia for 10 years to provide the Navy the opportunity to train
personnel and operate such nuclear-powered vessels.
• India is in negotiations for the second nuclear submarine from Russia, which could join service when INS
Chakra returns after its 10-year lease.
2.6.6 INS ARIHANT (NUCLEAR SUBMARINE)
• India has declared that its nuclear triad is operational after indigenous ballistic missile nuclear submarine
INS Arihant recently achieved a milestone by conducting its first deterrence patrol.
• INS Arihant
- INS Arihant is India’s first indigenously-designed, developed and manufactured nuclear-powered
ballistic missile submarine,
- 3 more such submarines are reportedly under various stages of construction.
- INS Arihant is a part of Indian Navy's secretive Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project.
- The sea-based missiles (Submarine launched Ballistic Missiles - SLBMs) envisaged for this purpose
are:
1. Sagarika (K-15) with a range of 750 km
Nuclear Tipped Ballistic Missile
2. K-4 with a range of 3500 km
• Significance:
- Stealth Capabilities - Because they are powered by nuclear reactors, these submarines can stay
underwater indefinitely without the adversary detecting it.
- 2nd Strike Capabilities - While land-based missile sites can be attacked and destroyed, a submarine-
based deterrent is virtually secure against a missile attack ➔ Nuclear Deterrence
- Expanded Capabilities - India earlier had the capabilities to launch nuclear weapons from the air,
mounted largely on its Mirage 2000 and Jaguar Aircraft.
- Technological Distinction - India is the only country having a sea-based nuclear deterrent, which is
not a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council.
• Nuclear triad refers to the nuclear weapons delivery via land, air and sea i.e. land-based intercontinental
ballistic missiles (ICBMs), strategic bombers, and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).
2.6.7 PROJECT 75 I (DIESEL ELECTRIC SUBMARINE)
• The P75I project is part of a 30-year submarine building plan that ends in 2030. According to this, India
has to build 24 submarines — 18 conventional submarines and six nuclear powered submarines (SSNs).
• Under Project 75 I (India), six Scorpene class submarines are being built with assistance and technology
transfer from French naval defence and energy Company DCNS, under deal signed in 2005.
• They are being manufactured by Mazagon Dock Ltd in Mumbai.
• The Scorpene class submarines are a class of diesel-electric attack submarines, which will also feature
advanced Air-independent propulsion (AIP) systems to enable them to stay submerged for longer
duration and substantially increase their operational range.
• They can undertake multifarious tasks typically undertaken by any modern submarine which include anti-
surface as well as anti-submarine warfare.
• 6 Submarines under the project - INS Kalvari (commissioned in 2017), INS Karanj (Commissioned in
2019), INS Khanderi (Commissioned in 2019), Vela (Commissioned), Vagir (Commissioned) and Vagsheer
(launched).
• The technology being used for construction of the Scorpene class submarines has ensured superior
stealth features such as:
- Advanced acoustic silencing techniques
- Low radiated noise levels
- Hydro dynamically optimized shape
• It can undertake various missions such as anti-surface warfare, anti-submarine warfare, intelligence
gathering, mine laying and area surveillance.

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2.6.8 INS SHIVALIK

• These are the Indian Navy’s indigenously conceived design and constructed frontline stealth frigate.
• INS Shivalik is the Shivalik-class advanced, stealth-minded, guided-missile frigate warship.
• It is the first stealth warship built by India at Mazagon Dock Limited in Mumbai’s part of the Indian Navy’s
Project 17.
• It is equipped with a mix of Russian, Indian and Western weapon systems.
• It also has improved stealth and land attacking features over the preceding Talwar-class frigates.
• It is the first Indian navy ship to use the CODOG (COmbined Diesel Or Gas) propulsion system.
2.6.9 INS NILGIRI
• INS Nilgiri is the first ship of the Project-17A.
• Project 17A frigates is a design derivative of the Shivalik class stealth frigates with much more advanced
stealth features and indigenous weapons and sensors.
• The P17A frigates incorporate new design concepts for improved survivability, sea keeping, stealth and
ship manoeuvrability.
• These frigates are being built using integrated construction methodology.
2.6.10 INS SAGARDHWANI
• It is the Oceanographic research vessel of DRDO.
• It is maintained and operated by the Indian Navy.
• It is a ‘Marine Acoustic Research Ship’ (MARS) designed and developed by ‘Naval Physical and
Oceanographic Laboratory’ (NPOL), Kochi.
• NPOL is a premier systems laboratory of DRDO.
• The ship is fitted with state-of-the-art equipment like the latest wave height measuring radars, marine
radio etc.
• It is exclusively used for the scientific and research programs of NPOL.
2.6.11 INS TARINI: NAVIKA SAGAR PARIKRAMA
• It is a project that includes six women officers of the Indian Navy circumnavigating the earth on an Indian-
built sail boat INSV Tarini.
• This is the first circumnavigation of the world by an all women crew.
• INSV Tarini
- It is a 55-foot, indigenously built sailing vessel
- It was inducted in the Indian Navy earlier in 2017.
- The boat draws its origin from the famous Tara-Tarini temple of Odisha’s Ganjam district.
- INSV Tarini is the sister vessel of INSV Mhadei.
2.7 DRONES & UAVs

2.7.1 DRONE REGULATION IN INDIA Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)

• The Civil Aviation Requirements (CAR) / Drone • Principal regulatory body for civil aviation.
Regulations 1.0 for civil use of drones entered into • Responsible for regulation of air transport
force from 1st December 2018. services to/ from/ within India.
• Until then, the use of drones for civil purposes had • Responsible for formulation and
been banned by Directorate General of Civil Aviation enforcement of civil air regulations, licensing
(DGCA). of pilots, air safety and airworthiness
A. Definition and Categorization of Drones: An standards.
Unmanned Ariel Vehicle (UAV), commonly known as • Coordinates regulatory functions with
drone, is an aircraft without a human pilot aboard. International Civil Aviation Organisation
• Drones can be used for Civil or Military purposes.

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• DGCA has defined drones or Remotely Piloted

Aircraft Systems (RPAS) as a technology platform
with wide-ranging applications from photography
to agriculture, infrastructure asset maintenance,
insurance etc.
• Categorization of drones has been done according
to their maximum weight (See table).

B. Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) Rules of 2021 (Drone

Rule)
• Coverage of drones: Increased from 300 kg to 500 Digital Sky Platform
kg. This will cover drone taxis also. First-of-its-kind national unmanned traffic
• No restriction on foreign ownership in Indian drone management (UTM) platform for:
companies. • Registration of drone by owner – obtaining a
• Digital sky platform being developed as a user- Unique Identification Number (UIN)
friendly online single-window system. There will be • Obtaining Unmanned Aircraft Operator Permit
minimal human interface and most permissions will (UAOP) by owners to fly drones.
be self-generated. • Automated flight permission on mobile app
• Preventing unauthorized flights & ensuring public
• Interactive drone airspace map with red and yellow
safety.
zones shall be displayed.
• No remote pilot licence required for micro drones (for non-
commercial use) and nano drones.
• No requirement of Type Certificate, unique identification
number and remote pilot licence by R&D entities operating
drones in own or rented premises, located in a green zone.
• Import of drones to be regulated by DGFT and requirement of
import clearance from DGCA abolished.
• No permission required for operating drones in green zones.
• Yellow zone, where ATC permission is required, has been
reduced from 45 km to 12 km from the airport perimeter.
• Remote pilot licence to be issued by DGCA within 15 days of
pilot receiving the remote pilot certificate from an authorised
drone school through the digital sky platform.
• Drone corridors will be developed for cargo deliveries.
• Drone promotion council to be set up by government with participation from academia, start-ups and
other stakeholders to facilitate a growth-oriented regulatory regime.

2.7.2 CIVILIAN APPLICATIONS OF DRONES

• Civil purposes i.e. commercial, scientific, recreational, agricultural, reconnaissance & surveillance and
other applications:
• Scientific research & resource mapping – resource mapping, geological/archaeological surveying, railway
track maintenance.
• Agriculture – Aerial spray of pesticides, seeding for afforestation in difficult terrain, collection of data.
• Disaster Management – drones were used to examine extent of 2015 Nepal earthquake.
• Maintaining Law and Order – Crowd control, traffic management etc. Used by UP Police to record
communal violence in Saharanpur in 2015.
• Environment conservation – Climate change monitoring, data collection etc. Recently used by Telangana
Police to monitor riverside littering.

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• Commercial purposes - Filmmaking, journalism, cargo transport, use by e-commerce companies.

Google’s Wing and Amazon’s Prime Air, are being designed by them for efficient delivery of goods.
EyeROV TUNA - India’s first underwater robotic drone developed by EyeROV Technologies (Kochi based start-
up company). Recently handed over to Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory (NPOL) of Defence
Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).

2.7.3 MILITARY APPLICATIONS OF DRONES

• UAVs used for military purposes i.e. armed with missiles, bombs and other attack payloads
• Currently 28 countries, including India have armed drones in their military arsenal.
• Use in combat, surveillance, reconnaissance, and intelligence-gathering.

2.7.4 CHALLENGES POSED BY DRONES

• Threat to privacy protection for eg. collecting data and images without the knowledge of the target
• Security threats like terror attacks. UAVs could be loaded with dangerous payloads, and crashed into
vulnerable targets.
• Threaten airspace security including unintentional/intentional collisions or interference with other
aircraft. Violation of Sovereignty.
2.7.5 UAVS IN INDIA
• Lakshya ("target") is an Indian remotely piloted high speed target drone system.
• Nishant - a multi mission UAV with Day/Night capability used for battlefield surveillance and
reconnaissance, target tracking & localization, and artillery fire correction.
• UAV Panchi - It is the wheeled version of UAV Nishant, capable of taking-off and landing by using small
airstrips. Panchi UAV has autonomous flight capabilities & is controlled from user friendly Ground Control
Station (GCS).
• Rustom
- It is a Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) UAV being developed by DRDO.
- There are 3 Variants:
1. Rustom-I: Tactical UAV with endurance of 12-14 hours.
2. Rustom-H (Higher altitude version): Larger UAV with flight endurance of over 24, higher range and
service ceiling than Rustom-1.
3. Rustom-II (Military version): An unmanned combat air vehicle based on Rustom-H model, often
compared with Predator drones.

RUSTOM–II (TAPAS 201)

• Rustom II is indigenously built drone developed on the lines
of predator drones (unmanned armed combat vehicle) of the
United States.
• It has been designed and developed by Aeronautical
Development Establishment (ADE), the Bangalore-based lab
of DRDO, with Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd and Bharat
Electronics as the production partners.
• TAPAS 201, is a multi-mission UAV is being developed to carry
out Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) roles
for all the 3 armed forces – Army, Navy, & Air Force.
• It can fly up to an altitude of 22,000 feet and has an endurance of 24 hours.

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• It can carry variety of payloads like Electronic Intelligence (ELINT), Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR),
Communication Intelligence (COMINT) and Situational Awareness Payloads (SAP) for performing missions even
during the night.
• Rustom II can fly missions on manual as well as autonomous modes.

HIGH-ALTITUDE PSEUDO-SATELLITE VEHICLES (HAPS), OR, HIGH-ALTITUDE LONG-ENDURANCE VEHICLES (HALE)

• The prototype was recently launched and flight tested.
• Designer & manufacturer: National Aerospace Laboratories
(NAL).
• Huge technology breakthrough: It was no ordinary UAV. This
one can fly at great heights, about 20 km from ground, runs
entirely on solar power, and can remain in the air for months
on end.
• Primary utility: Surveillance and monitoring, but there are
other situations, like disaster management.
CURRENT CONNECT
MQ-9B Reaper Drone: U.S. has recently approved the sale of 31 MQ-9B Predator drones to India.
• Flight Capability:
- Designed for long-range missions, flying over 30 hours using satellite control.
- Capable of safe integration into civil airspace for enhanced operational flexibility.
• Purpose:
- Provides real-time situational awareness for joint forces and civil authorities.
- Equipped with advanced maritime ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance) capabilities.
• Maritime Operations:
- Enables search and patrol both above and below the ocean surface.
- Indian Navy plans to equip the SeaGuardian variant with Sonobuoys for underwater surveillance.
• Variants:
- SkyGuardian - Standard variant.
- SeaGuardian - Maritime-focused variant.
EXTRA BITS
TAPAS BH-201 UAV:
• Successfully tested by Indian Navy and DRDO from INS Subhadra.
• Type: Medium Altitude Long-Endurance (MALE) UAV.
• Indigenous Design: Developed entirely within India.
Autonomous Flying Wing Technology Demonstrator (FWTD):
• High-speed, tailless flying-wing UAV designed by DRDO’s Aeronautical Development Establishment.
• Houses payload and fuel within its main wings.
• Scaled-Down Version of a future unmanned combat aerial vehicle.
• Significance of FWTD:
- Capable of take-off and landing using GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN).
- Autonomous Landing without ground radars, infrastructure, or pilot.
- Positions India among the few countries with flying-wing technology.
- Potential as a covert stealth combat drone.

• AURA (also called Ghatak) - is a stealth UCAV, capable of releasing missiles, bombs and precision-guided
munitions.
• Micro & Mini-UAVs - These vehicles have an endurance of 20 minutes to 1 Hr. MAVs include Black Kite,
Golden Hawk and Pushpak and Mini-UAVs include Imperial Eagle and Slybird.

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2.8 INDIA’S NUCLEAR DOCTRINE & NO FIRST USE POLICY

India’s Union Defence Minister recently said while India has strictly adhered to Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s doctrine
of ‘No First Use’ (NFU) of nuclear weapons, India reserves the right to change its policy based on future
circumstances.
BACKGROUND
• India embarked on the path of nuclear weapons development after its face-off with China in the 1962
war, followed by China carrying out nuclear tests in 1964 and in the subsequent years.
• In 1974, under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, India conducted its first nuclear tests, Pokhran-I, dubbed
as a “peaceful nuclear explosion”.
• India again carried out a test in May 1998, Pokhran-II, involving a fission device, a low-yield device, and
a thermonuclear device. Its successful execution meant that India had the ability to introduce nuclear
warheads into its fast-developing missile programme.
• Since conducting its second nuclear tests, Pokhran-II, in 1998, India has adhered to a self-imposed
commitment to ‘No First Use’ (NFU) of nuclear weapons on another country.

INDIA’S NUCLEAR DOCTRINE

Indian nuclear doctrine was first officially enunciated on January 4, 2003. It can be summarized as follows:
• Building and maintaining a credible minimum deterrent
• A posture of "No First Use”: nuclear weapons will only be used in retaliation against a nuclear attack on
Indian territory or on Indian forces anywhere;
• Nuclear retaliation to a first strike will be massive and designed to inflict unacceptable damage.
• Nuclear retaliatory attacks can only be authorised by the civilian political leadership through the Nuclear
Command Authority.
• Non-use of nuclear weapons against non-nuclear weapon states;
• However, in the event of a major attack against India, or Indian forces anywhere, by biological or chemical
weapons, India will retain the option of retaliating with nuclear weapons;
• A continuance of strict controls on export of nuclear and missile related materials and technologies,
participation in the Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty negotiations, and continued observance of the
moratorium on nuclear tests.
• Continued commitment to the goal of a nuclear weapon free world, through global, verifiable and non-
discriminatory nuclear disarmament.
Thus, Three Pillars of India’s Nuclear Doctrine
1. No First Use
2. Credible minimum deterrence - NFU promise went together with credible minimum deterrence (CMD).
3. Civilian control - through Nuclear Command Authority.
CREDIBLE “MINIMUM” DETERRENCE (CDM)
• It does not imply indefinite expansion of the nuclear arsenal; rather it is built on an assured second-strike
capability ie. ability to retaliate with massive and unacceptable damage in event of another nation
carrying out a first nuclear strike.
• CMD requires a robust command and control system; effective intelligence and early warning
capabilities; comprehensive planning and training for operations in line with the strategy; and the will to
employ nuclear forces and weapons.
• Second strike capability depends on survivability of India’s nuclear capability in event of a first attack
by a nation. Thus, Nuclear triad (nuclear weapons delivery via land, air and sea) plays a crucial role in
acting as a deterrence against any attack.
NUCLEAR COMMAND AUTHORITY (NCA)
• It comprises a Political Council and an Executive Council.

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• The Political Council is chaired by the Prime Minister. It is the sole body which can authorize the use of
nuclear weapons.
• The Executive Council is chaired by the National Security Advisor (NSA). It provides inputs for decision
making by the Nuclear Command Authority and executes the directives given to it by the Political Council.
STRATEGIC FORCES COMMAND (SFC)
• The Strategic Forces Command (SFC) sometimes called Strategic Nuclear Command, forms part of India's
Nuclear Command Authority (NCA).
• It is responsible for the management and administration of India’s tactical and strategic nuclear weapons
stockpile.
• It was created on January 4, 2003 by GoI (Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s Govt) and Air Marshal Teja Mohan
Asthana became its first commander-in-chief.
• It is the responsibility of the Strategic Forces Command to operationalize the directives of the NCA under
the leadership of a Commander-in-Chief who is a three-star rank officer.
• It will have the sole responsibility of initiating the process of delivering nuclear weapons and warheads,
after acquiring explicit approval from the NCA.
• The exact selection of the target area shall be decided by the SFC through a calibrated, cumulative
process involving various levels of decision-making, and with formal approval by the NCA.
NO FIRST USE (NFU) AROUND THE WORLD
• China declared its NFU policy in 1964 and became the first nation to propose this policy and has since
maintained this policy.
• Pakistan refuses to adopt a no first use doctrine and indicates that it would launch nuclear weapons even if
the other side did not use such weapons first.
• USA has refused to adopt a no first use policy and says that it "reserves the right to use" nuclear weapons first
in the case of conflict.
• NATO has repeatedly rejected calls for adopting NFU policy.
• Russia, in 1993, dropped a pledge against first use of nuclear weapons made in 1982 by Leonid Brezhnev. In
2000, a Russian military doctrine stated that Russia reserves the right to use nuclear weapons "in response to
a large-scale conventional aggression".

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UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

Q1. Which of the following is/are correctly matched in Q4. Which one of the following is the best description
terms of equivalent rank in the three services of Indian of ‘INS Astradharini’, that was in the news recently?
Defense forces? (2016)
Army Airforce Navy (a) Amphibious warfare ship
(b) Nuclear-powered submarine
1. Brigadier Air Commodore Commander (c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel
(d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier
2. Major Air Vice Marshal Vice Q5. With reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the
General Admiral following statements is/are correct?
3. Major Squadron Leader Lieutenant 1. It is a surface-to-surface missile.
Commander 2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only.
4. Lieutenant Group Captain Captain 3. It can deliver one-tonne nuclear warheads about
Colonel 7500 km away.
Select the correct answer using the code given below: Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(2024) (2014)
(a) 1 and 4 (a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Q2. Consider the following activities: Q6. What is "Terminal High Altitude Area Defence
1. Identification of narcotics on passengers at (THAAD)", sometimes seen in the news? (2018)
airports or in aircraft (a) It is an Israeli radar system.
2. Monitoring of precipitation (b) It is India's indigenous anti-missile programme.
3. Tracking the migration of animals (c) It is an American anti-missile system.
In how many of the above activities can the radars be (d) It is a defence collaboration between Japan and
used? (2024) South Korea.
(a) Only one
(b) Only two Q7. Consider the following statements:
(c) All three 1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic
(d) None speeds throughout their flights, while cruise
missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial
Q3. Consider the following aircraft: phase of flight.
1. Rafael 2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise
2. MiG-29 missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fueled
3. Tejas MK-1 intercontinental ballistic missile.
How many of the above are considered fifth Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
generation fighter aircraft? (2024) (2023)
(a) Only one (a) 1 only
(b) Only two (b) 2 only
(c) All three (c) Both 1 and 2
(d) None (d) Neither 1 nor 2
ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (d)

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3 COMPUTERS, ICT AND RELATED INNOVATIONS

MOST REPEATED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS
• BARCODE, QR CODE & BHARAT QR CODE
• GSM & CDMA Telecom Technology
• Wi-Fi, Li-Fi & Wi-MAX Technologies
• Telecom Related Technologies:
o VOIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)
o IPTV (Internet Protocol Television)
o RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)
o Near Field Communication (NFC)
o LTE (Long Term Evolution)
o 4G LTE Vs 4G WiMAX
o WiBro (Wireless Broadband)
o GPRS (General Packet Radio Services)
o WAP (Wireless Application Protocol)
o BharOS
• Generations of Wireless Communication Technologies: 1G TO 6G
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) & IoT
• Cloud Computing, Edge Computing, Cognitive Computing & Quantum Computing
• Concepts Of Augmented & Virtual Reality
• Supercomputers & India

FURTHER EXPECTED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS

• 6G Technology & Advanced 5G Applications
• Emerging Telecom Technologies: Li-Fi (Light Fidelity), 5G NR (New Radio) & Tactile Internet
• Internet of Things (IoT) Applications: Industrial IoT (IIoT) & IoT Security
• Cybersecurity and Privacy Technologies: Blockchain Technology & Quantum Cryptography
• Data Privacy Laws: Implications of laws like the PDPB (Personal Data Protection Bill) in India.
• Space-based Internet Technologies: Projects like Starlink and OneWeb.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) & Machine Learning: AI in Governance, AI Ethics, AI in Healthcare
• Smart Technologies: Smart Grids & Smart Homes & Cities
• Digital Economy & FinTech: Digital Currency, Blockchain in Finance & UPI
• Cloud Computing & Edge Computing: Serverless Computing, Edge Computing in IoT & Cloud Security
• Quantum Computing & Quantum Technologies: Quantum Algorithm & Quantum Sensors
• Augmented Reality (AR) & Virtual Reality (VR): Mixed Reality (MR) & AR in Education
• Autonomous Technologies: Autonomous Vehicles & Applications of Drones
• Renewable Energy & Smart Grids: Solar and Wind Energy Tech & Energy Storage Systems
• Next-gen Computing Technologies: Neuromorphic Computing & Exascale Computing

3.1 BARCODE, QR CODE & BHARAT QR CODE

3.1.1 BARCODE
• It is an optical, machine readable form of data. It is a printed series of parallel bars or lines of varying
width that is used for entering data into a computer system.
• This data usually defines something about the product which carries the barcode. Barcodes represent
data by varying the widths and spacing of parallel lines.
• Laser/LED is reflected back better from the white spaces (and not from the black bar). This reflection is
converted into on-off pulse in the binary digit by an electronic circuit attached to the scanner.

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3.1.2 QR CODE (QUICK RESPONSE CODE)

• A QR code is a type of bar code that consists of black squares arranged in a square grid on a white
background, which can be read/scanned by an imaging device such as a camera into a computer system.
• It contains information about the item to which it is attached.
• The black and white square can
represent numbers from 0-9, letters
A-Z, or characters in non-Latin
scripts such as Japanese Kanji.
• Stores hundred times more
information & can be scanned from
any direction for 360 degrees. This
makes it easier for devices to read
and lessens the possibility of background interference.
• Further, it doesn’t need a special laser emitting device to read, camera of a smart phone or tablet
computer is good enough for scanning the information.

3.1.3 BHARAT QR CODE

• It is P2M (Person to Merchant) Mobile payment solution. This solution is mutually derived among
National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), Visa and Mastercard and other payment networks.
• Once the BQR codes are deployed on Merchant locations, user can scan and pay the utility bills using BQR
enabled mobile banking apps without sharing any user credentials to the merchant.
• Are Bharat QR & BHIM QR Same?
- BHIM QR is UPI Based QR. It is preferably used for P2P or P2M dynamic Transaction using Virtual
Payment Address.
- Bharat QR is specifically used for P2M transaction wherein payment is done via cards i.e., Debit
card/Credit Card/Pre-paid Card.
• Advantages:
- Customer can easily make payments through Bharat QR code and does not require to carry physical
Debit or Credit card.
- It does not require any upfront expenditure.
- 2 Factor Authentication for Bharat QR is:
✓ First factor is MPIN for the mobile application login
✓ Second factor is taken as MPIN/OTP/ATM pin but it is Bank’s discretion to apply the second factor.
- Unlike other QR Codes, Bharat QR code has lots of additional data elements like merchant name,
address, Merchant Bank information, etc.
- Bharat QR code is much more widely acceptable and secure than other QR codes. Users can pay
using any card scheme such as - RuPay, Visa, MasterCard and Amex.
- The risk of data theft or security issues through tampered or cyber-compromised point of sale devices
is minimized.
- Merchants accepting the payment through Bharat QR code, receives the amount directly in their
Bank accounts.

3.2 GSM & CDMA TELECOM TECHNOLOGY

• Telecommunications technology refers to distance communications, such as radio, telephone, television,
satellite, microwave, data communication, and computer networking.
• The telecom services have been recognized the world-over as an important tool for socio-economic
development for a nation.
• The two telecom (Cellular) technologies are: GSM & CDMA

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3.2.1 GSM (GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION)

• Global System for Mobile communication or GSM is a digital mobile telephony system that is widely used
most parts of the world.
• It uses a variation of time division multiple access (TDMA) and frequency division multiple access (FDMA).
• GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down a channel with two other streams of user data,
each in its own time slot.
• It operates at either the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz frequency band.
• Advantages of GSM:
- Higher digital voice quality.
- Low-cost alternatives to making calls, such as the Short message service (SMS, also called ‘text
messaging’).
3.2.2 CDMA (CODE-DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS)
• Code-Division Multiple Access or CDMA is a digital cellular technology that uses spread-spectrum
techniques.
• Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital sequence.
• CDMA employs analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) in combination with spread spectrum technology.
Audio input is first digitized into binary elements.
• The frequency of the transmitted signal is then made to vary according to a defined pattern (code), so it
can be intercepted only by a receiver whose frequency response is programmed with the same code.
• The technology is used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems in the 800-MHz and
1.9-GHz bands.
• Advantages of CDMA: It consistently provides better capacity for voice and data communications than
other commercial mobile technologies, allowing more subscribers to connect at any given time.
GSM vs CDMA
Parameters GSM CDMA
Full form Global System for Mobile communication Code Division Multiple Access
Technology used FDMA (Frequency division multiple access) CDMA (Code division multiple access)
and TDMA (Time division multiple access)
Availability GSM is globally widely used and available. CDMA is available in fewer countries and
carriers.
Data Speed Rate 42Mbps in HSPA (3G) 3.6Mbps in CDMA
Features GSM supports transmitting data and voice CDMA does not support this feature.
both at once.
Customer Stored in a SIM card Stored in a headset or phone
Information

3.3 Wi-Fi, Li-Fi & Wi-MAX TECHNOLOGIES

3.3.1 WI-FI (WIRELESS FIDELITY)
• Wireless Fidelity or Wi-Fi is a local area wireless technology that allows an electronic device to exchange
data or connect to the internet using 2.4 GHz UHF and 5 GHz SHF radio waves.
• A device such as a personal computer, video game console, smartphone, or digital audio player, when
enabled with Wi-Fi, can connect to the Internet via a wireless network access point.
• Wi-Fi works with no physical wired connection.
• It uses radio frequency (RF) technology, RF being a frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum
associated with radio wave propagation.
• Advantages

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- Convenience: Allows users to access network resources from nearly any convenient location within
their primary networking environment (home or office).
- Mobility: With the emergence of public wireless networks, users can access the internet even outside
their normal work environment.
- Productivity: Users connected to a wireless network can maintain a nearly constant affiliation with
their desired network as they move from place to place.
- Deployment: The initial setup of an infrastructure-based wireless network requires little more than
a single access point. Wired networks, on the other hand, have the additional cost and complexity of
actual physical cables being run to numerous locations.
- Expandability: Wireless networks can serve a suddenly increased number of clients with the existing
equipment.
- Cost: Wireless networking hardware is at worst a modest increase from wired counterparts;
outweighed by the savings in cost and labor associated with running physical cables.

3.3.2 LI-FI (LIGHT FIDELITY)

• Li-Fi is a Visible Light Communications (VLC) system that used visible light spectrum (rather than radio waves
used by WiFi) to transmit wireless internet communications at very high speeds.
• LiFi comprises:
- Common household LED (light emitting diodes) bulbs as light source
- A photo-detector to receive light signals
- Signal processing element to convert the data into 'stream-able' content
• Mechanism
- Data is fed into an LED light bulb (with signal processing technology), it then sends data (embedded
in its beam) at rapid speeds to the photo-detector (photodiode)
- The tiny changes in the rapid dimming of LED bulbs is then converted by the 'receiver' into electrical
signal. The constant current of electricity supplied to an LED light bulb can be dipped and dimmed,
up and down at extremely high speeds, without being visible to the human eye.
- The signal is then converted back into a binary data stream that one would recognise as web, video
and audio applications that run on internet enables devices.

• Li-Fi transmission speeds can go over 100 Gbps, 14 times faster than WiGig, also known as the world’s
fastest Wi-Fi.
• Advantages:
- Free Spectrum and High speed: Unlike in case of radio waves dependent WiFi, LiFi runs on visible
light, which has much spectrum available. Further low interference leads to very high speed.
- Huge data density: 1000 times of WiFi, as light can be contained in an area.
- Safe and secure: Microwave radiation from WiFi devices creates digital wireless pollution, leads to
headaches, fatigue and concentration problem. LiFi it will be a green technology. It can be used in
places like Petrochemical, nuclear plants and hospitals where radio waves can’t be used.
- Future technology:
✓ LED bulbs are already on the rise, so LiFi could ride on these LED bulbs.
✓ LED bulbs in traffic lights will make them LiFi wireless Hotspots, making the whole city digital.
✓ It will be instrumental in realizing the objectives of Smart city – digital India, which aims to
extensively rely on IoT (Internet of Things) for activities ranging from waste disposal to traffic
management.
- Transport management: LED lights in vehicles can communicate with each other, helps in better
traffic management.
- Connect difficult terrains of the country: areas that can’t be reached by fiber but have access to
electricity
- Can work Underwater: Thus, significantly boosting the capacity of Indian Navy, will help in

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navigational operations.
- Receiving power wirelessly: Thus, mobiles can be charged wirelessly.
- Protects privacy: Since light cannot pass through wall, eavesdropping (unauthorised interception) is
impossible, unlike in Wifi.

CURRENT CONNECT
Wi-Fi 7 Technology
• Recently, U.S.-based Qualcomm urged India to adopt Wi-Fi 7, the newest Wi-Fi standard.
• Represents the next-generation Wi-Fi standard aimed at boosting speed and connectivity.
• Technical Basis: Built on IEEE 802.11be, known for Extremely High Throughput (EHT).
• IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the largest global technical professional organization.

Wi-Fi vs Li-Fi
Parameters Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) Li-Fi (Light Fidelity)
Applicability More interference, cannot pass through Less interference, can pass through salty
seawater, works in less dense regions. sea water, works in dense region.
Used for internet browsing with the help of
Used in airlines, undersea explorations,
Application Wi-Fi hotspots. operation theatres in the hospitals, office
and home premises for data transfer and
internet browsing.
About 32 meters (WLAN 802.11b/11g), About 10 meters
Coverage Distance varies based on transmit power and
antenna type.
Data density Works in less dense environments due to Works in high-density environments.
interference related issues.
Interference Several sources of radio interference can Does not have any interference issues
disrupt the function of a Wi-Fi network. similar to radio frequency waves.
Operation Wi-Fi transmits data using radio waves with LiFi transmits data using light sources
the help of Wi-Fi router. (presently LED bulbs).
Wi-Fi is less secure because the signal With LiFi, light is blocked by the walls and
Privacy cannot be blocked by walls and most hence will provide more secure data
objects. transfer.

3.3.3 WI-MAX (WORLDWIDE INTEROPERABILITY FOR MICROWAVE ACCESS)

• Wi-Max is a wireless broadband technology, which supports point to multi-point (PMP) broadband
wireless access.
• Wi-Max can provide Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) up to 50 km for fixed stations, and 5 to 15 km
for mobile stations.
• Advantages:
- It provides portable mobile broadband connectivity across cities and countries through a variety of
devices.
- It provides a wireless alternative to cable and DSL for ‘last mile’ broadband access.
- It provides data, telecommunications (VoIP) and IPTV services (triple play).
- It provides a source of Internet connectivity as part of a business continuity plan.

3.4 TELECOM RELATED TECHNOLOGIES

3.4.1 BLUETOOTH

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• Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless communication technology standard for exchanging data over
short distances (using short wavelength UHF radio transmissions in the ISM band from 2400-2480 MHz)
from fixed and mobile devices, creating Personal Area Networks (PANs) with high levels of security.
• Operational range and speed - slow connection and its operational range is about 40 m indoors and 100
m outdoors.
• Flow of data – Bluetooth is capable of two-way communication between devices.
• Applications
- Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a hands-free headset
- Wireless Bluetooth headset and Intercom.
- Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required.
- Wireless communication with PC ingput and output devices, the most common being the mouse,
keyboard and printer.
- Transfer of files, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices with OBEX.

3.4.2 VOIP (VOICE OVER INTERNET PROTOCOL)

• VOIP is IP enabled voice calling technology over internet. Example: Skype, Yahoo messenger, MSN
messenger.
• It requires broadband connectivity to make a call along with IP enables devices like Computers,
Smartphone etc.
• The voice is converted into digital packets and transmitted to destination over packet switched network.

3.4.3 IPTV (INTERNET PROTOCOL TELEVISION)

• IPTV is new generation TV that communicates over Internet protocol in the form of packets rather than
signals in normal TVs.
• IPTV converts a television signal into small packets of computer data like any other form of online traffic
such as email or a web page.
• Three main components of IPTV:
- TV and content head end, where the TV channels are received and encoded and also other content
like videos which are stored.
- Delivery network, which is broadband and landline network provided by a telecom operators such
as MTNL.
- Set top box, which is required at the customer location. The packets are reassembled into
programming by software in the set-top box. This box is connected between the operator’s
broadband modem and customer’s TV.
• Advantages :
- IPTV enables two-way interactivity, in contrast to traditional one way cable or satellite broadcast
network. The two-way IPTV network means viewers have more options to personalize interact and
control their viewing experience.
- Other Advantages - Better audio & video quality, allows scheduling a recording of favourite
programmes, video on demand, lower cost for operators and lower prices for customers etc.
• Disadvantages:
- Because IPTV is based on internet protocol, it is sensitive to packet loss and delays if the IPTV
connection is not fast enough.
3.4.4 RFID (RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION)
• RFID a form of wireless communication.
• It is the process by which items are uniquely identified using radio waves.
• It is an electronic tag that can exchange data with an RFID reader through radio waves.
• Thus, to work, RFID requires 3 components: tags, scanners (or readers) and a database for storing
collected information.

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• The reader sends an interrogating signal to the tag via the antenna, and the tag responds with its unique
information.
• Operational Range: It is a faster connection with range of about 100 meters.
• Flow of Data: RFID tag typically sends out information & hence only one way information.
• FASTag employs RFID technology for payments directly from the prepaid or savings account linked to it.
It is affixed on the windscreen that can enable electronic payment when it crosses a booth without
stopping.
3.4.5 NEAR FIELD COMMUNICATION (NFC)
• NFC technology is a newer standard of wireless communication, and a more finely honed version of RFID.
It also runs on the principle of sending information over radio waves.
• NFC is a specialized subset within the family of RFID technology. Specifically, NFC is a branch of High-
Frequency (HF) RFID, and both operate at the 13.56 MHz frequency.
• Operational Range - It enables users to transmit radio frequency wave over a very short distance, just
about few centimetres only.
• Data: It can transfer low amount of data between devices enabled with NFC.
• Flow of data: NFC device is capable of being both an NFC reader and an NFC tag. This unique feature
allows NFC devices to communicate peer-to-peer (two-way communication, unlike RFID). This has made
NFC a popular choice for contactless payment. NFC smartphones pass along information from one
smartphone to the other by tapping the two devices together.
• Power Consumption: Since it’s a very short-range communication, power consumption is very negligible
or no power consumption.
• Unlike Bluetooth devices, there is no need of pairing the devices, its ready to use at just a click or swipe.
This makes NFC faster than Bluetooth. It pairs with a single device at a time.
• NFC can be used as an anonymous technology that doesn’t have any kind of record that Bluetooth has
after sharing any kind of data through it.
• NFC is safer than Bluetooth. Because the NFC requires a very close range than Bluetooth does as the
phones need to be in contact with each other.
• The communication frequency in NFC is about 13.5 MHz and for Bluetooth, it’s 2.4 GHz.
Mobo Money
• Tech Mahindra, the Tech & Software development arm of Mahindra Group, announced launch of Mobo-Money,
a NFC based, contactless digital payment ecosystem.
• Mobo Money will be the first commercial roll-out of NFC (Near Field Communication) for an ecosystem.
• The company aims to get about one million merchants including local kirana shop owners on board.

3.4.6 LTE (LONG TERM EVOLUTION)

• LTE (Long Term Evolution) is a wireless broadband technology designed to support roaming Internet
access via cell phones and handheld devices.
• With its architecture based on Internet Protocol (IP), unlike many other cellular Internet protocols, Long
Term Evolution supports browsing Web sites, VoIP and other IP-based services well.
• LTE can theoretically support downloads at 300 Megabits per second (Mbps), or more, based on
experimental trials.
3.4.7 4G LTE VS 4G WIMAX
• The two important 4G standards are WiMAX and LTE
• 4G LTE is a first generation 4G technology termed as “true 4G”.
• They differ in their bandwidth; LTE has higher bandwidth than WiMAX.
• LTE is compatible with existing network but WiMAX needs altogether new network.
• The cost of installation of LTE is more than WiMAX.

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3.4.8 WIBRO (WIRELESS BROADBAND)

• WiBro is a wireless broadband Internet technology developed by the South Korean telecom industry.
• WiBro communication technique uses radio waves (frequency of 2.3 GHz) and allows a maximum
theoretical speed of 30 MBPS over a range between 1 and 5 kilometres.
• WiBro is a wireless point to point communication technique, tailored to serve low-cost sparsely
populated areas where laying the fibre is not an option.
3.4.9 GPRS (GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICES)
• GPRS is a packet-based wireless communication service that promises data rates from 56 to 114 Kbps
and continuous connection to the Internet for mobile phone and computer users.
• GPRS facilitates instant connections whereby information can be sent or received immediately as the
need arises, subject to radio coverage.
• No dial-up modem connection is necessary. This is why GPRS users are sometimes referred to be as being
“always connected”.
• GPRS packet-based services cost users less than circuit-switched services since communication channels
are being used on a shared-use, as-packets-are-needed basis rather than dedicated to only one user at a
time.
• Packet switching means that GPRS radio resources are used only when users are actually sending or
receiving data.
• Rather than dedicating a radio channel to a mobile data user for a fixed period of time, the available radio
resource can be concurrently shared between several users.
• This efficient use of scarce radio resources means that large numbers of GPRS users can potentially share
the same bandwidth and be served from a single cell.
3.4.10 WAP (WIRELESS APPLICATION PROTOCOL)
• WAP is a secure specification that allows users to access information instantly via handheld wireless
devices such as mobile phones, pagers, two-way radios, smartphones and communicators.
• WAP is supported by all operating systems.
• WAPs that use displays and access the Internet are called micro-browsers i.e. browsers with small file
sizes that can accommodate the low memory constraints of handheld devices and the low-bandwidth
constraints of a wireless-handheld network.
• Although WAP supports HTML and XML, the WML language (Wireless Markup Language) is specifically
devised for small screens and one-hand navigation without a keyboard.
3.4.11 BHAROS
• BharOS was recently developed by the IIT Madras-incubated company JandK Operations Private Limited.
• Indigenous mobile operating system (OS) similar to Android or iOS.
• Function: Enables smartphone users to interact with devices and access features securely.
• Objective: Aims to support ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ by providing a secure, India-based OS environment.
• Target Audience: Primarily designed for India-based users seeking enhanced security.

3.4.12 MAYA OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)

• Maya OS: The Ministry of Defence plans to replace Windows OS with Maya OS due to growing cyber and
malware threats on defence and critical infrastructure.
• Open-Source Platform: Maya OS is based on the open-source Ubuntu platform, allowing users to edit,
modify, and reuse the code freely, unlike proprietary software.
• Chakravyuh System: An additional end-point detection and protection system, Chakravyuh, will also be
installed in these systems for enhanced security.

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3.5 GENERATIONS OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES: 1G TO 5G

3.5.1 1G (FIRST GENERATION)
• On a frequency of 30 kHz, the maximum speed of 1G is 2.4 Kbps.
• Cell phones began with 1G and signify first generation wireless analog technology standards that
originated in the 1980s.
• It used the inception of AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) technology from the pre-existing IMPS
(Improved Mobile Telephone System) for voice transmission.
• 1G introduced Analog voice.
• Disadvantages: Poor voice quality, Poor battery life, Large phone size, No security, Limited capacity, Poor
reliability

3.5.2 2G (SECOND GENERATION)

• The main difference between the two mobile telephone systems (1G and 2G), is that the radio signals
used by 1G network are analog, while 2G networks are digital.
• Main motive of this generation was to provide secure and reliable communication channel.
• It implemented the concept of CDMA and GSM and provided small data service like SMS and MMS.
• 2G capabilities are achieved by allowing multiple users on a single channel via multiplexing.
• The max speed of 2G with General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is 50 Kbps or 1 Mbps with Enhanced
Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).
• Disadvantages:
- Requires strong digital signals to help mobile phones work. If there is no network coverage, digital
signals weakened.
- Systems are unable to handle complex data like videos.
- As the generation moved towards 3G, the user requirement was too complex for 2G to satisfy.
3.5.3 3G (THIRD GENERATION)
• Web browsing, email, video downloading, picture sharing and another Smartphone technology were
introduced in the third generation.

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• Introduced commercially in 2001, the goals set out for third generation mobile communication were to
facilitate greater voice and data capacity, support a wider range of applications, and increase data
transmission at a lower cost.
• The 3G standard utilises a new technology called UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service)
as its core network architecture.
• 3G has Multimedia services support along with streaming are more popular. In 3G, Universal access and
portability across different device types are made possible (Telephones, PDA's, etc.).
• In 2006 3G was updated to 3.5G by introducing the High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA)
communication protocol further increasing the data bandwidth of 3G up to 42 Mbps.
• A 3G phone cannot communicate through a 4G network, but newer generations of phones are practically
always designed to be backward compatible, so a 4G phone can communicate through a 3G or even 2G
network.
• Disadvantages:
- Messy Architecture
- Demanded 3G compatible handsets
- Cost of upgrading to 3G device is too high
- Power consumption is high
3.5.4 4G (FOURTH GENERATION)
• 4G is a very different technology as compared to 3G and was made possible practically only because of
the advancements in the technology in the last 10 years.
• Its purpose is to provide high speed, high quality and high capacity to users while improving security
and lower the cost of voice and data services, multimedia and internet over IP.
• The two important 4G standards are WiMAX (has now fizzled out) and LTE (has seen widespread
deployment).
• The max speed of a 4G network when the device is moving is 100 Mbps or 1 Gbps for low mobility
communication like when stationary or walking.
• 4G is not the same as 4G LTE which is very close to meeting the criteria of the standards.
• Disadvantages:
- 4G LTE network needs complex hardware.
- 4G technology use many antennae and transmitters resulting in poor battery life.
- Higher Data consumption.

VOICE OVER LTE (VOLTE):

• Voice over LTE is a digital packet technology that uses 4G LTE to route voice traffic and transmit data.
• Since LTE is a data only networking technology, VoLTE provides higher quality calls, better service and
the ability to simultaneously use voice and data.
• The technology is necessary because LTE is a data-only networking technology.
• Previous cellular networks such as 2G and 3G, were designed to carry voice calls – services added cellular
data support later through methods that basically “tunneled” data inside of voice-call connections.
• LTE turns the network around and uses Internet Protocol Packets for all communications. As such it
doesn’t support traditional voice call technology, so a new protocol and applications for voice over LTE
are needed.
• Advantages:
- VoLTE uses the spectrum more efficiently than traditional voice calls.
- It frees up network bandwidth due to a smaller packet.
- It provides for increased battery life when compared to VoIP.
- Provides superior audio quality and a clearer calling experience.
- Ends dependency on the legacy circuit switched voice network to be maintained.
- Ability to simultaneously use voice and Data.

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3.5.5 5G (FIFTH GENERATION)

• 5G is the next (5th) generation cellular technology that provide faster and more reliable
communication with ultra-low latency (Latency is the amount of time data takes to travel between its
source and destination), faster data delivery, higher
connection density, more capacity and better CURRENT CONNECT
utilization of spectrum. 6G: The Next-Generation Mobile Network
• The max speed of 5G is aimed at being as fast as 35.46 • Frequency Range: Operates at Sub-6 GHz
Gbps, which is over 35 times faster than 4G. and extends from 95 GHz up to 3 THz
• The Next Generation Mobile Network Alliance has (Terahertz), enabling higher data rates and
defined requirements that a 5G standard should fulfil. enhanced connectivity.
• Some of the features are as follows – • Speed & Latency: Supports speeds up to
- Higher Speed (data rates) –With speeds of up to
1,000 Gbps with ultra-low latency as low as 1
100 Gigabits/sec i.e. 5G is set to be 10-100 times
millisecond.
faster than 4G.
- Lower latency – real time response. • Key Applications: Enables advanced
- Device Intelligence: Unlike 4G, 5G has the capabilities such as high-performance
capability to differentiate between fixed and computing, edge computing, and
mobile devices. It uses cognitive radio techniques technology convergence.
to identify each device and offer the most • Bharat 6G Alliance (B6GA): Established by
appropriate delivery channel. the Department of Telecommunications
• 5G will use higher frequencies of wireless spectrum (~ (DoT), this alliance brings together public
30 GHz to 300 GHz) range when compared to 4G which and private sectors, academic and research
uses frequencies below 6 GHz. This high frequency will bodies, and standards organizations to drive
be able to support huge quantity of data. 6G development in India.
• Further, shorter wavelength would allow smaller
antenna size to be used.
3.6 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE & IoT
3.6.1 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
• AI is a branch of computer science which enables
computer system to carry out task on their own that
otherwise requires human intelligence.
• Thus, it refers to the ability of machines to perform
cognitive tasks like thinking, perceiving, learning,
problem solving and decision making.
• There are two subsets under the Umbrella term AI,
they are – Machine Learning & Deep Learning.
• Machine learning is a self-adaptive algorithm that gets better and better analysis and patterns with
experience or with new added data. For eg. It processes all transactions happening on the digital
platform, find patterns in the data set, and point out any anomaly detected by the pattern.
• Deep Learning is a subfield of machine learning, which utilizes a hierarchical level of artificial neural
networks (ANN) to carry out the process of machine learning. The artificial neural networks are built like
the human brain, with neuron nodes connected together like a web.

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A. Examples of AI
• Robotics and Automation: Robots can be programmed to perform high-volume, repeatable tasks
normally performed by humans.
• Natural Language Processing (NLP) is the processing of human language by a computer program. For
example, spam detectors look at the subject line and text of an email in order to decide whether it is
junk.
• Pattern recognition is a subset of machine learning that seeks to identify patterns in data. For example,
a machine learning program can differentiate cats from dogs among 1000 images of cats and dogs
through pattern recognition like face, whiskers, etc.
• Machine vision is the science of giving computers a vision by capturing and analyzing visual information
using a camera, analog-to-digital conversion, and digital signal processing. It is mostly compared to
human eyesight, however, machine vision is not constrained by biology i.e. it can even be programmed
to see through walls.
B. Applications of AI
• AI in Astronomy: Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to solve complex universe problems. AI
technology can be helpful for understanding the universe such as how it works, origin, etc.
• AI in Healthcare: In the last, five to ten years, AI becoming more advantageous for the healthcare industry
and going to have a significant impact on this industry. Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a
better and faster diagnosis than humans. AI can help doctors with diagnoses and can inform when
patients are worsening so that medical help can reach to the patient before hospitalization.
• AI in Gaming: AI can be used for gaming purpose. The AI machines can play strategic games like chess,
where the machine needs to think of a large number of possible places.
• AI in Finance: AI and finance industries are the best matches for each other. The finance industry is
implementing automation, chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and machine learning into
financial processes.
• AI in Data Security: The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber-attacks are growing very
rapidly in the digital world. AI can be used to make your data more safe and secure. Some examples such
as AEG bot, AI2 Platform, are used to determine software bug and cyber-attacks in a better way.
• AI in Social Media: Social Media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat contain billions of user
profiles, which need to be stored and managed in a very efficient way. AI can organize and manage
massive amounts of data. AI can analyze lots of data to identify the latest trends, hashtag, and
requirement of different users.
• AI in Automotive Industry: Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide virtual assistant to their
user for better performance. Such as Tesla has introduced TeslaBot, an intelligent virtual assistant.

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Various Industries are currently working for developing self-driven cars which can make your journey
more safe and secure.
• AI in Robotics: Artificial Intelligence has a remarkable role in Robotics. Usually, general robots are
programmed such that they can perform some repetitive task, but with the help of AI, intelligent robots
which can perform tasks with their own experiences without pre-programmed. Humanoid Robots are
best examples for AI in robotics, recently the intelligent Humanoid robot named as Erica and Sophia has
been developed which can talk and behave like humans.
• AI in Entertainment: We are currently using some AI based applications in our daily life with some
entertainment services such as Netflix or Amazon. With the help of ML/AI algorithms, these services show
the recommendations for programs or shows.
• AI in Agriculture: Agriculture is an area which requires various resources, labor, money, and time for best
result. Now a day's agriculture is becoming digital, and AI is emerging in this field. Agriculture is applying
AI as agriculture robotics, solid and crop monitoring, predictive analysis. AI in agriculture can be very
helpful for farmers.
• AI in E-commerce: AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry, and it is becoming
more demanding in the e-commerce business. AI is helping shoppers to discover associated products
with recommended size, color, or even brand.
• AI in education: AI can automate grading so that the tutor can have more time to teach. AI chatbot can
communicate with students as a teaching assistant. AI in the future can be work as a personal virtual
tutor for students, which will be accessible easily at any time and any place.
• AI in Mobility & Transportation: Self-driving Cars, Intelligent Transportation Systems; Travel route/flow
optimisation ==> reduced traffic and congestion problems; Multimodal integration by assisting with
scheduling public transportation systems; Optimise parking, etc.
• AI as Digital assistants and smart speakers: Siri, Alexa, Cortana, and Google Assistant use artificial
intelligence to transform spoken words to text and map the text to specific commands.
3.6.2 INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)
• Internet of Things (IoT) is a computing concept that describes the idea of everyday physical objects being
connected to the internet and being able to identify themselves to other devices.
• The IoT is a giant network of connected things and people – all of which collect and share data about
the way they are used and about the environment around them.
• Examples of ‘things’ which can be connected to internet include:
- Connected Wearables: Smartwatches, Smart glasses, fitness bands etc.
- Connected Homes: Connecting household appliances to the network.
- Connected Cars: Vehicles that are connected to the internet.
- Connected Cities: Smart meters which analyse usage of water, gas, electricity etc. connect cities to
IoT.
• Devices and objects with built in sensors are connected to an Internet of Things platform, which
integrates data from the different devices and applies analytics to share the most valuable information
with applications built to address specific needs.

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• These powerful IoT platforms can pinpoint exactly what information is useful and what can safely be
ignored. This information can be used to detect patterns, make recommendations, and detect possible
problems before they occur.
CURRENT CONNECT
• Deepfakes: It refer to videos or images edited using algorithms to replace a person in the original content with
someone else, making it appear authentic.
- Deepfakes can imitate a person's face, body, voice, speech, environment, or other personal information to
create an impersonation.
• Technology Used: Employs artificial intelligence (AI) and deep learning to create images of events that have
not occurred.
- Deep Learning: A subset of machine learning that uses artificial neural networks inspired by the human
brain, enabling learning from large data sets.
- Uses GANs (Generative Adversarial Networks) and photo-shopping techniques for realistic images.
• Role of GANs:
- GANs involve two components: generators and discriminators.
- Generators: Create new images based on initial data.
- Discriminators: Evaluate content for realism and perform refinement.
- Variational Auto-encoders: A type of neural network used to enable a versatile “face swap” model.
• Regulatory Measures:
- India: No specific laws address deep-fakes, but Section 66E and Section 66D of the IT Act, 2000, and the
Indian Copyright Act, 1957 address related concerns.
- Global: Google has announced watermarking tools to help identify synthetically generated content.

3.7 CLOUD COMPUTING, EDGE COMPUTING, COGNITIVE COMPUTING & QUANTUM COMPUTING
3.7.1 CLOUD COMPUTING
• In simplest terms, cloud computing means storing and accessing data and programs over the Internet
instead of user’s computer's hard drive. The “cloud” is just a metaphor for the Internet.
• It is the on-demand availability of computer system
resources, especially data storage and computing
power, without direct active management by the
user.
• Thus, rather than owning their own computing
infrastructure or data centers, companies can rent
access to anything from a cloud service provider.
• These services include tools and applications like data
storage, servers, databases, networking, and
software, Dropbox, Gmail, Facebook.
• In sum, rather than keeping files on a hard drive or
local storage device, cloud-based storage makes it
possible to save them to a remote database. As long
as an electronic device has access to the web, it has
access to the data and the software programs to run it.
• It is a popular option for people and businesses for a number of reasons including cost savings, increased
productivity, speed and efficiency, performance, and security.
• Advantages
- No responsibility of creation, maintenance of systems.
- Easy implementation and economical.

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- Flexibility in hardware and software i.e., pay as you use.

- Efficient usage of resources.
- Location independence i.e., accessible from anywhere.
- Easy up-gradation to match current technology.
• Disadvantages
- Data insecurity.
- Need for high speed internet connection (essentially a big constraint for a country like ours).
- Universal standardization required which makes interoperability among providers difficult as of now.
- Dependent on service providers even for trivial applications
3.7.2 EDGE COMPUTING
• It is defined as the deployment of data-handling activities or other network operations away from
centralized and always-connected network segments (like Dropbox, Gmail, etc.) and towards individual
sources of data capture, such as endpoints like laptops, tablets.
• Edge computing enables data to be analysed, processed, and transferred at the edge of a network, that
is, it analyses data locally, closer to where it is stored, in real-time without latency, rather than send it
far away to a centralised data centre.
• Edge computing allows for quicker data processing and content delivery.
• It serves as the decentralized extension of the campus networks, cellular networks, data center networks
or the cloud.
• By 2025 companies will generate and process more than 75% of their data outside of traditional
centralised data centres that is, at the “edge” of the cloud.
• Difference between edge computing
and cloud computing:
- Basic difference lies in where the
data processing takes place.
- The existing Internet of Things (IoT)
systems perform all of their
computations in the cloud using
data centres.
- Edge computing essentially
manages the massive amounts of
data generated by IoT devices by
storing and processing data locally.
That data doesn’t need to be sent over a network as soon as it processed; only important data is sent.
- Therefore, an edge computing network reduces the amount of data that travels over the network.
• Benefits: Reduced latency, high speed, faster data processing and content delivery etc.
• Potential Risks associated
- Extended footprint - exponential increase in area of attacks and can be used as entry points to core
networks.
- Cost of deploying and managing an edge computing environment can exceed the project’s financial
benefits.
- Scalability can become a serious issue as new IoT endpoints proliferate or increase.
3.7.3 COGNITIVE COMPUTING
• It is a subfield of AI that strives for a natural, human-like interaction with machines.
• Using AI and cognitive computing, the ultimate goal is for a machine to simulate human processes
through the ability to interpret images and speech – and then speak coherently in response.

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• Cognitive computing is the simulation of human thought processes in a computerized model. It involves
self-learning systems that use pattern recognition, data mining and natural language processing to mimic
the way the human brain works.
• The objective of cognitive computing is to create automated IT systems that are capable of solving
problems without requiring human assistance.
• Cognitive computing is used in various AI applications including natural language programming, neural
networks, robotics & Virtual Reality. (read ahead for Augmented vs. Virtual reality)
3.7.4 QUANTUM COMPUTING
• Quantum Computing is an area of computing technology that is based on the principles of quantum
theory.
• Classical computers can only encode information in bits that take the value of 1 or 0. This restricts their
ability. Quantum computing, on the other hand, uses quantum bits or qubits.
• Qubits have special properties that help them solve complex problems much faster than classical bits.
• One of these properties is superposition i.e. instead of Quantum Theory
holding one binary value (0 or 1) like a classical bit, a • It explains the nature of energy and
qubit can hold a combination of 0 or 1, simultaneously. matter on the atomic and subatomic
• When multiple qubits interact coherently, they can level. It is sometimes referred to as
explore multiple options and process information in a quantum physics and quantum
fraction of the time it would take even the fastest non- mechanics.
quantum systems. • Unlike classical physics, in which an
• Unlike a usual bit, they can also store much more object can exist in one place at one
information than just 1 or 0, because they can exist in time, quantum physics looks at the
any superposition of these value. probabilities of an object being at
• In 2018, the Department of Science & Technology multiple points.
unveiled a programme called Quantum-Enabled • Existence of subatomic particles in
Science & Technology (QuST) to accelerate research on multiple states is called superposition,
Quantum computing. and the relationships among these
• Quantum Supremacy: In October, 2019 Google states is called entanglement.
announced that it had achieved "Quantum
Supremacy", meaning that they had used a quantum computer to quickly solve a problem within 200
seconds that a conventional computer would take an impractically long time (10, 000 years) to solve.
Google’s quantum computer is called Sycamore.
3.8 CONCEPTS OF AUGMENTED & VIRTUAL REALITY
3.8.1 AUGMENTED REALITY (AR)
• AR is a technology that layers computer-generated enhancements atop an existing reality in order to
make it more meaningful through the ability to interact with it.
• AR is an enhanced version of the real physical world that is achieved through the use of digital visual
elements, sound, or other sensory stimuli delivered via technology.
• It is developed into applications and used on mobile devices to blend digital components into the real
world in such a way that they enhance one another, but can also be told apart easily.
3.8.2 VIRTUAL REALITY (VR)
• VR is the term used to describe a three-dimensional, computer generated environment which can be
explored and interacted with by a person.
• VR is an artificial environment that is created with software and presented to the user in such a way that
the user suspends belief and accepts it as a real environment.
• It immerses the user by making them feel like they are experiencing the simulated reality firsthand,
primarily by stimulating their vision and hearing.

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• Whilst there, the user is able to manipulate objects or perform a series of actions.
3.8.3 AUGMENTED REALITY VS VIRTUAL REALITY
• Augmented reality and virtual reality are inverse reflections of one in another with what each technology
seeks to accomplish and deliver for the user.
• Virtual reality offers a digital recreation of a real life setting, while augmented reality delivers virtual
elements as an overlay to the real world.
3.8.4 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN AR VS VR
• Technology: They both leverage similar technology, and they each exist to serve the user with an
enhanced or enriched experience.
• Entertainment: Both technologies enable experiences that are becoming more commonly expected and
sought after for entertainment purposes.
• Science and Medicine: Both have great potential in changing the landscape of medical field by making
things such as remote surgeries a real possibility. These technologies are already being used to treat and
heal psychological conditions such as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.

PARAMETER AUGMENTED REALITY VIRTUAL REALITY

It is a mix of real world & virtual world. Creates its own reality that is completely
enhances real world experiences by adding computer generated and driven
Purpose virtual components such as digital images,
graphics, or sensations as a new layer of
interaction with the real world
Generally used in mobile devices such as Usually delivered to the user through a head-
Delivery laptops, smart phones and tablets to change mounted, or hand-held controller (for eg.
Method how the real world and digital images, helmets, goggles)
graphics intersect and interact.
It lets user interact with both worlds and The user is isolated from the real world while
User clearly distinguish between both. Users immersed in a world that is completely
Experience continue to be in touch with the real world fabricated. It is hard for the user to differentiate
while interacting with virtual objects. between what is real & what is not.

3.8.5 APPLICATIONS OF AUGMENTED REALITY

• Education: Can be used to embed text, images, and videos into the student's real time learning
environment.
• Language barriers: Helpful in development of translation applications that can interpret text in other
languages.
• Archaeology: It can be used by archaeologists to formulate possible site configurations from extant
structures.
• Commerce: It can be used to integrate print and video marketing. Besides, it can be used to display digital
content on top of real world magazines.

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• Medical: It can provide surgeons with real time patient monitoring data. Eg. Ultrasounds, endoscopy etc.
Microsoft HoloLens which can help doctors “see through” organs and tissues in the operating theatre.
This improves the outcome of reconstructive surgery for patients.
• Military: Virtual maps and 360° view camera imaging can aid soldier's navigation and improve battlefield
perspective.
• Informed tourism: Travelers can access real-time information of historical places just by pointing their
camera viewfinder to subjects.

3.9 SUPERCOMPUTERS & INDIA

• Supercomputers have a high level of computing performance compared
to a general purpose computer and performance measured in FLOPS One petaflop is a million
(floating point operations per second). billion floating point
• Supercomputer is a computer or an array of computers that act as one operations per second and is
collective machine capable of processing enormous amounts of data. a reflection of the computing
• Great speed and Great memory are the two prerequisites of a speed/capacity of a system.
supercomputer.
• Memory is averaged around 250000 times of the normal computer that is used on a daily basis.
• Since 2017, there are supercomputers which can perform over a hundred quadrillion FLOPS (petaFLOPS).
• Since November 2017, all of the world’s fastest 500 supercomputers run Linux-based operating systems.

3.9.1 JOURNEY OF SUPERCOMPUTERS IN INDIA • Centre for Development of

• India’s supercomputer programme initiated in the late 1980s, Advanced Computing (C-DAC) - It
when the United States ceased the export of a Cray is the premier R&D organization of
Supercomputer due to technology embargos. the Ministry of Electronics and
• This resulted in India setting up C-DAC in 1988, which in 1991, Information Technology (MeitY)
unveiled the prototype of PARAM 800, benchmarked at 5 for carrying out R&D in IT,
Gflops. This supercomputer was the second-fastest in the Electronics and associated areas.
world at that time. • The National Knowledge Network
• India is fast expanding its supercomputer facilities and (NKN) is a GoI initiative under
developing the capacity to manufacture its own Digital India programme which
supercomputers in the country. connects academic institutions and
National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) R&D labs over a high-speed
• Launch approved in 2015, and initiated for a period of 7 years network.
at an estimated cost of Rs.4500 crore.
• The mission is being implemented:
- Jointly by Department of Electronics and Information Technology (DeitY) and Department of Science
and Technology (DST).
- Through the C-DAC and Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru.
• Aim: The Mission envisages empowering the national academic and R&D institutions spread over the
country by installing a vast supercomputing grid comprising of more than 70 high-performance
computing facilities (HPCs)
- These supercomputers will also be networked on the National Supercomputing grid over the
National Knowledge Network (NKN).

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• Objectives:
National Supercomputing Mission:
- Create an ecosystem for positioning India as a major power
Application areas
for supercomputing and attain global competitiveness and
• Climate Modelling
self-reliance in HPC
• Weather Prediction
- Empower scientists & researchers with state-of-the-art
compute facilities for their cutting-edge research in respective • Aerospace Engineering
Domains. • Computational Biology Atomic
• The National Super Computing Mission (NSM) has rapidly boosted Energy Simulations
high power computing in the country through its various phases to • National Security/ Defence
meet the increasing computational demands of academia, Applications
researchers, MSMEs, and startups in areas like oil exploration, • Seismic Analysis
flood prediction as also genomics, and drug discovery. • Disaster Simulations and
• Param Shivay, the first supercomputer assembled indigenously Management Etc.
under the mission, was installed in IIT (BHU), followed by Param Shakti and Param Brahma at IIT-
Kharagpur and IISER, Pune, respectively.
• India has developed an Indigenous server (Rudra), which can meet the HPC requirements of all
governments and PSUs. This is the first time that a server system was made in India, along with the full
software stack developed by C-DAC.
• Fastest Supercomputers of India
- Recently the AI Supercomputer ‘AIRAWAT’, installed at C-DAC, Pune has been ranked 75th in the
world with the speed of 13,170 teraflops (Rpeak).
- PARAM Siddhi-AI computer ranked 131st in the global list. This too has been installed at C-DAC.
- Pratyush supercomputer: The machine secured the 169th position and has been installed at the
Indian Institute of Trpical Meteorology.
- Mihir: This supercomputer has been ranked 316th on the list. It is a Cray XC40 machine powered by
Xeon E5-2695v4 18C 2.1GHz, Aries interconnect and HPE. The supercomputer is installed at the
National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting.
• The salient achievements of the NSM are as follows:
- A total capacity of 24.83 PF HPC machines are built locally and commissioned across the country.
- Development of Rudra server board 1.0, Trinetra HPC interconnects, HPC system software stack 1.1
and various benchmarks (cloud, HPC) applications.
- 17500 people have been trained so far in High Performance Computing.

CURRENT CONNECT
• AIRAWAT is India's largest and fastest AI supercomputer, ranked 75th in the Top 500 Global Supercomputing
List.
• Installed at the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) in Pune, Maharashtra.
• Speed: 13,170 teraflops, running on Ubuntu 20.04.2 LTS operating system.
• Part of the National Program on Artificial Intelligence (NPAI), which aims to leverage transformative
technologies for inclusion, innovation, and social impact.
• India's other supercomputers in the Top 500 list: PARAM Siddhi-AI, Pratyush, and Mihir.
• India’s first supercomputer, PARAM 8000, was set up in 1991.
• PARAM Shivay, India’s first indigenously assembled supercomputer, was launched in 2019 under the National
Supercomputing Mission (NSM).

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UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

Q1. Consider the following communication Select the correct answer using the code given
technologies: below: (2020)
1. Closed-circuit Television (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only
2. Radio Frequency Identification (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
3. Wireless Local Area Network (c) 2, 4 and 5 only
Which of the above are considered Short-Range (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
devices/technologies? (2022)
Q5. Consider the following statements: A digital
(a) 1 and 2 only
signature is-
(b) 2 and 3 only
1. an electronic record that identifies the certifying
(c) 1 and 3 only
authority issuing it.
(d) 1, 2 and 3
2. used to serve as a proof of identity of an
Q2. With reference to "Software as a Service (SaaS)", individual to access information or server on the
consider the following statements: internet.
1. SaaS buyers can customise the user interface 3. an electronic method of signing an electronic
and can change data fields. document and ensuring that the original content
2. SaaS users can access their data through their is unchanged.
mobile devices. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
3. Outlook, Hotmail and Yahoo! Mail are forms of (2019)
SaaS. (a) 1 only
Which of the statements given above are correct? (b) 2 and 3 only
(2022) (c) 3 only
(a) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2 and 3 only
Q6. In the context of digital technologies for
(c) 1 and 3 only
entertainment, consider the following statements:
(d) 1, 2 and 3
1. In Augmented Reality (AR), a simulated
Q3. Consider the following activities: environment is created physical world is
1. Spraying pesticides on a crop field completely shut out. -
2. Inspecting the craters of active volcanoes 2. In Virtual Reality (VR) images generated from a
3. Collecting breath samples from spouting whales computer are projected, onto real-life objects or
for DNA analysis surroundings.
At the present level of technology, which of the 3. AR allows individuals to be present in the world
above activities can be successfully carried out by and improves the experience using the camera
using drones? (2020) of smartphone or PC.
(a) 1 and 2 only 4. VR closes the world, and transposes an
(b) 2 and 3 only individual, providing complete immersion
(c) 1 and 3 only experience.
(d) 1, 2 and 3 Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(2019)
Q4. With the present state of development, Artificial
(a) 1 and 2 only
Intelligence can effectively do which of the
(b) 3 and 4 only
following?
(c) 1, 2 and 3 only
1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial
(d) 4 only
units
2. Create meaningful short stories and songs Q7. With reference to communication technologies,
3. Disease diagnosis what is/ the difference/differences between LTE
4. Text-to-speech conversion (Long-Term Evolution) and VoLTE (Voice over Long-
5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy Term Evolution)?

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1. LTE is commonly marketed as 3G and VoLTE is of water in your overhead tank. After you take some
commonly marketed as advanced 3G. groceries from your refrigerator for making
2. LTE is data-only technology and VoLTE is voice- breakfast, it recognizes the shortage of stock in it
only technology and places an order for the supply of fresh grocery
Select the correct answer using the code given items. When you step out of your house and lock the
below: (2019) door, all lights, fans, geysers, and AC machines get
(a) 1 only switched off automatically. On your way to the
(b) 2 only office, your car warns you about traffic congestion
(c) Both 1 and 2 ahead and suggests an alternative route, and if you
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 are late for a meeting, it sends a message to your
office accordingly.
Q8. In the context of wearable technology, which of
In the context of emerging communication
the following tasks is/are accomplished by wearable
technologies, which one of the following terms best
devices?
applies to the above scenario? (2018)
1. Location identification of a person
(a) Border Gateway Protocol
2. Sleep monitoring of a person
(b) Internet of Things
3. Assisting the hearing impaired person
(c) Internet Protocol
Select the correct answer using the code given
(d) Virtual Private Network
below: (2019)
(a) 1 only Q12. In India, it is legally mandatory for which of the
(b) 2 and 3 only following to report cyber incidents?
(c) 3 only 1. Service providers
(d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Data centres
3. Body corporate
Q9. In which of the following areas can GPS
Select the correct answer using the code given
technology be used?
below: (2017)
1. Mobile phone operations
(a) 1 only
2. Banking operations
(b) 1 and 2 only
3. Controlling the power grids
(c) 3 only
Select the correct answer using the code given
(d) 1, 2 and 3
below: (2018)
(a) 1 only Q13. With reference to ‘Li-Fi’, recently in the news,
(b) 2 and 3 only which of the following statements is/are correct?
(c) 1 and 3 only 1. It uses light as the medium for high-speed data
(d) 1, 2 and 3 transmission.
2. It is a wireless technology and is several times
Q10. Consider the following pairs:
faster than 'Wi-Fi'.
Terms seen in news Context/Topic
Select the correct answer using the code given
1. Belle II experiment Artificial Intelligence
below. (2016)
2. Blockchain technology Digital/Cryptocurrency
(a) 1 only
3. CRISPR - Cas9 Particle Physics
(b) 2 only
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly
(c) Both 1 and 2
matched? (2018)
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 only Q14. Project Loon’, sometimes seen in the news, is
(c) 2 and 3 only related to: (2016)
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (a) waste management technology
(b) wireless communication technology
Q11. When the alarm of your smartphone rings in
(c) solar power production technology
the morning, you wake up and tap it to stop the
(d) water conservation technology
alarm which causes your geyser to be switched on
automatically. The smart mirror in your bathroom
shows the day's weather and also indicates the level

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Q15. With reference to 'Near Field Communication Q17. In addition to fingerprint scanning, which of the
(NFC) Technology', which of the following following can be used in the biometric identification
statements is/are correct? of a person?
1. It is a contactless communication technology 1. Iris scanning
that uses electromagnetic radio fields. 2. Retinal scanning
2. NFC is designed for use by devices which can be 3. Voice recognition
at a distance of even a metre from each other Select the correct answer using the code given
3. NFC can use encryption when sending sensitive below: (2014)
information. (a) 1 only
Select the correct answer using the code given (b) 2 and 3 only
below. (2015) (c) 1 and 3 only
(a) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 3 only
Q18. With reference to technologies for solar power
(c) 1 and 3 only
production, consider the following statements:
(d) 1, 2 and 3
1. 'Photovoltaics' is a technology that generates
Q16. Which of the following statements is/are electricity by direct conversion of light into
correct regarding National Innovation Foundation- electricity, while 'Solar Thermal' is a technology
India (NIF)? that utilizes the Sun's rays to generate heat
1. NIF is an autonomous body of the Department which is further used in electricity generation
of Science and Technology under the Central process.
Government. 2. Photovoltaics generates Alternating Current
2. NIF is an initiative to strengthen the highly (AC), while Solar Thermal generates Direct
advanced scientific research in India's premier Current (DC).
scientific institutions in collaboration with highly 3. India has manufacturing base for Solar Thermal
advanced foreign scientific institutions. technology, but not for Photovoltaics.
Select the correct answer using the code given Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
below: (2015) (2014)
(a) 1 only (a) 1 only
(b) 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) None

ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (d)
10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (a) 17. (d) 18. (a)

==========================================================================================

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4 ENERGY, NANOTECHNOLOGY AND ROBOTICS

MOST REPEATED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS
• Genetic Engineering-Biotechnology and Gene Editing, GM etc.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) & GENERATIVE AI
• Internet of Things (IoT) & Blockchain technology
• Quantum Computing
• Renewable Energy Technologies & Nuclear Technology- 3 stage nuclear prog, Fusion/Fission etc
• Augmented Reality (AR) & Virtual Reality (VR)
• Cybersecurity Technologies
• Nanotechnology
• 3D Printing
• Hydrogen Fuel Cells
• Facial Recognition Technology
• OLED and LEDs

FURTHER EXPECTED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS

• Autonomous Vehicles, Edge Computing, LIDAR, CLOUD SEEDING
• OLEDs & MICROLEDS (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE) DISPLAYS
• Smart Cities Technologies, Hyperloop System, Advanced Healthcare Technologies
• EXTENDED REALITY (XR) & DarkNet
• SMALL MODULAR REACTORS (SMR)
• 4D Printing, Advanced Manufacturing, Neuromorphic Computing, Industry 4.0 & Robotics
• Green Technologies and Sustainable Development
• Precision Agriculture Technologies & Synthetic Biology
• Renewable Energy Technologies-Latest Developments
• Latest Nobel Prizes

ENERGY
4.1 ATOMS AND MOLECULES
READ MORE AT :
• Atom is the smallest unit of an element.
//ECONOMICTIMES .INDIATIMES .COM/ARTICLESHOW It is made of a
/61581900. CMS?UTM_SOURCE=CONTENTOFI
Nucleus at the centre and a negatively charged (-ve)
NTEREST &UTM_MEDIUM=TEXT &UTM_CAMPAIGN =CPPST
electron cloud.
• The mass of an atom is concentrated in extremely small
region within an atom, called the Nucleus. It comprises
neutrons and protons.
• Thus, atomic mass of an atom = number pf neutrons +
number of protons.
• The nucleus is surrounded by the electrons that move
around the Nucleus in a circular orbit, at a very high speed.
The chemical property if an element is determined by the
number of electrons.
• Electrons & Nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
• Protons have a positive charge, Electrons have a negative charge, and Neutrons do not carry any charge.
Thus, Nucleus of an atom is positively charged due to protons.

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• Molecules are neutral group of 2 or more atoms. All elements (except Inert gases) exist in the form of
molecules. An Atom may not be able to exist in isolation as it is not stable, except Inert gases.
Grasping Key Terms
• Atomic Mass Number:
- It is the total number of Protons and Neutrons present in the Nucleus of an element.
- Atomic Mass it is always relative w.r.t. Hydrogen. Hydrogen atomic mass is considered 1 unit, and all
other atoms of different elements is calculated w.r.t. Hydrogen. E.g. Oxygen atom is 16 times heavier
than Hydrogen, thus its atomic mass is 16 atomic mass units
• Atomic Number: It is the total number of Protons present in the Nucleus of an element. (Note: Number of
protons are equal to number of electrons in an atom)
• Isotopes: Those elements that have same atomic number but different mass number. This means that
difference between two isotopes is due to the difference in the number of Neutrons.
- 3 isotopes of Carbon – C-12, C-13, C-14 (atomic no. remains the same ie. 6)
- 3 isotopes of Hydrogen – H-1, H–2, H–3 (atomic no. remains the same ie. 1)
• Isobars: Those elements that have different Atomic number but same mass number. E.g. Ca20:40, Ar18:40.
• Isotones: Those elements that have same number of Neutrons. E.g. Si14:29, P15:30.

4.2 RADIOACTIVITY
• Radioactivity refers to the particles which are emitted from nuclei as a result of nuclear instability. It is
also known as Nuclear Decay.
• In nature, the nuclei of most atoms are stable. However, certain atoms have unstable nuclei due to an
excess of either protons or neutrons, or an excess of both. They are described as radioactive, and are
known as radioisotopes or radionuclides.
• Thus, radioactivity occurs due to an unstable nucleus, which is because of very high atomic mass.
• Radioactive elements are found naturally and are also artificially developed.
• Normally, when the number of neutrons is equal to Point To Note
the number of protons, the nucleus is more stable. • All Elements with Atomic Number > 82 (Atomic
But, the nucleus becomes unstable when number of No. of Lead) are unstable, and hence,
neutrons increase disproportionately higher than radioactive. For eg. Uranium, Thorium, Radium
number of protons. etc.
• An unstable nucleus will decompose spontaneously, • All Elements with Atomic Number > 92 (Atomic
No. of Uranium) disintegrate into other
or decay, into a more stable configuration, but will do
elements. Thus, are not present naturally in
so only in a few specific ways ie. by emitting certain environment (but can be artificially created).
particles or certain forms of electromagnetic energy. • The uranium atom is the heaviest atom
• In Sum, Very High Atomic Mass ➔ Unstable Nucleus present in the natural environment.
➔ Radioactive Decay (emitting radiations). • Smallest Radioactive element – Tritium (H-3).
• The nuclei of radioactive atoms change spontaneously
into other atomic nuclei, which may or may not be radioactive.
• For example, Uranium-238 changes into a succession of different radioactive nuclei until it reaches a
stable form, lead-206. This irreversible transformation of a radioactive atom into a different type of atom
is known as disintegration. It is accompanied by the emission of different types of radiation.

4.3 RADIOACTIVE RADIATIONS AND RADIOCARBON DATING

4.3.1 RADIOACTIVE RADIATION
• The radioactive radiation one typically encounters is one of four types - alpha radiation, beta radiation,
gamma and X radiation.

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A. Alpha Radiation
• Alpha radiation is a positively charged helium atom, and is a heavy, very short-range particle.
• It has the least penetrating power, can be stopped by a sheet of paper. Most alpha radiation is not able
to penetrate the human skin.
• Alpha-emitting materials can be harmful to humans if the materials are inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed
through open wounds.
• A thin-window Geiger-Mueller (GM) probe can detect the presence of alpha radiation.
• Alpha radiation travels only a short distance (a few inches) in air, but is not an external hazard.
• Examples of some alpha emitters: radium, radon, uranium, thorium.
B. Beta Radiation
• Beta radiation is a negatively charged electron, and is a light, short-range particle.
• Beta radiation may travel several feet in air and have more penetrating power, can pass through paper
but cannot pass through body tissues, and can also be stopped by aluminium sheet.
• Beta radiation can penetrate human skin to the ‘germinal layer’, where new skin cells are produced.
• If high levels of beta-emitting contaminants are allowed to remain on the skin for a prolonged period of
time, they may cause skin injury.
• Beta-emitting contaminants may be harmful if deposited internally.
• Most beta emitters can be detected with a survey instrument and a thin-window GM probe (e.g.,
‘pancake’ type).
• Clothing provides some protection against beta radiation.
• Examples of some pure beta emitters: strontium-90, carbon-14, tritium, and sulfur-35.
C. Gamma and X Radiation
• Gamma radiation (neutral, have no charge & mass) and x rays are highly penetrating electromagnetic
radiation.
• Gamma radiation or x rays are able to travel many feet in air and many inches in human tissue. They
readily penetrate most materials and are sometimes called "penetrating" radiation.
• Sealed radioactive sources and machines that emit gamma radiation and X rays respectively constitute
mainly an external hazard to humans.
• Gamma radiation and X rays are electromagnetic radiation like visible light, radiowaves, and ultraviolet
light. These electromagnetic radiations differ only in the amount of energy they have. Gamma rays and
X rays are the most energetic of these.
• Dense materials are needed for shielding from gamma radiation, for example a sheet of lead.
• Gamma radiation is easily detected by survey meters with a sodium iodide detector probe.
• Gamma radiation or X rays frequently accompany the emission of alpha and beta radiation during
radioactive decay.
• Examples of some gamma emitters: iodine-131, cesium-137, cobalt-60, radium-226, and technetium-
99m.

4.3.2 RADIOCARBON DATING

• Radioactivity is measured in several different units, but they are all related to a single basic characteristic
of radioactive materials -ie. the rate at which they "decay."
• Radioactive decay rates are normally stated in terms of their half-lives, i.e., the time required for one-
half of any given quantity of the isotope to decay.
• There are two "special" units of radioactivity. One is called the Becquerel and is equal to 1 decay per
second. The other special unit is called the Curie.
• Radiocarbon dating is a method which provides objective age estimates for carbon-based objects that
originated from living organisms.

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• Any radioactive nucleus acts as a clock. It’s an application of radioactive half-life as half-life period is
unaffected by temperature, physical or chemical state. Thus, this property can be used to identify age of
archaeological, organic or inorganic specimens.
• The most common of the radioactive dating techniques currently in use involves the isotope 14 of
carbon, the radiocarbon.
• Radiocarbon dating is essentially a method designed to measure residual radioactivity.
• Radiocarbon dating works by comparing the three different isotopes of carbon. Isotopes of a particular
element have the same number of protons in their nucleus, but different numbers of neutrons. This
means that although they are very similar chemically, they have different masses.
• Plants and animals assimilate carbon 14 from carbon dioxide throughout their lifetimes. When they die,
they stop exchanging carbon with the biosphere and their carbon 14 content then starts to decrease at
a rate determined by the law of radioactive decay.
4.4 TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS: NUCLEAR FISSION & FUSION REACTIONS

4.4.1 NUCLEAR FISSION

• Nuclear fission occurs when an unstable nucleus of a heavy atom splits into two lighter weight nuclei,
releasing free neutrons and tremendous amount of energy.
• The nucleus can either be naturally unstable, or instability may be deliberately induced through
bombardment by a neutron (for eg. in a reactor).
• Absorbed neutrons bring about further fission and start the chain reaction.
• Uranium and plutonium are most commonly used for fission reactions in nuclear power reactors because
they are easy to initiate and control.

Critical Mass – It is the minimum quantity of radioactive material required to start a chain reaction. Different
isotopes have different critical masses (for e.g. U-238, U-235, U-233 have different critical masses). Nuclear weapons
become defunct after a time period as the radioactive material slowly decays to reach below is critical mass.
CURRENT CONNECT
• Fission Molybdenum-99: A Molybdenum-99 production facility was inaugurated at the Trombay Campus of
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre.
• Molybdenum-99 is the parent isotope of Technetium-99m (Tc-99m).
• Tc-99m is a short-lived, gamma-emitting isotope.
• Tc-99m is widely used in nuclear medicine procedures.
• It can be chemically incorporated into small molecule ligands and proteins.

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• The production of Tc-99m starts with neutron irradiation of fissile U-235 in highly enriched uranium.

4.4.2 NUCLEAR FUSION

• Nuclear Fusion occurs when
smaller Nuclei fuse into one
large Nucleus of atomic nuclei
to form a heavier nuclei,
resulting in the release of
enormous amounts of energy.
• Nuclear fusion is the one that
powers the sun and the stars.
• Inside the sun, fusion reactions
take place at very high
temperatures and enormous
gravitational pressures.
• E.g. Solar energy, hydrogen
bomb, ITER reaction (artificial
Sun).
• The energy released is several
times the amount produced
from fission.
• Nuclear fusion occurs naturally on solar core and is also regarded as a better way of producing energy as
it leaves no radioactive substance or waste. Thus, it is cleaner than nuclear fission.
• By-products are water and helium, thus, not dangerous.
• Fusion reactions are being studied by scientists, but are difficult to sustain for long periods of time
because of the tremendous amount of pressure and temperature needed to join the nuclei together.
Additional Details
• On the basis of energy released, any nuclear reaction can further be divided as Controlled or
Uncontrolled reaction.
• Both Nuclear Fission and Fusion can be divided as Controlled or Uncontrolled.
• Controlled Nuclear Fission reaction is one in which the energy released can be controlled through man
made mechanisms. E.g. Nuclear power plants.
• Uncontrolled Nuclear Fission Reactions are those in which the energy released can’t be controlled. The
intent of such reaction is to produce maximum energy. E.g. Atom Bomb
• Controlled Nuclear Fusion: Efforts are made by using Deuterium (D) and Tritium (T) as fuel but it needs
very high pressure and temperature.
- At high temperature, the gases are completely ionized to form plasma. When plasma is heated, it
produces more energy and the reaction is continued.
• Uncontrolled Nuclear Fusion: for eg. Hydrogen Bomb. Generally D-T Reaction is used in Hydrogen bomb.
- If hydrogen bomb is enclosed in cobalt metallic sheet, cobalt is pulverized and converted into big
radioactive cloud which kills everything in the region it travels (Rigged Hydrogen Bomb AKA Hell
Bomb).

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4.5 FUNCTIONING OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR

• A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting the atoms of certain
elements.
• In a nuclear power reactor, the energy released is used as heat to make steam to generate electricity.
• Nuclear plants are different because they do not burn anything to create steam. Instead, they split
uranium atoms in a process called fission. As a result, unlike other energy sources, nuclear power plants
do not release carbon or pollutants like nitrogen and sulphur oxides into the air.
• Nuclear reactors are designed to sustain an ongoing chain reaction of fission; they are filled with a
specially designed, solid uranium fuel and surrounded by water, which facilitates the process.
• Uranium is the basic fuel in the nuclear reactors. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are arranged in
tubes to form fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor core.
• When the reactor starts, the uranium atoms split, releasing neutrons and heat. Those neutrons will hit
other uranium atoms causing them to split and continue the process, generating more neutrons and
more heat.

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• Moderator is the material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that they
cause more fission.
• Control rods or blades are made with neutron-absorbing material, and are inserted or withdrawn from
the core to control or stop the rate of reaction.

4.5.1 ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS IN A NUCLEAR POWER REACTOR

A. Moderator
• Meant for controlling (slowing) the Speed of fast moving Neutrons, so that they can get more time to
react with U-235 nucleus, in order to trigger the fission reaction.
• Most commonly used Moderators
- Heavy Water or Deutarium Oxide (D2O), considered as the best moderator.
- Graphite
B. Coolant
• It is a substance that is circulated through the nuclear reactor to take out the heat energy produced in
the reactor as steam to generate electricity.
• It is responsible for maintenance of heat, as ambient service temperature is very essential.
• Types of Coolant
- Liquid Sodium Metal
- Heavy Water
- Normal Water
• Why most Nuclear Plants are near the Coasts because of mainly for easy access to water that is circulated
for heat control. In Kudankullam, ocean water is used as a coolant.
C. Control Rods/ Absorbent Rods
• To absorb the excess neutrons so that nuclear reaction does not get out of control.
• Types of Control rods:
- Boron and Cadmium are a very popular materials used as control rods for Uranium.
- Molybdenum is popularly used for plutonium reactors.
D. Nuclear Fuel – Read Ahead
4.6 FISSIONABLE, FISSILE & FERTILE NUCLEAR FUEL
4.6.1 FISSILE MATERIAL
• Fissile is material that is capable of self-sustaining a nuclear fission chain reaction after absorbing slow
or low energy neutron. For eg. U-233, U-235, and Pu-239.
4.6.2 FISSIONABLE MATERIAL
• Material that is capable of undergoing fission after capturing either high-energy (fast) neutrons or low-
energy thermal (slow) neutrons.
• Although formerly used as a synonym for fissile material, fissionable materials also include those (such
as uranium-238) that can be fissioned only with high-energy neutrons.
• As a result, fissile materials (such as U-235) are a subset of fissionable materials.
• Thus, U-238 is fissionable, but not fissile.
• Typical fissionable materials: 238U, 240Pu, 235U, 233U, 239Pu, 241Pu.

4.6.3 FERTILE MATERIAL

• A material, which is not fissile (ie. fissionable by slow/low energy neutrons), but that can be converted
into a fissile material by bombardment of neutrons in a reactor.
• There are two basic fertile materials: uranium-238 and thorium-232. When these fertile materials
capture or absorb neutrons, they are converted (or transmuted) into fissile plutonium-239 and uranium-
233, respectively.

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4.6.4 TYPES OF NUCLEAR FUEL

A. Uranium & Uranium Enrichment
• Uranium is the most common fuel used in nuclear reactors to generate electricity as well as to make
nuclear weapons.
• Naturally occurring uranium, mainly comprises 2 isotopes - Uranium 238 (99.3%) & Uranium 235 (0.7%).
• But U-238, which is abundant in nature is not fissile, meaning its nucleus cannot be split in a way that can
sustain a chain reaction, and cannot be used as fuel in nuclear reactor.
• U-235, which is highly fissile, is scarce in nature.
• Thus, to be used in nuclear reactors, natural uranium must be ‘enriched’ with uranium-235 that can
sustain fission chain reactions. ie. increase the content of fissile U-235 in naturally occurring Uranium.
• Enrichment process is performed by a Centrifuge. More enrichment means more uranium-235 nuclei are
available to be split, which in turn means greater heat and energy can be generated.
• Enrichment
- High Enriched Uranium (HEU) – Enrichment greater than 20%.
- Low Enriched Uranium (LEU) - Enrichment less than 20%.
- Slightly Enriched Uranium (SEU) – Enriched between 0.9-2%.
• Even a small amount of enrichment, in the range of 3% to 5%, called “low enrichment” (LEU), is enough
to run nuclear power reactors for energy generation, which allows only controlled fission reactions.
• For making nuclear weapons, “highly enriched” uranium (HEU) — with more than 90% U-235 is needed.
• Uranium serves a Fuel for Stage 1 in Nuclear power programme.
• In the 1st stage of India’s Nuclear Programme the by-product/effluent is Pu-239 (Plutonium) + Natural
Uranium.
• Here Pu-239, which is fissile material, is separated, and is eventually used as fuel in Stage 2.
B. Plutonium
• Atomic No.: 94, rare earth element, i.e. not naturally occurring.
• Found in the form of 6 Isotopes: Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240
• Where Pu-239 which is most unstable and is Fissile for Nuclear Bombs.
• Stage 1 effluent i.e. Pu-239 + U (Effluent Material) is the only source of Plutonium on Earth.
• Pu-239 + 1 neutron = Pu-240 i.e. less unstable, and is fissile for electricity.

THE NUCLEAR BOMB

• There are two paths to the nuclear bomb. One is using uranium and the other using plutonium.
• In the first, uranium is enriched to the weapons grade level using centrifuges.
• The high-purity uranium will then be converted into uranium metal that will be used for the bomb.
• In the second method, plutonium, produced as a waste material by heavy water reactors, will be reprocessed
to enhance its purity.
• This pure plutonium will then be melted into a liquid form to be used for the bomb.
C. Thorium
• Ore: Monazite. Most abundantly found radioactive material in the nature, richly found on the Malabar
coast of India.
• Th-232 is non fissile, thus has to be converted to U233, which is a fissile fuel. Thus, Thorium is a fertile
fuel.
• By absorbing 1 Neutron and 2 Beta Particle decay, thorium can be converted to Uranium 233.
• U-233 is NOT Natural Uranium since it is made from Thorium.
• Thorium is more reliable for future energy security as it is abundant and non fissile which reduces the
risk of fuel theft and even draw less international attention.

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4.7 ENRICHMENT OF NUCLEAR FUEL

• There are several enrichment processes utilized worldwide:

1. Gaseous Diffusion: Gaseous diffusion was the first commercial process used in the United States to
enrich uranium. These facilities utilized massive amounts of electricity and as the centrifuge
technology matured the existing gaseous diffusion plants became obsolete. Worldwide they have all
been replaced by second-generation technology, which requires far less electric power to produce
equivalent amounts of separated uranium. These facilities are now considered obsolete.
2. Gas Centrifuge: Gas centrifuge enrichment is the current process by which commercial enrichment
is being performed in the United States.
3. Laser Separation: The laser separation technology is under development for possible use to enrich
uranium. Uranium can be enriched by separating isotopes of uranium with lasers. Molecules can be
excited by laser light; called photoexcitation. Lasers can increase the energy in the electrons of a
specific isotope, changing its properties and allowing it to be separated.
4.8 TYPES OF NUCLEAR FISSION REACTORS
4.8.1 NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS
Presently, India has 23 operating Nuclear Power reactors, with an installed capacity of 7480 MW. Nuclear power
in the total electricity generation in the country was about 2.8% in the year 2022-23.
A. Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)
• PWR uses specially built reactor where in the pressure inside the reactor core is greater than atmospheric
pressure. This prevents the water from boiling and allows the water to attain greater temperatures.
• The hot water that leaves the pressure vessel is looped through a steam generator, which in turn heats
a secondary loop of water to steam, that can run turbines and generator. (BWRs ie. Boiling water reactors
don’t have any steam generator).
• Indian PWRs: INS Arihant and Kudankulam Plant in Tamil Nadu use a PWR.
B. Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)
• Uses heavy water (D2O) as both moderator and coolant. It is also referred to as CANDU reactor.
• The use of Deuterium instead of Hydrogen gives a neutron to better perform the moderation and also
increases the probability of a chain reaction.
• PHWR is used in stage 1 of nuclear reactor to convert U-238 ie natural (unenriched) uranium to
Plutonium (P-239).

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• Indian PHWRs: Tarapur (Maharashtra), Kota

(Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (T.N), Narora (U.P),
Kakrapar (Gujarat) and Kaiga (Karnataka).
C. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
• BWR uses boiling water to generate electricity.
In this the water boils in the reactors itself (in its
core), rather than in the heat exchanger
• Fukushima Daichi was the first such BWR.
• Indian BWRs: Tarapur (Maharashtra)
D. Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR)
• In FBR, there is more fissile material after the
reaction than before it. Thus, reaction is called
breeder reaction (breeds more fissile material).
• Since neutrons are not slowed down, it is called
“Fast”.
• In contrast to most normal nuclear reactors, a
fast reactor uses a coolant that is not an efficient
moderator, such as liquid sodium, so the
neutrons remain high-energy.
• Although these fast neutrons are not as good at causing fission, they are readily captured by U-238, which
then becomes plutonium (Pu-239).
• These reactors are designed to maximize plutonium production and produce more fuel than they
consume (Breed). Pu-239 is formed in every reactor and also fissions as the reactor operate.
• FBR are used in Stage 2 of Indian nuclear power programme to convert U-238 to Pu-239 (by using
reprocessed plutonium from Stage 1).
• Liquid sodium is used as coolant.
• India’s Prototype FBR BHAVINI is being built at Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu)
Need for Breeder Reactor
• As India mostly uses Uranium 235, which is normally imported, cheaper sources of nuclear fuel are
needed. Thus, Breeder reactors are a good alternative.
• Breeders Reactors are quite popular as they improve the quality of the fuel. In fact, produces more fuel
than they consume.
• But it has been found to be more expensive, thus indigenization of development of Breeder reactor
technology is a legitimate option for India.
E. Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR)
• AHWR is used for stage 3 of Indian Nuclear Power Programme to use Thorium based fuel (Thorium-
Uranium 233).
• The aim is to finally build thorium-based reactors due to abundance of thorium in India.
• It is currently being developed by BARC (300 MWe), and is at technology demonstration stage.
F. Light Water Reactor (LWR)
• Also called VVER (ie. “Voda Voda Energo Reactor” meaning water-cooled, water moderated energy
reactor).
• They use normal water as both moderator and coolant.
• They require the use of enriched fuel.
• Depending on the type of technology employed they are further divided into Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
and Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR).

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• Two Light Water Reactors of 1000 MWe VVER units are being installed at Kudankulam (T.N) in
collaboration with the Russian Federation. These VVER reactors belong to the family of the Pressurised
Water Reactors (PWRs).
G. European Power Reactor (EPR)
• Third generation pressurized water reactor (PWR) designed in France, Germany and England.
• EPR design has several active and passive protection measures against accidents:
- Four independent emergency cooling systems, providing the required cooling of the decay heat that
continues for 1 to 3 years after the reactor's initial shutdown,
- Leak tight containment around the reactor &
- an extra container and cooling area if a molten core manage to escape the reactor.
- Two-layer concrete wall which is designed to withstand impact by airplanes and internal
overpressure.
• The EPR was designed to use uranium more efficiently than older Generation II reactors, using
approximately 17% less uranium per unit of electricity generated than these older reactor technologies.
• In India, EPRs are being set up at Jaitapur, Maharashtra.
4.8.2 NUCLEAR RESEARCH REACTORS
The Research Reactors are used to develop radioisotopes for use in Agriculture, Industries, Medicines etc. They
include:
• Apsara, Cirus, Dhruva, Kamini, Purnima – I, II & III, Zerlina, Apsara U etc.
• Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
• KAMINI (Kalpakkam Mini reactor) in Kalpakkam is the world’s only thorium-based experimental
reactor. It achieved criticality in 1996. Designed & built jointly by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
(BARC) & Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), it produces 30 KW of thermal energy at full
power.
Cyclone – 30:
• Biggest cyclotron facility in India, located at Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre, Kolkata under DAE.
• Cyclotron an accelerator in which charged particles such as protons, deuterons, or ions are propelled by an
alternating electric field in a constant magnetic field). It is to produce Fluorine-18, a radio pharmaceutical.
• It will also produce Germanium-68, Palladium- 103 used for Breast Cancer and Prostrate Cancer treatment
respectively.

4.9 INDIA’S THREE STAGE NUCLEAR ENERGY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

• India has consciously proceeded to explore the possibility of tapping nuclear energy for the purpose of
power generation and the Atomic Energy Act was framed and implemented with the set objectives of
using two naturally occurring elements Uranium and Thorium having good potential to be utilized as
nuclear fuel in Indian Nuclear Power Reactors.
• The estimated natural deposits of these elements in India are: Natural Uranium deposits - 70,000 tonnes
and Thorium deposits - 3,60,000 tonnes.
• Indian Nuclear Power Generation envisages a three Stage Programme. Dr. Homi Babha, the father of
Indian Nuclear Programme, designed the stages of Nuclear Power generation.
• 1st Stage:
- Fuel: Natural Uranium (U-238, U-235)
- Reactor: PHWR (Pressurized Heavy water Reactor)
- Moderator: D2O (Heavy water)
- Coolant: D2O (Heavy water)
- Process: U-235 + U-238 = Pu-239 (The Plutonium is fissile and, thus, extracted and used for stage 2).

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• 2nd Stage:
- Fuel: Plutonium (Pu-239)
- Reactor: FBR (Fast Breeder Reactor)
- Moderator: No
- Coolant: Liquid sodium
- Process:
✓ U-238 + Pu 239 = More Pu 239
(breeder reaction).
✓ Pu 239 + Th 232 = U-233

New Energy Parks in India:

1. Kudankulam: Tamil Nadu
2. Jaitapur: Maharashtra
3. Mithi Virdi: Gujarat
4. Kovvada: AP
5. Haripur: WB
6. Bargi or Chuttka: MP
7. Samarkand: Odisha
8. Kumharia (Haryana) or Gorakhpur (UP)

• 3rd Stage:
- Fuel: Thorium (Th 232)
- Reactor: earlier AHWR (Advanced Heavy Water Reactor), now TBR (Thorium Breeder Reactor)
- Moderator: Heavy Water
- Coolant: Light Water
- Process: U-233 +Th 232 = U-233

4.10 INTERNATIONAL THERMONUCLEAR EXPERIMENTAL REACTOR (ITER)

• ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) is an
• Synlight Experiment by Germany
international Nuclear “Fusion” research and engineering project
was recently revealed as another
that aims to build World’s first Fusion reactor at Cadarache,
Artificial Sun.
France.
• It is powered by 149 industrial-
• ITER (the Latin word for "The Way") is intended to prove the
grade film projector spotlights.
viability of fusion as an energy source.
• It produces 10000 times the
• Joint Venture of 7 countries: India, USA, Russia, European
intensity of solar radiations at
Union, China, Japan and South Korea.
earth’s surface.
• It will not produce electricity, but it will resolve critical scientific
• It is capable of producing heat up
and technical issues in order to take fusion to the point where
to 3500 degree Celsius. It does
industrial applications can be designed.
NOT use Nuclear energy.
• It intends to replicate the Nuclear fusion process inside the
sun’s surface on the earth’s surface.
• On the surface of the Sun, due to very high temperature, the smaller hydrogen atoms combine to form
helium and huge amount of energy is liberated.
• To attain this condition on earth a “Tokamak” (meaning ‘Sun’ in Russian) reactor is used to heat the
plasma.
• ITER is likely to be completed by 2025. Overall Cost is expected to be $ 20 bn.
• India’s Contribution
- Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), Gandhinagar, is the Indian Domestic Agency to design, build and
deliver the Indian in-kind contribution to ITER.

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- India is contributing 9% in ITER by manufacturing necessary equipments. (China, Japan, Korea Russia,
& USA contributing 9%, EU’s contribution – 45.5%)
- It is providing world’s largest refrigerator maintaining -269 degree Celsius for magnet (CRYOSTAT,
manufactured by Larsen and Toubro).
4.11 NUCLEAR SCIENCE APPLICATIONS
4.11.1 APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR RADIATIONS IN HEALTH CARE
• Some techniques enable physicians to see inside the human body creating digital images using short-
lived radioisotopes. These are called diagnostic techniques.
• Others which enable targeted and precise radiation treatment of cancer are therapeutic techniques.
• Radio therapy (also called radiation therapy) is a cancer treatment that uses high doses of radiation to
kill cancer cells and shrink tumours. At low doses, radiation is used in x-rays to see inside human body,
as with x-rays of teeth or broken bones.
• In general, radiation and radioisotopes find applications in the following categories of health care:
1) External beam therapy: for controlling or eliminating cancerous growths formed by rapidly dividing
cells.
2) Brachytherapy: It is an advanced cancer treatment wherein radioactive seeds or sources are placed
in or near the tumor itself, giving a high radiation dose to the tumor, while reducing the radiation
exposure in the surrounding healthy tissues.
3) Nuclear medicine: Use of radiation emitted by radioisotopes. Detecting these emissions and
transforming them into images is the basis of nuclear medicine techniques.
4) Radiation Sterilization of health care products: The ability of gamma radiation to kill microorganisms
is effectively made use of in radiation sterilization of various medical products such as disposable
syringes, surgical sutures, cotton dressing, drugs and related products etc.
4.11.2 NUCLEAR AGRICULTURE & FOOD AND AGRO COMMODITIES
A. Gamma Radiation
• BARC develops high yielding seed varieties by inducing mutations using Gamma radiation.
• Gamma radiation only accelerates the mutations which otherwise occurs naturally over a much longer
periods of time.
• Mutations can be in such a way that the crops
mature early, to withstand biotic and abiotic
stresses and to obtain better nutritional quality.
B. Food irradiation
• It is similar to pasteurization. It controls spoilage
and eliminates food borne pathogens.
• The only difference between food irradiation and
pasteurization is the source of the energy used to
destroy the microbes. While conventional
pasteurization relies on heat, irradiation relies on the energy of ionizing radiation.
• In food irradiation, approved foods are exposed to gamma rays, electron beams or x-rays.
• Irradiation can serve many purposes:
- Prevention of Foodborne Illness – to effectively eliminate organisms that cause foodborne illness,
such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli (E. coli).
- Preservation – to destroy or inactivate organisms that cause spoilage and decomposition and extend
the shelf life of foods.
- Delay of Sprouting and Ripening – to inhibit sprouting (e.g., potatoes) and delay ripening of fruit to
increase longevity.

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• Irradiation of potatoes, onions, mangoes, meat and other food products is done in government-approved
irradiation facilities.
• Point to Note:
- Irradiation does not make foods radioactive, compromise nutritional quality, or noticeably change
the taste, texture, or appearance of food.
- In fact, any changes made by irradiation are so minimal that it is not easy to tell if a food has been
irradiated.

4.12 SMALL MODULAR REACTORS (SMR)

• These are a type of nuclear fission reactor, which is used for power generation, and are smaller than
conventional nuclear reactors.
• Capacity: of up to 300 MW(e) per unit (1/3rd of the power capacity of conventional nuclear power
reactors).
• Types of SMRs:
- Thermal-Neutron Reactors: It utilizes a moderator to slow neutrons and typically use Uranium 235
(U235) as a fissile material. This is the case for the vast majority of conventionally operating reactors.
- Fast Reactors: Moderators are not used by fast reactors. They instead depend on the fuel to absorb
faster neutrons.
• Technologies behind SMRs:
- Cooling the Reactor: In this, water is used as a coolant in conventional reactors. SMRs can be cooled
with water, liquid metal, gas, or molten salt.
- Power Generation: Rather than boiling water, several gas-cooled reactor designs propel a gas-
powered turbine. Thermal energy could be used directly without the need for conversion.
- Load Adjustment: SMR
designs can either
provide constant power
or tweak their output
based on demand.
- Nuclear waste: SMRs
generate more
radioactive waste than
conventional nuclear
power plants.
• Operational SMRs: In 2020,
the first prototype of a
floating nuclear power plant (Akademik Lomonosov) with two 30 MWe reactors started operation in
Russia.
• Advantages:
- SMRs can be factory-built (manufactured off-site), unlike the conventional nuclear reactors built
on–site, which can contribute to reduced build costs and increased containment efficiency.
- Simpler and Safer due to reduced fuel requirements.
- Particularly useful for power generation in remote locations.
- SMRs, by design, need fewer staff for location assembly, maintenance, and operation.
- They have greater control, generating lower amounts of electricity when demand is reduced.
- Promising technology in industrial de-carbonization, especially where there is a requirement for a
reliable and continuous supply of power.

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4.13 HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

Fuel cell technology:

• A fuel cell is a device that converts
chemical energy into electrical
energy.
• It uses hydrogen gas and oxygen gas
as fuel to generate electricity.
However, there is no combustion
involved. Oxidation of the hydrogen
instead takes place
electrochemically in a very efficient
way.
• During oxidation, hydrogen atoms
react with oxygen atoms to form
water; in the process electrons are
released and flow through an
external circuit as an electric current.
• The products of the reaction in the
cell are water, electricity, and heat ➔ Hydrogen + Oxygen = Electricity + Water Vapor (heat) ➔ Clean
Energy
• Every fuel cell has two electrodes called, anode and cathode. The reactions that produce electricity take
place at the electrodes.
• Every fuel cell also has an electrolyte, which carries electrically charged particles from one electrode to the
other, and a catalyst, which speeds the reactions at the electrodes.
• Fuel cells can vary from tiny devices producing only a few watts of electricity, right up to large power plants
producing megawatts.
• Additional Note: Germany has rolled out world’s first hydrogen fuel cell powered trains called Coradia
iLint.

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL (HFC): ADVANTAGES

• Zero-Emission Power: HFCs produce no harmful emissions, eliminating the costs associated with handling
and storing toxic materials like battery acid or diesel fuel.
• Robust Reliability: It has proven itself against tough conditions, including cold environments, hurricanes,
deserts, and even the hardworking business environments of material handling warehouses.
• Improved Efficiency: Hydrogen fuel cells are generally between 40% to 60% energy efficient, compared to
25% energy efficiency of internal combustion engine of a car.
• Economical: They eliminate the need to change, charge, and manage batteries, subsequently reducing
labour, time, space, and peak power demands.
• Scalable: They may be engineered precisely to meet a variety of customer power needs - whether for on-
road electric vehicles, material handling fleets, or stationary power.
HYDROGEN-POWERED FUEL-CELL ELECTRIC VEHICLES
• A fuel-cell electric vehicle (FCEV) is a hybrid electric vehicle where the internal combustion engine is
replaced with a fuel-cell stack.
• The hydrogen, stored in high-pressure tanks, is sent through the fuel-cell wherein it is combined with
oxygen, resulting in the production of water & electricity (that is used to run the Vehicle, with water being
the waste).
• Unlike a battery-electric vehicle, which needs to be charged from external sources (once exhausted), a fuel-
cell electric vehicle produces its electricity onboard.

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• Unlike the combustion engine cars, FCEV have no moving parts in the fuel cell, so they are more efficient
and reliable by comparison.
4.14 LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES

Introduction:
• Lithium-ion battery is a family of rechargeable battery types.
• A rechargeable lithium-ion battery is made of one or more
power-generating compartments called cells.
• Each cell has essentially three components: a positive
electrode, a negative electrode and a chemical called an
electrolyte in between them.
• Mechanism: It uses aqueous electrolyte solutions, where
ions transfer to and from between the anode (negative
electrode: graphite) and cathode (positive electrode:
lithium), triggering the recharge and discharge of electrons.
• Difference between lithium and lithium-ion (Li-ion)
batteries: Lithium batteries are single-use and cannot be
recharged once exhausted, while lithium-ion batteries are
rechargeable and can be charged and emptied hundreds of times.
• Note: India is largely dependent on imports of lithium-ion batteries from China.
LITHIUM
• A chemical element with the symbol Li.
• Key features: Soft, silvery-white metal.
- Low Density: About half that of water, least dense of the solid elements (Lightest Metal & Lightest Solid
element)
- Stored in mineral oil due to being highly reactive and flammable.
- An alkali metal and a rare metal.
• Largest Reserves in the world: Chile
• India’s first ever Lithium deposit: Southern Karnataka’s Mandya district.
• Usage: To make useful alloys; in Thermonuclear reactions; to make electrochemical cells.

Advantages of Li-ion Batteries Disadvantages of Li-ion Batteries

• High Energy Density, Voltage and Storage Characteristics • Long charging times.
• Low Maintenance • Extremely reactive.
• High-performing and Longevity • Safety issues as instances of batteries catching
• An ideal renewable energy solution in many different fires.
applications. • Expensive to manufacture.
• Available in various shapes and sizes. • Not a viable alternative to internal combustion
• Environmentally safe as Li-ion batteries don't contain engines.
cadmium (a toxic, heavy metal) found in older
technologies.

About the newly discovered anode material: Titanium Diboride (TiB2)-

• Titanium Diboride (TiB2)-based Hierarchical Nanosheets (THNS): The new two-dimensional (2D) anode
material is developed using Nano sheets derived from titanium diboride (TiB2), which resemble a stack
of sandwiches, where metal molecules exist between layers of boron.

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• Currently, graphite and lithium titanate are among the most widely used anode materials in the
commercially available lithium-ion batteries (LIBs).
• Advantage of graphite anode: LIBs with Graphite anode, extremely energy dense, can power an electric
vehicle for hundreds of kilometres on a single charge.
- Limitations: However, it has its challenges on the safety front as they are prone to fire hazards.
• Advantage of Titanate anode: Lithium Titanate anodes are safer, offer ultra-fast charging time, long life
cycle, and nanosheets used to prepare the anode have a high density of pores ➔ more preferred
alternatives to Graphite.
- Limitations: They have a lower energy density, so they would need more frequent recharging.

Potential Alternatives of Li-ion batteries

• Lithium-Sulphur Batteries: In this, metallic lithium is used as the negative electrode while the positive electrode
is of sulphur.
- Li-S batteries are considered to be the successors of the Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries because of their
lower cost of production (as sulphur is abundantly available), energy efficiency and improved safety.
• Vertically aligned carbon nanotube electrode: These electrodes are good for lithium-ion battery electrodes
which require high-rate capability and capacity.
• Graphene Batteries: These are an emerging technology which allows for increased electrode density, faster
cycle times, as well as possessing the ability to hold the charge longer, thus, improving the battery's lifespan.
• Fluoride batteries: These can have a higher energy density, which means that they may last longer - up to eight
times longer than batteries in use today.
• Sand battery: It is a high temperature thermal energy storage that uses sand or sand-like materials as its storage
medium.
• Ammonia-powered batteries: Ammonia has nine times the energy density of Li-ion batteries, and three times
that of compressed hydrogen, creating potential as a carbon-free energy carrier.
• Cobalt-free lithium-ion battery: Researchers have developed a lithium-ion battery that doesn’t use cobalt for
its cathode. Instead, it switched to a high percentage of nickel using manganese and aluminium for the other
ingredients.
4.15 DIRECT METHANOL FUEL CELLS (DMFCS)
• DMFCs convert the chemical energy of liquid methanol directly into electrical energy through
electrochemical reactions.
• Catalyst: An alloy of Cobalt and Platinum doped with Manganese is found to be effective in DMFCs.
• DMFCs offer high energy density, high efficiency, and operate at a low temperature.
• They are safer to operate due to the use of liquid fuel (methanol).
• DMFCs generate cleaner energy and utilize all by-products (except CO2) of the reaction.
• Applications: Used as an alternative power source for small vehicles, battery chargers for mobile phones,
digital cameras, laptops, and other small electronic devices.

4.16 BIOFUELS
• Biofuels are fuels of bio-origin (organic matter), most frequently biomass obtained from plants, animals,
or microorganisms.
• Unlike non-renewable fossil fuels (like petrol, coal, natural gas etc.) that are derived from the
decomposition of organic matter for several million years, Biofuels are considered renewable, that is,
they are continuously created from recently living plant matter (as opposed to ancient plant matter in
fossil fuel).

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• Types of biofuels: POINT TO NOTE

- ‘Bio-ethanol’: Ethanol produced from biomass such as • Both Fossil Fuel & Bio Fuels release
sugar cane, sugar beet, cellulosic materials such as carbon dioxide when used. Thus,
bagasse, wood waste, agricultural forestry residues etc. Bio-fuels are “renewable energy”
- ‘Biodiesel’: A methyl or ethyl ester of fatty acids sources, but not necessarily “green
produced from vegetable oils, both edible and non- energy” sources because they
edible, or animal fat of diesel quality. produce greenhouse gases.
- Other biofuels: biomethanol, biosynthetic fuels • However, Biofuels are carbon
• Biofuels can be used in place of, or along with, diesel, petrol neutral, ie. carbon released is
matched by an equivalent amount of
or other fossil fuels for transport, electricity generation, and
carbon removed or sequestered.
other applications.

4 Generations of Bio-Fuels
• First generation Bio fuels - They are produced directly from food crops (like corn, wheat, sugar, etc) by
abstracting the oils for use in biodiesel or producing bioethanol through fermentation.
• Second Generation Biofuels - They are produced from non-food crops such as Forestry residues (wood,
branches, foliage, roots), Agricultural residues (straw, food crop waste), Biowaste (municipal solid waste
like kitchen and garden waste) etc.
- Since they are a little more difficult to extract, advanced conversion technologies are needed in the
process. Thus, second-generation bio-fuels are known as “advanced bio-fuels.”
- Advantage over 1st generation Bio fuels: Overcome ‘fuel vs food’ debate & more cost competitive.
• Third Generation Biofuels - They are produced from specially engineered energy crops such as algae.
- Advantage: Algae produces 10 times more than other feedstocks, and with lower resource inputs.
• Fourth Generation Biofuels- Aimed at not only producing sustainable energy but also a way of capturing
and storing co2 (Carbon Negative). Crops are genetically engineered to take in high amounts of carbon.
BIOFUELS: KEY GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
• National Policy on Biofuels, 2018: Read Ahead
• National Bio-diesel Mission (NBM) - It aims to replace 20% of India’s diesel requirement with biodiesel.
• Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme: It is being implemented by GoI, wherein Oil Marketing
Companies (OMCs) has already achieved blending of ethanol up to 10%.
- Public Sector Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) have started selling E20 (20% ethanol blended) petrol
across the country.
• Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT): Oil & Gas Marketing Companies
invited Expression of Interest (EoI) from potential entrepreneur to procure Compressed Bio Gas (CBG).
• Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN Yojana - To create an ecosystem for setting up commercial projects and to boost
R&D in 2G Ethanol sector.
• GOBAR (Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources) DHAN scheme - Converting cattle dung and solid waste
in farms to useful compost, biogas and bio-CNG.
• RUCO (Re-purpose Used Cooking Oil) – Launched by FSSAI, in order to encourage production of biodiesel
from Used Cooking Oil (UCO).
• Introduction of Flex Fuel vehicles: It is an alternative fuel vehicle with an internal combustion engine
designed to run on more than one fuel, usually fossil fuels blended with biofuels, and both fuels are stored
in the same common tank. To accelerate it, the government has included automobile and auto components
of flex-fuel engines under the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme.

NATIONAL POLICY ON BIOFUELS, 2018: KEY FEATURES

• Nodal Ministry for implementation – Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas.

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• Aim - To enable availability of biofuels in the market, from indigenous feedstock, thereby increasing its
blending percentage.
• Target - 20% blending of ethanol in petrol and 5% blending of biodiesel in diesel is proposed by 2030.
• Categorization of Bio fuels - The Policy categorises biofuels as "Basic Biofuels" viz. First Generation (1G)
bioethanol & biodiesel and "Advanced Biofuels" - Second Generation (2G) ethanol, Municipal Solid Waste
(MSW) to drop-in fuels, Third Generation (3G) biofuels, bio-CNG, bio-methanol etc. to enable extension of
appropriate financial and fiscal incentives under each category
• Expansion of scope of raw material - for ethanol production by allowing use of Sugarcane Juice, Sugar
containing materials like Sugar Beet, Sweet Sorghum, Starch containing materials like Corn, Cassava,
Damaged food grains like wheat, broken rice, Rotten Potatoes, unfit for human consumption for ethanol
production.
• Appropriate price to Farmers for unsold surplus - Policy allows use of surplus food grains for production of
ethanol for blending with petrol with the approval of National Biofuel Coordination Committee.
• Thrust on Advanced Biofuels – Through viability gap funding scheme for 2G ethanol Bio refineries of Rs.5000
crore in 6 years in addition to additional tax incentives, higher purchase price as compared to 1G biofuels.
• Setting up of supply chain mechanisms for biodiesel production from non-edible oilseeds, Used Cooking
Oil, short gestation crops.
• Roles and responsibilities of all the concerned Ministries/Departments with respect to biofuels has been
captured in the Policy document to synergise efforts.
• National Biomass Repository will be created by conducting appraisal of biomass across the Country.
• Research, development and demonstration will be supported to cover all aspects from feedstock
production and biofuels processing for various end-use applications.

NANOTECHNOLOGY
4.17 TECHNOLOGY AT NANO-SCALE
READ MORE AT :
• Nanotechnology is the technology of creating material, devices, and functions using matter that is
//ECONOMICTIMES
manipulated at .INDIATIMES .COM
atomic scale, /ARTICLESHOW
molecular /61581900.
scale or Nano Scale. CMS?UTM_SOURCE=CONTENTOFI
• Nano Scale refers NTEREST &UTM
to physical size_range
MEDIUM =TEXT
of 100 &UTM_CAMPAIGN
nanometres (nm) or less,=where
CPPST1 nanometre is equal to
one billionth of a meter.
• This manipulation at atomic/molecular level gives the matter new properties. The properties of atoms
and molecules are found to greatly differ on a nano scale, i.e., at 100 nm or below compared to what
they are in bulk matter.
• Exploiting this feature of matter, nanotechnology manipulates single atoms to discover new properties
and then uses these to create improved materials, devices and systems.
• The field of nanotechnology concentrates on three main areas:
- Identifying the chemical and physical changes that occurs at the nanoscale
- Developing new tools to measure, and new chemistry to make, highly miniaturized structure.
- Using the chemical and physical changes that occur at the nanoscale to develop new technologies.
• Nanotechnology has potential benefits in a number of fields, including water purification, sanitation,
agriculture, alternative energy (particularly photovoltaics), home and business construction, computer
manufacturing, communications, and medicine.
• It is also considered to pose risks, including economic disruption, misuse by people or organizations with
nefarious intent, evolution of extreme governmental regulation, controversies over morality, and
damage to the environment.

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Approaches of Nanotechnology: How atomically manipulated structures are made?

• Bottom up: In the bottom up approach, matter of nanometer size are made by assembling atoms from the
bottom. This is done through chemical methods. Thus, different materials and devices are built from molecular
components of their own. They chemically assemble themselves by recognizing the molecules of their own
breed. For example - molecular self-assembly are Watson crick base pairing, nanolithography.
• Top down: In top down approach, bulk is brought down to smaller and smaller pieces by physical methods till
they become nanometre in size. Nano objects and materials are formed by larger entities without bouncing its
atomic reactions. Usually top down approach is practiced less as compared to the bottom up approach.
4.18 FOUR GENERATIONS OF NANOTECH & NANO-PRODUCTS

• Generation 1: Passive Nanostructures

- This is the generation of passive nanostructures. In other words, it’s the creation of materials where
the structure is controlled on a molecular level, but the actual product doesn’t ‘do’ anything.
- It has material properties that are useful or even revolutionary, but that’s as far as it goes. This
includes the creation and addition of nano-scale particles that change the properties of existing
materials. For example, an additive that turns paint into radio-blocking material.
- These types of nanotechnology are delivered suspended in liquids (colloids) or sprayed from an
aerosol.
- It also includes coating structures in nanomaterial or making materials that are entirely composed of
a specific nanostructure, like polymers, metals, or ceramics that are far stronger or lighter than their
non-nano-boosted predecessors.
• Generation 2: Active Nanostructures
- These nanostructures aren’t just passive ones with specific properties, but they make changes to
other things.
- They are active in some way and make changes to other objects or materials.
- Nanomedicines are a prime example.
- This generation also includes nanoscale devices such as the Micro Electro Mechanical Systems
(MEMS) system in smartphones. These are microscopic accelerometers and gyroscopes that allow
phone to know which way it’s being held and to track its own motion.
• Generation 3: Systems of Nanosystems
- The third-generation of nanotechnology is one that the world is trying to reach. This is essentially the
nanotech world.
- Third generation nanotech is various nanomachines are seen working together. Nano-factories
assembling molecules or complex large-scale machines and materials are an example of a third-
generation nanotech application.
- This is the age of the nanobot and complex nanomachines, where everything changes. These
systems will be manufactured using various directed self-assembly methods such as bio-assembly
(eg. using DNA and viruses as templates), electrical and chemical template-guided assembly
• Generation 4: Molecular Nanosystems
- Fourth-generation is the perfection of this technology. At this level there will be complete control of
the actual molecules that make up nanomachines.
- In other words, while a third generation nanomachine may have different components made from
specific molecules, a fourth-generation nanomachine is made from different molecules with specific
structures; each molecule has a specific structure and function.
- Experts are literally building these nanomachines at the molecular level by using specific atoms to
build them.

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4.19 TYPES OF NANOMATERIALS

• Nanoparticles can be classified into different types according to the size, morphology, physical and
chemical properties.
1. Carbon-Based Nanoparticles: Carbon-based nanoparticles include two main materials: carbon
nanotubes (CNTs) and fullerenes. CNTs are nothing but graphene sheets rolled into a tube. These
materials are mainly used for the structural reinforcement as they are 100 times stronger than steel.
CNTs are unique in a way as they are thermally conductive along the length and non-conductive
across the tube.
2. Ceramic Nanoparticles: Ceramic nanoparticles are inorganic solids made up of oxides, carbides,
carbonates and phosphates. These nanoparticles have high heat resistance and chemical inertness.
They have applications in photocatalysis, photodegradation of dyes, drug delivery, and imaging.
These nanoparticles have been used effectively as a drug delivery system for a number of diseases
like bacterial infections, glaucoma, cancer, etc.
3. Metal Nanoparticles: Metal nanoparticles are prepared from metal precursors. These nanoparticles
can be synthesized by chemical, electrochemical, or photochemical methods. These have the ability
to adsorb small molecules and have high surface energy. These nanoparticles have applications in
research areas, detection and imaging of biomolecules and in environmental and bioanalytical
applications.
4. Semiconductor Nanoparticles: Semiconductor nanoparticles have properties like those of metals
and non-metals. They are found in the periodic table in groups II-VI, III-V or IV-VI. These particles
have wide bandgaps, which on tuning shows different properties. They are used in photocatalysis,
electronics devices, photo-optics and water splitting applications.
5. Polymeric Nanoparticles: Polymeric nanoparticles are organic based nanoparticles. Depending upon
the method of preparation, these have structures shaped like nanocapsular or nanospheres. Some
of the merits of polymeric nanoparticles are controlled release, protection of drug molecules, ability
to combine therapy and imaging, specific targeting and many more. They have applications in drug
delivery and diagnostics. The drug deliveries with polymeric nanoparticles are highly biodegradable
and biocompatible.
6. Lipid-Based Nanoparticles: Lipid nanoparticles are generally spherical in shape with a diameter
ranging from 10 to 100nm. It consists of a solid core made of lipid and a matrix containing soluble
lipophilic molecules. The external core of these nanoparticles is stabilized by surfactants and
emulsifiers. These nanoparticles have application in the biomedical field as a drug carrier and
delivery and RNA release in cancer therapy.
4.20 APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECH
A. NANO MEDICINE/PHARMACEUTICALS
• Nano medicine is the medical application of Nano technology.
• Advantage of nano in biological application: The size of nano materials is similar to that of most
biological molecules and structures; therefore, nano-materials can be useful for both in vivo (inside the
body) and in vitro (outside body) biomedical research and applications.
• Medical Applications include
- Drug Delivery and Diagnostics
✓ Nano-pharmaceuticals would enable Nano carrier based targeted specific delivery of drugs and
therapeutic molecules and thus offer higher efficacy and lower toxicity in many disease
conditions. (A Nanocarrier is a nanomaterial being used as a transport module for another
substance like a drug.)

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✓ They also offer ability to detect disease at

much earlier stages and the diagnostics
applications could build upon conventional
procedures using nanoparticles.
- Tissue Engineering: Tissue engineering is the new
emerging field of science which makes use of
nanotechnology to repair the damaged tissues.
The cells can be artificially reproduced by using
suitable nanomaterials scaffolds and other growth
factors.
- Sensing: Lab-on-chip technology, where magnetic
nano particles bound to a suitable antibody, are
used to label specific molecules, structures or
microorganisms.
- Genetics: Gold nanoparticles tagged with short
segments of DNA can be used for detection of genetic sequence in a sample.
B. Food
Nanotechnology offers some exciting potential benefits for the quality and safety of foods.
• Contamination Sensor: Flash a light to reveal the presence of E. coli bacteria.
• Antimicrobial Packaging: Edible food films made with cinnamon or oregano oil, or nano particles of zinc,
calcium other materials that kill bacteria.
• Improved Food Storage: Nano-enhanced barrier keeps oxygen-sensitive foods fresher.
• Enhanced Nutrient Delivery: Nano-encapsulating improves solubility of vitamins, antioxidants, healthy
omega oils and other ‘nutraceuticals’.
• Green Packaging: Nano-fibers made from lobster shells or organic corn are both antimicrobial and
biodegradable.
• Pesticide Reduction: A cloth saturated with nano fibers slowly releases pesticides, eliminating need for
additional spraying and reducing chemical leakage into the water supply.
• Tracking, Tracing; Brand Protection: Nanobarcodes can be created to tag individual products and trace
outbreaks.
• Texture: Food spreadability and stability improve with nano-sized crystals and lipids for better low-fat
foods.
• Flavor: Trick the tongue with bitter blockers or sweet and salty enhancers.
• Bacteria Identification and Elimination: Nano carbohydrate particles bind with bacteria so they can be
detected and eliminated.
C. Agriculture
• Nanoparticles can serve as ‘magic bullets’, containing herbicides, chemicals, or genes, which target
particular plant parts to release their content.
• Nano-sensors and nano-based smart delivery systems could help in the efficient use of agricultural
natural resources like water, nutrients and chemicals through precision farming.
• Through the use of nanomaterials and global positioning systems with satellite imaging of fields, farm
managers could remotely detect crop pests or evidence of stress such as drought. Once pest or drought
is detected, there would be automatic adjustment of pesticide applications or irrigation levels.
D. Semiconductors and Computing
• The computer industry is already working on a nanoscale. Trend is emerging of the convergence between
IT, nanotechnology, biotechnology and cognitive sciences.
• Nanotechnology improves the capabilities of electronic components as given below-
- By reducing the size of transistors used in integrated circuits.

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- Researchers are developing a type of memory chip with a projected density of one terabyte of
memory per square inch and this increases the density of memory chips.
- By improving display screens on electronics devices and this reduces power consumption and also
the weight and thickness of the screens.
- By traditional scaling limits in standard CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor)
technology. This development of nano electronic components is called as ‘Beyond CMOS’ domain of
development.
E. Energy
• Nanotechnology is improving the efficiency of fuel production from raw petroleum materials through
better catalysis. It is also enabling reduced fuel consumption in vehicles and power plants through
higher-efficiency combustion and decreased friction.
• Nanotechnology is also being applied to oil and gas extraction through, for example, the use of
nanotechnology-enabled gas lift valves in offshore operations or the use of nanoparticles to detect
microscopic down-well oil pipeline fractures.
• Researchers are investigating carbon nanotube ‘scrubbers’ and membranes to separate carbon dioxide
from power plant exhaust.
• Researchers are developing wires containing carbon nanotubes that will have much lower resistance
than the high-tension wires currently used in the electric grid, thus reducing transmission power loss.
• Nanostructured solar cells could be cheaper to manufacture and easier to install, since they can use
print-like manufacturing processes and can be made in flexible rolls rather than discrete panels.
• Nanotechnology is already being used to develop many new kinds of batteries that are quicker-charging,
more efficient, lighter weight, have a higher power density, and hold electrical charge longer.
• An epoxy containing carbon nanotubes is being used to make windmill blades that are longer, stronger,
and lighter-weight than other blades to increase the amount of electricity that windmills can generate.
• In the area of energy harvesting, researchers are developing thin-film solar electric panels that can be
fitted onto computer cases and flexible piezoelectric nanowires woven into clothing to generate usable
energy on the go from light, friction, and/or body heat to power mobile electronic devices.
• Similarly, various nanoscience-based options are being pursued to convert waste heat in computers,
automobiles, homes, power plants, etc., to usable electrical power.
• In addition to those noted above, nanotechnology is enabling more efficient lighting systems; lighter and
stronger vehicle chassis materials for the transportation sector; lower energy consumption in advanced
electronics; and light-responsive smart coatings for glass.
F. Textiles
• Nanoscience has already produced stain- and wrinkle-resistant clothing, and future developments will
focus on upgrading existing functions and performances of textile materials; and developing “smart”
textiles with unprecedented functions.
- Carbon Nanofibers and Carbon Nanoparticles.
- Clay Nanoparticles.
G. Environment
• Air purification with ions, wastewater purification with nanobubbles or nanofiltration systems for heavy
metals are some of its environmentally-friendly applications.
• Nanotechnology could help meet the need for affordable, clean drinking water through rapid, low-cost
detection and treatment of impurities in water.
• Engineers have developed a thin film membrane with nanopores for energy-efficient desalination. This
molybdenum disulphide membrane filtered two to five times more water than current conventional
filters.

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• Nanoparticles are being developed to clean industrial water pollutants in ground water through chemical
reactions that render the pollutants harmless. This process would cost less than methods that require
pumping the water out of the ground for treatment.
• Researchers have developed a Nano fabric ‘paper towel’ woven from tiny wires of potassium manganese
oxide that can absorb 20 times its weight in oil for clean-up applications.
• Researchers have also placed magnetic water-repellent nanoparticles in oil spills and used magnets to
mechanically remove the oil from the water.
• Many airplane cabin and other types of air filters are nanotechnology-based filters that allow ‘mechanical
filtration,’ in which the fibre material creates nanoscale pores that trap particles larger than the size of
the pores. The filters also may contain charcoal layers that remove odours.
• Nanotechnology-enabled sensors and solutions are now able to detect and identify chemical or
biological agents in the air and soil with much higher sensitivity than ever before.
H. Transport
• In addition to contributing to building and maintaining lighter, smarter, more efficient, and “greener”
vehicles, aircraft, and ships, nanotechnology offers various means to improve the transportation
infrastructure.
I. Space
• Employing materials made from carbon nanotubes to reduce the weight of spaceships, while retaining
or even increasing the structural strength.
• Using carbon nanotubes to make the cable needed for the space elevator, a system which could
significantly reduce the cost of sending material into orbit.
• Including layers of bio-nano robots in spacesuits.
4.21 MISSION ON NANO SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (NANO MISSION)
• The mission was launched in 2007.
• Nodal agency for implementation - Department of Science and Technology.
• Target - All scientists, institutions and industry in the country.
• It is steered by a Nano Mission Council chaired by an eminent scientist.
• Capacity-building in this upcoming area of research will be of utmost importance for the Nano Mission
so that India emerges as a global knowledge-hub in this field.
• Nano Mission will strive for development
of products and processes for national
development, especially in areas of
national relevance like safe drinking
water, materials development, sensors
development, drug delivery, etc.
• For this, it will forge linkages between educational and research institutions and industry and promote
Public Private Partnerships (PPPs).

ROBOTICS
4.22 ROBOTS & TYPES READ MORE AT:
• A robot is an
//ECONOMICTIMES autonomous
.INDIATIMES .COMmachine capable
/ARTICLESHOW of sensing its
/61581900. CMS environment,
?UTM_SOURCE carrying out computations
=CONTENTOFINTEREST &UTMto
make decisions, and performing actions in the real world.
_MEDIUM=TEXT&UTM_CAMPAIGN=CPPST
• Generally robots are classified as mobile, rolling, walking, stationary, autonomous and remote
controlled robots.
• Some specific classification of robots is:

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- Humanoids: These robots resemble like humans and are also known as androids; however, many
robots aren't built on the human model.
- Industrial Robots: often designed to perform repetitive tasks that aren't facilitated by a human-like
construction.
✓ Example: Articulated, SCARA, Polar, Cartesian etc.
- Telepresence Robots: Simulate the experience and some of the capabilities of being physically
present, can enable remote business consultations, healthcare, home monitoring and childcare,
among many other possibilities.

Sophia
• Sophia is the first robot citizen of the world after Saudi Arabia granted her citizenship in October 2017.
• She is a social humanoid robot, which using artificial intelligence (AI) programming, can imitate human
gestures and facial expressions, and is able to converse on predefined topics.
• It was developed by the Hong Kong-based Hanson Robotics and ‘activated’ on February 14, 2016.
4.23 ASIMOV’S LAWS OF ROBOTICS
• Asimov’s Three Laws are as follows:
- A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
- A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict
with the First Law.
- A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or
Second Laws.
4.24 MAIN COMPONENTS OF A ROBOT
• The structure of a robot is known as Kinematic Chain, it is similar to the skeleton of human body and is
mostly mechanical.
• It is formed of links (its bones), actuators (its muscles) and joints which can allow one or more degrees
of freedom.
• Some of the main components of a Robot are:
- Power Supply - The working power to the robot is provided by batteries, hydraulic, solar power, or
pneumatic power sources.
- Actuators - Actuators are the energy conversion device used inside a robot. The major function of
actuators is to convert energy into movement.
- Electric motors (DC/AC)- Motors are electromechanical component used for converting electrical
energy into its equivalent mechanical energy. In robots motors are used for providing rotational
movement.
- Sensors - Sensors provide real time information on the task environment. Robots are equipped with
tactile sensor it imitates the mechanical properties of touch receptors of human fingerprints and a
vision sensor is used for computing the depth in the environment.
- Controller - Controller is a part of robot that coordinates all motion of the mechanical system. It also
receives an input from immediate environment through various sensors.
✓ The heart of robot's controller is a microprocessor linked with the input/output and monitoring
device.
✓ The command issued by the controller activates the motion control mechanism, consisting of
various controller, actuators and amplifier.
4.25 ROBOTIC PROCESS & AUTOMATION (RPA)
• Robotic Process Automation is the technology that allows anyone today to configure computer software,
or a ‘robot’ to emulate and integrate the actions of a human interacting within digital systems to
execute a business process.
• RPA robots utilize the user interface to capture data and manipulate applications just like humans do.

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• They interpret, trigger responses and communicate with other systems in order to perform on a vast
variety of repetitive tasks.
• RPA allows organizations to automate at a fraction of the cost and time previously encountered.
• RPA is also non-intrusive in nature and leverages the existing infrastructure without causing disruption
to underlying systems, which would be difficult and costly to replace.
• RPA robots are capable of mimicking many–if not all–human user actions. They log into applications,
move files and folders, copy and paste data, fill in forms, extract structured and semi-structured data
from documents, scrape browsers, and more.
• Some of the advantages of RPA are:
- It provides best quality customer service.
- Business processes or work completed on time much faster than humans (more Work in less time).
- Less Cost, decrease the operating costs and increase the results.
- Increase consistency and quality.
- Provides the real-world solution from the problems.
- Flexibility and Scalability.
- Low Technical obstruction.
4.26 PROBOTS, KNOWBOTS & CHATBOTS
• RPA robots are categorised into three different types:
- Probots: process the data by following simple, repeatable rules.
- Knowbots: the bots that search for information on the internet and store the user-specified needs.
- Chatbots: the virtual support system that responds to the users/customers queries when asked.
4.27 APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTICS
• Outer Space: Robotic arms that are under the control of a human being are employed to unload the
docking cove of outer-space shuttles to launch satellites or to build a space station.
• The Intelligent Home: Robotic systems can nowadays scrutinize home safety, ecological circumstances,
and energy consumption.
- Door and windows can be unlocked mechanically and an electrical device such as lights and A/C can
be pre-programmed to turn on.
• Exploration: Robots can enter environments that are injurious to human beings, eg. observing the
atmosphere within a volcano or investigating our deep marine life.
• Military Robots: Robots brought into play in military and armed forces. This sort of robot consists of
bomb discarding robots, various shipping robots, exploration drones.
- Flying robot drones have brought a close watch in the modern armed force.
- In the future robotic airplane and automobiles could be employed to transmit petroleum, bullets,
bombs, etc. or clear minefields.
• Farms: Programmed robots are used by harvesters to cut and collect crops.
- Robotic milk farms are existing permitting workers to nourish and milk cattles distantly.
• Industry: Robotic arms execute numerous tasks in the car manufacturing & assembling procedure.
- They carry out jobs such as sorting, cutting, welding, lifting, painting, and bending.
- Similar functions but on a minor scale are now being intended for the food industry to execute tasks
like- the trimming, cutting, and processing of different types of meats like- chicken, beef, fish, lamb,
etc.
• Hospitals: Surgical treatment robots to do operations.
- The development of a robotic suit is under construction that will allow nurses to raise patients
without injuring their backbones.
- Scientists in Japan have crafted a power facilitated suit which will provide nurses the additional power
that they need to lift patients.
• Disaster Areas: Observation robots built-in with superior sensing and imaging gears.

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- This robot can work in dangerous environments like urban site spoiled by earthquakes by inspecting
floors, walls, and roofs for structural reality.
• Entertainment: Interactive robots that show behaviours and education capability.
• Hobby and competition robots: Robots that are created by students.
- Sumo-bots, Line followers, robots prepared merely for learning, fun, and robots prepared for
contests.

==========================================================================================

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

Q1. Which one of the following words/phrases is Q4. 'Aerial metagenomics' best refers to which one
most appropriately used to denote "an of the following situations? (2023)
interoperable network of 3D virtual worlds that can (a) Collecting DNA samples from air in a habitat at
be accessed simultaneously by millions of users, who one go
can exert property rights over virtual items"? (2024) (b) Understanding the genetic makeup of avian
(a) Big data analytics species of a habitat
(b) Cryptography (c) Using air-borne devices to collect samples from
(c) Metaverse moving blood animals
(d) Virtual matrix (d) Sending drones to inaccessible areas to collect
plant and animal samples from land surfaces and
Q2. With reference to radioisotope thermoelectric
water bodies
generators (RTGs), consider the following
statements: Q5. With reference to Web 3.0, consider the
1. RTGs are miniature fission reactors. following statements:
2. RTGs are used for powering the onboard 1. Web 3.0 technology enables people to control
systems of spacecrafts. their own data.
3. RTGs can use Plutonium-238, which is a by- 2. In Web 3.0 world, there can be blockchain based
product of weapons development. social networks.
Which of the statements given above are correct? 3. Web 3.0 is operated by users collectively rather
(2024) than a corporation.
(a) 1 and 2 only Which of the statements given above are correct?
(b) 2 and 3 only (2022)
(c) 1 and 3 only (a) 1 and 2 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
Q3. With reference to green hydrogen, consider the
(d) 1, 2 and 3
following statements
1. It can be used directly as a fuel for internal Q6. Consider the following:
combustion. 1. Aarogya Setu
2. It can be blended with natural gas and used as 2. CoWIN
fuel for heat or power generation. 3. DigiLocker
3. It can be used in the hydrogen fuel cell to run 4. DIKSHA
vehicles. Which of the above are built on top of open-source
How many of the above statements are correct? digital platforms? (2022)
(2023) (a) 1 and 2 only
(a) Only one (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(b) Only two (c) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) All three (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(d) None

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Q7. Consider the following statements: Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
1. Other than those made by humans, (2020)
nanoparticles do not exist in nature. (a) 1 only
2. Nanoparticles of some metallic oxides are used (b) 2 only
in the manufacture of some cosmetics. (c) Both 1 and 2
3. Nanoparticles of some commercial products (d) Neither 1 nor 2
which enter the environment are unsafe for
Q12. What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in
humans.
news? (2019)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene
(2022)
editing
(a) 1 only
(b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of
(b) 3 only
pathogens in patients
(c) 1 and 2
(c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant
(d) 2 and 3
(d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically
Q8. Bollgard I and Bollgard II technologies are modified crops
mentioned in the context of (2021)
Q13. The terms 'WannaCry, Petya and Eternal Blue'
(a) clonal propagation of crop plants
sometimes mentioned in the news recently are
(b) developing genetically modified crop plants
related to: (2018)
(c) production of plant growth substances
(a) Exoplanets
(d) production of biofertilizers
(b) Cryptocurrency
Q9. In India, the term "Public Key Infrastructure" is (c) Cyber attacks
used in the context of (2020) (d) Mini satellites
(a) Digital security infrastructure Q14. "3D printing" has applications in which of the
(b) Food security infrastructure following areas?
(c) Health care and education infrastructure 1. Preparation of confectionery items
(d) Telecommunication and transportation 2. Manufacture of bionic ears
infrastructure 3. Automotive industry
Q10. With reference to "Blockchain Technology" 4. Reconstructive surgeries
consider the following statements: Select the correct answer using the code given
1. It is a public ledger that everyone can inspect, below: (2018)
but which no single user controls. (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
2. The structure and design of blockchain is such (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
that all the data in it are about cryptocurrency (c) 2 and 3 only
only. (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
3. Applications that depend on basic features of Q15. Which of the following statements is/are
blockchain can be developed without anybody's correct regarding Smart India Hackathon 2017?
permission. 1. It is a centrally sponsored scheme for developing
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? every city of our country into Smart Cities in a
(2020) decade.
(a) 1 only 2. It is an initiative to identify new digital
(b) 1 and 2 only technology innovations for solving the many
(c) 2 only problems faced by our country.
(d) 1 and 3 only 3. It is a program aimed at making all the financial
Q11. With reference to solar water pumps, consider transactions in our country completely digital in
the following statements: a decade.
1. Solar power can be used for running surface Select the correct answer using the code given
pumps and not for submersible pumps. below: (2017)
2. Solar power can be used for running centrifugal (a) 1 and 3 only
pumps and not the ones with piston. (b) 2 only

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(c) 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only

(d) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Q16. It is possible to produce algae-based biofuels,
but what is/are the likely limitation(s) of developing Q18. India is an important member of the
countries in promoting this industry? ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental
1. Production of algae-based biofuels is possible in Reactor’. If this experiment succeeds, what is the
seas only and not on continents. immediate advantage for India? (2016)
2. Setting up and engineering the algae-based (a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power
biofuel production requires a high level of generation
expertise/technology until the construction is (b) It can attain a global role in satellite navigation
completed. (c) It can drastically improve the efficiency of its
3. Economically viable production necessitates the fission reactors in power generation
setting up of large-scale facilities which may (d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation
raise ecological and social concerns.
Q19. The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee
Select the correct answer using the code given
is constituted under the (2015)
below: (2017)
(a) Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration
(b) 2 and 3 only
and Protection) Act, 1999
(c) 3 only
(c) Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
Q17. With reference to agriculture in India, how can
Q20. Mycorrhizal biotechnology has been used in
the technique of 'genome sequencing', often seen in
rehabilitating degraded sites because mycorrhiza
the news, be used in the immediate future?
enables the plants to
1. Genome sequencing can be used to identify
1. resist drought and increase absorptive area
genetic markers for disease resistance and
2. tolerate extremes of pH
drought tolerance in various crop plants.
3. resist disease infestation
2. This technique helps in reducing the time
Select the correct answer using the codes given
required to develop new varieties of crop plants.
below. (2013)
3. It can be used to decipher the host-pathogen
(a) 1 only
relationships in crops.
(b) 2 and 3 only
Select the correct answer using the code given
(c) 1 and 3 only
below: (2017)
(d) (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1 only

ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (d)

==========================================================================================

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5 GENERAL BIOLOGY, HUMAN HEALTH & DISEASES

5.1 FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING BEINGS
• R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed a Five Kingdom Classification. The kingdoms defined by him were named
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
• Main criteria for classification: Cell structure, Body organization, Mode of nutrition, Reproduction and
Phylogenetic relationships.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FIVE KINGDOMS
Character Five Kingdoms
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell Type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Noncellulosic Present in some Present with Present Absent
Cell Wall (Polysaccharide + chitin (cellulose)
amino acid)
Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present
Membrane
Body Cellular Cellular MuIticellular/ Tissue/ organ Tissue/organ/
Organisation loose tissue organ system
Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
(chemosynthetic & (Photosynthetic) (Saprophytic/ (Photosyn - (Holozoic/
Mode of photosynthetic) and Parasitic) thetic) Saprophytic
Nutrition and Heterotrophic Heterotrophic etc.)
(saprophytic/
parasitic)

5.2 KINGDOM MONERA & BACTERIA

• Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera.
• Bacteria occur almost everywhere. They also live in extreme habitats such as hot springs, deserts, snow
and deep oceans where very few other life forms can survive. Many of them live in or on other organisms
as parasites.
• Though the bacterial structure is very simple, they are very complex in behaviour.
• Compared to many other organisms, bacteria as a group show the most extensive metabolic diversity.
• They may be photosynthetic autotrophic or chemosynthetic autotrophic.
• The vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophs, i.e., they depend on other organisms or on dead organic
matter for food.

5.3 KINGDOM PROTISTA & PROTOZOA

• All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista, but the boundaries of this kingdom are not well
defined.
• Generally, Chrysophytes, Dianoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds and Protozoans are included under
Protista.
• Members of Protista are primarily aquatic.
• This kingdom forms a link with the others dealing with plants, animals and fungi.
• Being eukaryotes, the protistan cell body contains a well-defined nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles.
• Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by a process involving cell fusion and zygote formation.

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5.4 KINGDOM FUNGI & YEAST

• The fungi constitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms. They show a great diversity in
morphology and habitat.
• When bread develops a mould or orange rots it is because of fungi. The common mushroom and
toadstools are also fungi.
• White spots seen on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus. Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are
used to make bread and beer.
• Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals, eg. wheat rust-causing Puccinia. Some are the source
of antibiotics, eg. Penicillium.
• Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and plants. They prefer to grow in
warm and humid places.
• With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are filamentous. Their bodies consist of long,
slender thread-like structures called hyphae. The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
• Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from dead substrates and hence are
called saprophytes.
• Those that depend on living plants and animals are called parasites.
• They can also live as symbionts - in association with algae as lichens and with roots of higher plants as
mycorrhiza.
• Reproduction in fungi can take place by vegetative means - fragmentation, fission and budding. Asexual
reproduction is by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores, and sexual reproduction is by
oospores, ascospores and basidiospores. The various spores are produced in distinct structures called
fruiting bodies.
5.5 KINGDOM PLANTAE
• Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll containing organisms commonly called plants.
• A few members are partially heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants or parasites.
• Bladderwort and Venus fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants and Cuscuta is a parasite in the
form of Epiphyte.
• The plant cells have a eukaryotic structure with prominent chloroplasts and cell walls mainly made of
cellulose.
• They are autotrophs and use chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
• Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
5.6 KINGDOM ANIMALIA
• This kingdom is characterised by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and their
cells lack cell walls. They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food.
• These include all organisms which are multicellular eukaryotes without cell walls. They are heterotrophs.
• They digest their food in an internal cavity and store
food reserves as glycogen or fat. Their mode of nutrition
is holozoic – by ingestion of food.
• The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and
female followed by embryological development.
• Though all members of Animalia are multicellular, all of
them do not exhibit the same pattern of organisation of
cells. For example, in sponges, the cells are arranged as
loose cell aggregates, i.e., they exhibit cellular level of
organisation.
• Some division of labour (activities) occur among the
cells. In coelenterates, the arrangement of cells is more complex. Here the cells performing the same
function are arranged into tissues, hence is called tissue level of organisation.

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• A still higher level of organisation, i.e., organ level is exhibited by members of Platyhelminthes and other
higher phyla where tissues are grouped together to form organs, each specialized for a particular
function.
• In animals like Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms and Chordates, organs have associated to
form functional systems, each system concerned with a specific physiological function.
5.7 ORGANIC & INORGANIC EVOLUTION
5.7.1 INORGANIC/CHEMICAL EVOLUTION
• The formation of organic molecules from inorganic molecules is referred to as chemical evolution.
• Chemical evolution describes chemical changes that took place on primitive Earth that gave rise to first
life forms.
• Around 4 billion years ago, the Earth’s atmosphere consisted of chemicals such as water vapour,
methane, ammonia and hydrogen.
• Sunlight, heat from volcanoes and lightning caused these molecules to combine in the shallow seas and
produce organic molecules such as sugars which later combined to form big molecules such as proteins,
RNA and DNA.
5.7.2 ORGANIC EVOLUTION
• The enzymes, proteins, RNA and DNA once formed constituted a self-replicating system enclosed in a
selectively permeable, protective lipid sphere which further evolved into membrane bound proto cells
and finally into living cells. This process is called organic or biological evolution.
• Organic evolution refers to the slow and gradual process by which living organisms have changed from
the simplest unicellular form to the most complex multicellular forms that are existing today.
• Organic evolution primarily involves modifications in the existing organisms and the inheritance of these
modifications.
5.7.3 IDEA OF EVOLUTION
• Evolution, theory in biology postulating that the various types of plants, animals, and other living things
on Earth have their origin in other pre-existing types and that the distinguishable differences are due to
modifications in successive generations.
• The virtually infinite variations on life are the fruit of the evolutionary process. More than 2 million
existing species of organisms have been named and described; many more remain to be discovered—
from 10 million to 30 million, according to some estimates.
• Biological evolution is a process of descent with modification. All living creatures are related by descent
from common ancestors.
• Humans and other mammals descend from shrew like creatures that lived more than 150 million years
ago; mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes share as ancestors aquatic worms that lived 600
million years ago; and all plants and animals derive from bacteria like microorganisms that originated
more than 3 billion years ago.
5.8 DARWIN & NATURAL SELECTION
5.8.1 NATURAL SELECTION
• Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution states that evolution happens by natural selection.
• Individuals in a species show variation in physical characteristics. This variation is because of
differences in their genes.
• Individuals with characteristics best suited to their environment are more likely to survive, finding food,
avoiding predators and resisting disease. These individuals are more likely to reproduce and pass their
genes on to their children.
• Individuals that are poorly adapted to their environment are less likely to survive and reproduce.
Therefore their genes are less likely to be passed on to the next generation.

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• As a consequence those individuals most suited to their environment survive and, given enough time,
the species will gradually evolve.
• Natural selection is sometimes summed up as “survival of the fittest” because the “fittest” organisms—
those most suited to their environment—are the ones that reproduce most successfully, and are most
likely to pass on their traits to the next generation.
5.8.2 VARIATIONS
• Darwin’s theory of the mechanism of evolution begins with the variation that exists among organisms
within a species.
• Individuals of one generation are qualitatively different from one another.
• Evolution of the species as a whole result from the differential rates of survival and reproduction of the
various types, so the relative frequencies of the types change over time. Evolution, in this view, is a sorting
process.
• For Darwin, evolution of the group resulted from the differential survival and reproduction of individual
variants already existing in the group—variants arising in a way unrelated to the environment but whose
survival and reproduction do depend on the environment.

5.9 MUTATIONS & EVOLUTION

• Evolution is the process by which populations of organisms change over generations. Genetic variations
underlie these changes.
• Genetic variations can arise from gene mutations or from genetic recombination (a normal process in
which genetic material is rearranged as a cell is getting ready to divide).
• These variations often alter gene activity or protein function, which can introduce different traits in an
organism.
• If a trait is advantageous and helps the individual survive and reproduce, the genetic variation is more
likely to be passed to the next generation (a process known as natural selection).
• Over time, as generations of individuals with the trait continue to reproduce, the advantageous trait
becomes increasingly common in a population, making the population different than an ancestral one.
• Sometimes the population becomes so different that it is considered a new species.
• Not all mutations lead to evolution. Only hereditary mutations, which occur in egg or sperm cells, can
be passed to future generations and potentially contribute to evolution.
• Some mutations occur during a person’s lifetime in only some of the body’s cells and are not hereditary,
so natural selection cannot play a role.
• Also, many genetic changes have no impact on the function of a gene or protein and are not helpful or
harmful.
• In addition, the environment in which a population of organism’s lives is integral to the selection of traits.
• Some differences introduced by mutations may help an organism survive in one setting but not in another
- for example, resistance to a certain bacterium is only advantageous if that bacteria is found in a
particular location and harms those who live there.
5.10 ACQUIRED DISEASE
• Acquired diseases are a primary disease that begins after birth, at some point during one’s lifetime.

5.10.1 INFECTIOUS DISEASES

• Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites or
fungi; the diseases can be spread - directly or indirectly, from one person to another.
• Zoonotic diseases are infectious diseases of animals that can cause disease when transmitted to humans.

A. Viral Infections
• A viral infection is a proliferation of a harmful virus inside the body.

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• Viruses cannot reproduce without the assistance of a host. Viruses infect a host by introducing their
genetic material into the cells and hijacking the cell’s internal machinery to make more virus particles.
• With an active viral infection, a virus makes copies of itself and bursts the host cell (killing it) to set the
newly formed virus particles free.
• In other cases, virus particles ‘bud’ off the host cell over a period of time before killing the host cell.
• Viruses can be transmitted in a variety of ways. Some viruses can spread through touch, saliva, or even
the air.
• Other viruses can be transmitted through sexual contact or by sharing contaminated needles.
• Insects including ticks and mosquitoes can act as “vectors,” transmitting a virus from one host to another.
Contaminated food and water are other potential sources of viral infection.
• Not all viral diseases are contagious. This means they aren’t always spread from person to person.
• Prominent viral infections infecting humans are Polio, Hepatitis, Chicken pox, Ebola, HIV, Small pox,
Rabies etc.
DISEASE VIRUS COMMON SYMPTOM VACCINE
• Most people not have any • Oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV)
visible symptoms. • Inactivated poliovirus vaccine
• About 1 out of 4 people with (IPV)
poliovirus infection will have
Polio Poliovirus flu-like symptoms that may
include: Sore throat, Fever,
Tiredness, Nausea,
Headache and Stomach pain
• Delirium, abnormal • Human diploid cell culture rabies
Rabies Rabies Virus behavior, hallucinations, vaccine (HDCV) and purified chick
hydrophobia (fear of water), embryo cell culture rabies
and insomnia. vaccine (PCECV) are available for
Rabies.
Hepatitis A • Hepatitis A virus • Fatigue, flu-like symptoms, • Vaccine is available for Hepatitis
(HAV) dark urine, pale stool, A and B.
Hepatitis B • Hepatitis B virus abdominal pain, loss of • No Vaccine for Hepatitis C and D.
(HBV) appetite, unexplained • A vaccine to prevent hepatitis E
• Hepatitis C virus weight loss and yellow skin virus infection has been
Hepatitis C (HCV) and eyes. developed and is licensed in
• Hepatitis D virus China, but is not yet available
(HDV) elsewhere.
Hepatitis D
• Hepatitis E virus
(HEV)
Hepatitis E
Chikungunya virus • Fever and severe joint pain. • Currently no vaccine or specific
(CHIKV) drug against the virus.
Spread to people
Chikungunya through the bite of an
infected Aedes species
(Ae. aegypti or Ae.
albopictus) mosquito.
Dengue virus (DENV) • Many DENV infections • No specific treatment for dengue
spread to people produce only mild illness, fever.
through the bite of an DENV can cause an acute flu- • Dengvaxia® (CYD-TDV): CYD-TDV
Dengue infected Aedes species like illness. is the first dengue vaccine to be

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(Ae. aegypti or Ae. licensed. It was first licensed in

albopictus) mosquito. Mexico in December 2015 for use
in individuals 9-45 years of age
living in endemic areas, and is
now licensed in 20 countries.
Group of viruses within • The course of the illness • An investigational vaccine called
the genus Ebolavirus: typically progresses from rVSV-ZEBOV, which has shown to
1. Ebola virus (species ‘dry’ symptoms initially be safe and protective against
Ebola Zaire ebolavirus) (such as fever, aches and the Zaire strain of the Ebola virus,
2. Sudan virus (species pains, and fatigue), and then is recommended for use in Ebola
Sudan ebolavirus) progresses to ‘wet’ outbreaks caused by the Zaire
3. Taï Forest virus symptoms (such as strain of the virus, in the event
(species Taï Forest diarrhoea and vomiting) as where there is no licensed
ebolavirus) the person becomes sicker. vaccine.
4. Bundibugyo virus
(species Bundibugyo
ebolavirus)
5. Reston virus (species
Reston ebolavirus)
6. Bombali virus
(species Bombali
ebolavirus).
Zika virus spread to • The majority of people • No vaccine or medicine for Zika.
people through the bite infected with Zika virus do
of an infected Aedes not develop symptoms.
species (Ae. aegypti or • Symptoms are generally
Zika Ae. albopictus) mild including fever, rash,
mosquito. conjunctivitis, muscle and
joint pain, malaise, and
headache, and usually last
for 2–7 days.
Human • No symptoms or an • Currently no vaccine to prevent
HIV Immunodeficiency Virus influenza-like illness HIV.
including fever, headache,
rash or sore throat.
Japanese encephalitis • Mild (fever and headache) • Vaccines are available for
virus (JEV) is a mosquito- or no symptoms. protection against Japanese
borne flavivirus and Encephalitis.
Japanese belongs to the same
Encephalitis genus as dengue.
H1N1 and H3N2 strains • Fever, but not always, Chills, • H1N1 vaccine is available for
of the flu (influenza) Cough, Sore throat, Runny Swine Flu.
virus. or stuffy nose, Watery, red
Swine Flu eyes, Body aches, Headache,
Fatigue, Diarrhoea, Nausea
and vomiting.
Rubella virus, which • High fever which lasts 4 to 7 • The measles vaccine has been in
belongs to the days. A runny nose, a cough, use since the 1960s.
Paramyxovirus family. red and watery eyes, and

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Measles small white spots inside the

cheeks can develop in the
initial stage. After several
days, a rash erupts, usually
on the face and upper neck.
Mumps virus, which • Swollen salivary glands that • Vaccines are available for
belongs to the cause the cheeks to puff out. protection against mumps.
Paramyxovirus family. • Other symptoms: pain in the
swollen salivary glands on
Mumps one or both sides of your
face, pain while chewing or
swallowing, fever, headache
and muscle aches, weakness
and fatigue and loss of
appetite.
Rubella virus is single • In children, symptoms • Rubella vaccine is commercially
stranded RNA virus of including a rash, low fever, available in a monovalent form,
the Togaviridae family nausea, mild conjunctivitis in a bivalent combination with
Rubella (genus Rubi virus). and rashes measles vaccine, as the trivalent
• Infected adults, more measles/mumps/rubella (MMR)
commonly women, may vaccine and in a few countries,
develop arthritis and painful also in a tetravalent measles /
joints that usually last from mumps / rubella / varicella
3–10 days. (MMRV) combination.
Lumpy skin Capripox virus • Nodules, Fever, Swelling • Goat Pox vaccine
disease (LSD) • Discharge: Discharge from
the nose and eyes, and
increased saliva production.
• Reduced milk production
• Other symptoms:
Depression, anorexia,
emaciation, and enlarged
lymph nodes.
• Pregnant animals may abort.
• Sterility: Bulls may become
temporarily or permanently
infertile.

Viruses and Cancer

• Viruses insert themselves into host cell DNA in order to make more virus particles.
• Cancer is a disease that occurs as the result of mutations or alterations to DNA.
• Because viruses affect the DNA of host cells, viruses are known to contribute to several different types of
cancer, eg. Hepatitis B and hepatitis C for liver cancer.

B. Bacterial Infections
• A bacterial infection is a proliferation of a harmful strain of bacteria on or inside the body. Bacteria can
infect any area of the body.
• Pneumonia, meningitis, and food poisoning are just a few illnesses that may be caused by harmful
bacteria.

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Disease Bacteria Symptoms Vaccine

Typhoid Salmonella typhi • Fever that starts low and increases • Several typhoid vaccines are
bacteria daily, possibly reaching as high as currently available which can
104.9 f, headache, weakness and be administered orally or
fatigue, muscle aches, sweating, dry parenterally.
cough, loss of appetite and weight
loss, abdominal pain, diarrhoea or
constipation, rash and extremely
swollen abdomen.
Pneumonia Streptococcus • Chest pain, cough (which may • Vaccines are available for
pneumoniae produce phlegm), fatigue, fever, protection against
sweating and shaking chills, nausea, pneumonia.
vomiting or diarrhoea and shortness
of breath.
Diphtheria Corynebacterium • Respiratory Diphtheria: Weakness, • Vaccines are available for
diphtheriae sore throat, mild fever and swollen protection against
glands in the neck. diphtheria.
• Diphtheria Skin Infection: The
bacteria can also infect the skin,
causing open sores or ulcers.
Pertussis Bordetella Mild fever, runny nose and cough, which • Vaccines are available for
(Whooping pertussis in typical cases gradually develops into a protection against whooping
cough) hacking cough followed by whooping cough.
(hence the common name of whooping
cough).

Tetanus Clostridium Painful muscle contractions, particularly • Vaccines are available for
tetani of the jaw and neck muscle, and is protection against tetanus.
commonly known as “lockjaw”.

Cholera Vibrio cholerae Acute watery diarrhoea. • Vaccines are available for
protection against cholera.
Anthrax Bacillus • Cutaneous anthrax: A raised, itchy • There is a vaccine against
anthracis. bump resembling an insect bite that anthrax, but it is not
quickly develops into a painless sore approved for widespread use
(Anthrax mainly with a black centre; Swelling in the because it has never been
affects livestock sore and nearby lymph glands. comprehensively tested in
and wild game. • Gastrointestinal anthrax: Nausea, human trials.
Humans can vomiting, abdominal pain, headache,
become infected loss of appetite, fever, severe,
through direct or bloody diarrhoea in the later stages
indirect contact of the disease, sore throat and
with sick swollen neck.
animals.) • Inhalation anthrax: Flu-like
symptoms for a few hours or days,
such as sore throat, mild fever,
fatigue and muscle aches.
• Injection anthrax: Redness at the
area of injection (without an area
that changes to black), significant

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swelling, shock, multiple organ

failure and meningitis.
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium • Prolonged cough, chest pain, • Vaccines are available for
tuberculosis weakness or fatigue, weight loss, protection against
fever and night sweats. tuberculosis.
Leprosy Mycobacterium • Symptoms may occur within 1 year • India has developed the
leprae but can also take as long as 20 years world’s first leprosy vaccine,
(Hansen’s or even more to occur. Mycobacterium Indicus
disease) • Clinical signs are easy to observe. Pranii (MIP) vaccine.
Skin lesion has usually a different
pigmentation than the surrounding
normal skin (less pigmented, reddish
or copper-coloured) and may have
various aspects (flat, raised or
nodules).
• Skin smears are also used to
diagnose leprosy.
Plague Yersinia pestis • Influenza-like symptoms after an • Vaccines are available for
bacteria incubation period of 3–7 days. protection against Plague.
Symptoms include fever, chills,
aches, weakness, vomiting and
nausea.

C. Protozoan Infections
• Protozoan infections are common causes of disease in tropical regions throughout the world. Sometimes
protozoan infections cause skin and mucous membrane disease.
• Infections caused by protozoa can be spread through ingestion of cysts (the dormant life stage), sexual
transmission, or through insect vectors. Protozoan infections can be transmitted by arthropods, such as
sand-flies in leishmaniosis or bugs in trypanosomiasis. Animals may act as vectors.

Disease Protozoan Common Symptom Vaccine

Malaria Plasmodium parasites • Fever, headache and • There is currently no
chills. commercially available
(The parasites are spread to malaria vaccine. Over 20
people through the bites of other vaccine constructs
infected female Anopheles are currently being
mosquitoes, called "malaria evaluated in clinical trials
vectors." There are 5 parasite or are in advanced
species that cause malaria in preclinical development.
humans, and 2 of these species –
P. falciparum and P. vivax – pose
the greatest threat.)

Amoebic Entamoeba histolytica • Asymptomatic infection, • No vaccine is available.

dysentery diarrhoea and dysentery
to fulminant colitis and
peritonitis as well as
extra-intestinal
amoebiasis.

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Sleeping Trypanosoma brucei • Fever, severe headaches, • There is currently

Sickness irritability, extreme no vaccine.
(It is spread by the bite of an fatigue, swollen lymph
(Human infected tsetse fly (Glossina nodes, and aching
African Genus), a species native to the muscles and joints.
Trypanosomia African continent.)
sis)

Kala-azar Leishmania parasites (which are • Irregular bouts of fever, • No vaccine or drug has
transmitted by the bite of substantial weight loss, been provided to induce
infected female sand-flies) swelling of the spleen long-term protection and
and liver, and anaemia. ensure effective immunity
against Kala-azar.

D. Fungal Infections
• Fungal diseases are often caused by fungi that are common in the environment. Most fungi are not
dangerous, but some types can be harmful to health.
• Mild fungal skin diseases can look like a rash and are very common.
• Trichophyton and Microsporum are two most common forms of fungi causing skin infections in humans.
• Fungal diseases in the lungs are often similar to other illnesses such as the flu or tuberculosis.

Disease Fungus Symptoms Treatment

Candida Yeast (a type of • Patch of red, itchy skin, often leaking fluid. • Antifungal
albicans fungus) called medication.
Candida.

Athlete’s foot Trichophyton • Scaly rash that usually causes itching, • Antifungal
stinging and burning. medication.
(usually begins
between the
toes)

E. Helminthic Infections
• Helminths are parasitic worms. They are the most common infectious agents of humans in developing
countries and produce a global burden of disease that exceeds better-known conditions, including
malaria and tuberculosis.
• Helminthic parasites of humans belong to two phyla: Nemathelminthes, which includes nematodes
(roundworms), and Platyhelminthes, which includes cestodes (tapeworms) and trematodes (flukes).
• Helminths either live as parasites, or free of a host, in aquatic and terrestrial environments.

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Disease Cause Symptoms Treatment

Elephant’s foot Caused by infection • Majority of infections are • There are medicines
with parasites asymptomatic, showing no external to treat
(Lymphatic signs. elephantiasis.
classified as
filariasis) • When lymphatic filariasis develops into
nematodes
(roundworms) like chronic conditions it leads to
Wuchereria bancrofti, lymphoedema (tissue swelling) or
which is responsible elephantiasis (skin/tissue thickening) of
limbs and hydrocele (scrotal swelling).
for 90% of the cases.
Involvement of breasts and genital
(Mosquitoes are organs is common.
infected with
microfilariae by
ingesting blood when
biting an infected host.
Microfilariae mature
into infective larvae
within the mosquito.
When infected
mosquitoes bite
people, mature
parasite larvae are
deposited on the skin
from where they can
enter the body.)

Ascariasis Ascaris lumbricoides, a • The first sign may be the passage of a • Ascariasis can be
large roundworm. live worm, usually in the faeces. In a effectively treated
(infection of the severe infection, intestinal blockage with mebendazole
small intestine) may cause abdominal pain, particularly or pyrantel
in children. pamoate.
• People may also experience cough,
wheezing and difficulty in breathing, or
fever.
5.10.2 NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES/NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES (NCDS)
• A non-communicable disease is a non-infectious health condition that cannot be spread from person to
person. It also lasts for a long period of time.
• NCDs are also known as chronic diseases, tend to be of long duration and are the result of a combination
of genetic, physiological, environmental and behaviors factors.
• The main types of NCDs are cardiovascular diseases (like heart attacks and stroke), cancers, chronic
respiratory diseases (such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma) and diabetes.
• NCDs disproportionately affect people in low- and middle-income countries where more than three
quarters of global NCD deaths – 32million – occur.
• People of all age groups, regions and countries are affected by NCDs.
• A combination of genetic, physiological, lifestyle, and environmental factors can cause these diseases.
Some risk factors include:
- unhealthy diets

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- lack of physical activity

- smoking and secondhand smoke
- excessive use of alcohol

A. Deficiency Diseases
• Diseases that occur due to lack of nutrients over a long period are called deficiency diseases or nutritional
disease. Deficiency of one or more nutrients can cause diseases or disorders in our body.
• For example, wheat is rich in carbohydrates, but poor in nutrients like proteins and fats. Too much intake
of wheat products results in a deficiency of proteins and fats, which reduces growth.
• Lack of proteins also results in stunted growth, skin diseases, swelling of the face and discolouration of
the hair, and even causes diarrhoea.
• Deficiency of different vitamins and minerals may also result in certain diseases or disorders. So a balanced
diet is required to avoid deficiency diseases.

Vitamins Major Deficiency Disorders Source

Vitamin A (Retinol) Night blindness, xerophthalmia, increased risk of Spinach, carrots, butter and mangoes.
mortality in children and pregnant women.
Vitamin B6 (Folate) Megaloblastic anaemia, neural tube and other Pork, chicken, soya beans, oats, bananas
birth defects, heart disease, stroke impaired and wheat.
cognitive function and depression.
Vitamin B12 Megaloblastic anaemia (associated with Non-vegetarian food like meat.
(Cobolamine) Helicobacter pylori induced gastric atrophy).
Vitamin B1 Beriberi (cardiac and neurologic), Wernicke and Eggs, meat and yeast.
(Thiamine) Korsakov syndromes (alcoholic confusion and
paralysis).
Vitamin B2 Non-specific fatigue, eye changes, dermatitis, Green leafy vegetables, beans, peas and
(Riboflavin) brain dysfunction and impaired iron absorption. milk.
Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Pellagra (dermatitis, diarrhoea, dementia and Fish, meat, whole grains and fortified
death). cereals.
Vitamin B6 Dermatitis, neurological disorders, convulsion and Green leafy vegetables.
anaemia elevated plasma homocysteine.
Vitamin C Scurvy (fatigue, haemorrhages, low resistance to Lime, lemon and oranges.
(Ascorbic acid) infection and anaemia).
Vitamin D Rickets, osteomalacia, osteoporosis and colorectal Milk, fish and liver oil.
(Calciferol) cancer.
Vitamin K Excessive bleeding due to injury. Green leafy vegetables.
(Phylioquinone)

Minerals Major Deficiency Disorders Source

Iodine Goitre, hypothyroidism, iodine deficiency Fish and salt.
disorders, increased risk of stillbirth, birth defects
infant mortality and cognitive impairment.
Calcium Decreased bone mineralization, Rickets and Milk and green leafy vegetables
Osteoporosis.
Iron Iron deficiency anaemia, reduced learning and Green vegetables, pulses and meat
work capacity, maternal and infant mortality and
low birth weight.

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Zinc Poor pregnancy outcome, impaired growth Meat, beans, nuts, crabs, whole grains,
(stunting), genetic disorders, decreased resistance fortified cereals and dairy products.
to infectious diseases
Fluoride Increased dental decay and affects bone health. Water, tea, coffee, shellfish, potatoes
and grapes.
Selenium Cardiomyopathy, increased cancer and Seafood, meat, cereals and dairy
cardiovascular risk. products.
Phosphorus Bad teeth and bones Pulses, cereals and milk.
Copper Low appetite and retarded growth. Pulses and leafy vegetables.

B. Lifestyle Diseases
• Lifestyle disorders are constituted of diseases that occur majorly on the basis of living habits and lifestyle
of people.
• They also occur due to the relationship of the people with their respective environments.
• The important factors that accord to lifestyle disorders are low physical activity, food habits, disturbed
sleeping patterns, competitive living and incorrect body posture.
• The most common familial causes of these lifestyle disorders are related to diet — consuming unhealthy
foods, uncontrolled eating, overindulgence on artificial sweeteners, processed foods, and junk foods.
• In addition, addictive habits like tobacco smoking, eating paan, consumption of alcohol, irregular
sleeping habits, very limited exposure to sun and fresh air, stress and modern-day urbanization have
made matters worse.
• They are the reasons for more than 60% of deaths all over world and majority of them are in developing
countries like India.
• Examples: Diabetes, Obesity, Hypothyroidism, Cancer, Hypertension, Cardiovascular Diseases, Chronic
Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), etc.

C. Cancer
• Cancer is the name given to a collection of related diseases. In all types of cancer, some of the body’s
cells begin to divide without stopping and spread into surrounding tissues.
• Cancer is a genetic disease i.e. it is caused by changes to genes that control the way our cells function,
especially how they grow and divide.
• They can also arise during a person’s lifetime as a result of errors that occur as cells divide or because of
damage to DNA caused by certain environmental exposures.
• Cancer causing environmental exposures include substances, such as the chemicals in tobacco smoke
and radiation, such as ultraviolet rays from the sun.
• Each person’s cancer has a unique combination of genetic changes. As the cancer continues to grow,
additional changes will occur. Even within the same tumor, different cells may have different genetic
changes.
• In general, cancer cells have more genetic changes, such as mutations in DNA, than normal cells.
• The genetic changes that contribute to cancer tend to affect three main types of genes—proto-
oncogenes, tumour suppressor genes and DNA repair genes. These changes are sometimes called
“drivers” of cancer.
Types
• There are more than 100 types of cancer.
• Types of cancer are usually named for the organs or tissues where the cancers form.
• For example, lung cancer starts in cells of the lung and brain cancer starts in cells of the brain.

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• Cancers also may be described by the type of cell that formed them, such as an epithelial cell or a
squamous cell.
Differences between Cancer Cells and Normal Cells
• Cancer cells are less specialized than normal cells i.e., whereas normal cells mature into very distinct cell
types with specific functions, cancer cells do not. This is one reason that, unlike normal cells, cancer cells
continue to divide without stopping.
• Cancer cells are able to ignore signals that normally tell cells to stop dividing or that begin a process
known as programmed cell death, or apoptosis, which the body uses to get rid of unneeded cells.
• Cancer cells may be able to influence the normal cells, molecules, and blood vessels that surround and
feed a tumour—an area known as the microenvironment. For instance, cancer cells can induce nearby
normal cells to form blood vessels that supply tumours with oxygen and nutrients, which they need to
grow.
• Cancer cells are also often able to evade the immune system, a network of organs, tissues, and specialized
cells that protects the body from infections and other conditions.
• Tumours can also use the immune system to stay alive and grow. For example, with the help of certain
immune system cells that normally prevent a runaway immune response, cancer cells can actually keep
the immune system from killing cancer cells.
D. Auto-Immune Diseases
• An autoimmune disease is a condition in which person’s immune system mistakenly attacks own body.
• The immune system normally guards against germs like bacteria and viruses. When it senses these foreign
invaders, it sends out an army of fighter cells to attack them.
• Normally, the immune system can tell the difference between foreign cells and one’s own cells.
• In an autoimmune disease, the immune system mistakes part of own body, like one’s joints or skin, as
foreign. It releases proteins called autoantibodies that attack healthy cells.
• Some autoimmune diseases target only one organ. Type 1 diabetes damages the pancreas. Other
diseases, like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), affect the whole body.
• There are more than 80 different autoimmune diseases, the most common ones are: Type 1 diabetes,
Multiple sclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease etc.

CURRENT CONNECT
• Cervical Cancer: A growth of cells that starts in the cervix. The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that connects
to the vagina.
- Cancer of the cervix (literally, the neck of the womb) is unique
among cancers because almost all the cases (99%, according to
the World Health Organization) are linked to infection with the
human papillomavirus (HPV).
- Cervical cancer ranks as the second leading cause of cancer-
related deaths among women in India
• Transmission: A common virus transmitted through sexual contact.
• Types of cervical cancer: Cervical cancer is divided into types based
on the type of cell in which the cancer begins.
• Squamous cell carcinoma: This type of cervical cancer begins in thin,
flat cells, called squamous cells. The squamous cells line the outer
part of the cervix. Most cervical cancers are squamous cell
carcinomas.

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• Adenocarcinoma: This type of cervical cancer begins in the column-shaped gland cells that line the cervical canal.
• Diagnosis: Emphasize the irony that cervical cancer, easily diagnosable with minimal tools such as VIA and VILI
tests, which can identify precancerous lesions and cancer at an early stage.
• Treatment:
- Surgery: When cervical cancer happens, it's often first treated with surgery to remove the cancer.
- Medicine: Other treatments may include medicines to kill the cancer cells.
- Chemotherapy: Options might include chemotherapy and targeted therapy medicines.
- Radiation therapy with powerful energy beams also may be used.
- Combine: Sometimes treatment combines radiation with low-dose chemotherapy.
• India’s status: It is the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths among women in India (over 77,000
annually).
- Estimated to be the second most frequent cancer among Indian women between 15 and 44 years.

==========================================================================================

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

Q1. 'Wolbachia method' is sometimes talked about (d) They protect the body from the diseases caused
with reference to which one of the following? (2023) by pathogens.
(a) Controlling the viral diseases spread by
Q4. With reference to recent developments
mosquitoes.
regarding ‘Recombinant Vector Vaccines’, consider
(b) Converting crop residues into packing material.
the following statements:
(c) Producing biodegradable plastics.
1. Genetic engineering is applied in the
(d) Producing biochar from thermo-chemical
development of these vaccines.
conversion of biomass.
2. Bacteria and viruses are used as vectors.
Q2. In the context of vaccines manufactured to Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following (2021)
statements: (a) 1 only
1. The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 (b) 2 only
vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform. (c) Both 1 and 2
2. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector (d) Neither 1 nor 2
based platform.
Q5. The term ‘ACE2’ is talked about in the context
3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen based
of: (2021)
vaccine.
(a) genes introduced in the genetically modified
Which of the statements given above are correct?
plants
(2022)
(b) development of India's own satellite navigation
(a) 1 and 2 only
system
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) radio collar for wildlife tracking
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) spread of viral diseases
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Q6. In the context of hereditary diseases, consider
Q3. Which one of the following statements best
the following statements:
describes the role of B cells and T cells in the human
1. Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent
body? (2022)
to child can be prevented by mitochondrial
(a) They protect the body from environmental
replacement therapy either before or after in
allergens.
vitro fertilization of egg.
(b) They alleviate the body’s pain and inflammation.
2. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases from
(c) They act as immunosuppressants in the body.
both mother and father.

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Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 2. Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure
(2021) diseases
(a) 1 only 3. Using antibiotics in livestock farming
(b) 2 only 4. Multiple chronic diseases in some people
(c) Both 1 and 2 Select the correct answer using the code given
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 below: (2019)
(a) 1 and 2 only
Q7. What is the importance of using Pneumococcal
(b) 2 and 3 only
Conjugate Vaccines in India?
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only
1. These vaccines are effective against pneumonia
(d) 2, 3 and 4
as well as meningitis and sepsis.
2. Dependence on antibiotics that are not effective Q11. Which one of the following statements is not
against drug-resistant bacteria can be reduced. correct? (2019)
3. These vaccines have no side effects and cause no (a) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV.
allergic reactions. (b) Hepatitis B, unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a
Select the correct answer using the code given vaccine.
below: (2020) (c) Globally, the number of people infected with
(a) 1 only Hepatitis B and C viruses are several times more
(b) 1 and 2 only than those infected with HIV.
(c) 3 only (d) Some of those infected with Hepatitis B and C
(d) 1, 2 and 3 viruses do not show the symptoms for many
years.
Q8. In the context of recent advances in human
reproductive technology, 'Pronuclear Transfer" is Q12. Consider the following statements:
used for (2020) 1. In tropical regions, Zika virus disease is
(a) Fertilization of egg in vitro by the donor sperm transmitted by the same mosquito that
(b) Genetic modification of sperm producing cells transmits dengue.
(c) Development of stem cells into functional 2. Sexual transmission of Zika virus disease is
embryos possible.
(d) Prevention of mitochondrial diseases in Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
offspring (2017)
Q9. 'RNA interference (RNAi)' technology has gained (a) 1 only
popularity in the last few years. Why? (b) 2 only
1. It is used in developing gene silencing therapies. (c) Both 1 and 2
2. It can be used in developing therapies for the (d) Neither 1 nor 2
treatment of cancer. Q13. H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the
3. It can be used to develop hormone replacement news with reference to which one of the following
therapies. diseases? (2015)
4. It can be used to produce crop plants that are (a) AIDS
resistant to viral pathogens. (b) Bird flu
Select the correct answer using the code given (c) Dengue
below: (2019) (d) Swine flu
(a) 1, 2 and 4
(b) 2 and 3 only Q14. With reference to the use of nano-technology
(c) 1 and 3 only in health sector, which of the following statements
(d) 1 and 4 only is/are correct?
1. Targeted drug delivery is made possible by
Q10. Which of the following are the reasons for the nanotechnology.
occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial 2. Nanotechnology can largely contribute to gene
pathogens in India? therapy.
1. Genetic predisposition of some people Select the correct answer using the code given
below. (2015)

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(a) 1 only Which of the above diseases has/have been

(b) 2 only eradicated in India? (2014)
(c) Both 1 and 2 (a) 1 and 2 only
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 (b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
Q15. Consider the following pairs:
(d) None
Vitamin Deficiency Disease
1. Vitamin C Scurvy Q17. Which of the following diseases can be
2. Vitamin D Rickets transmitted from one person to another through
3. Vitamin E Night blindness tattooing?
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly 1. Chikungunya
matched? (2014) 2. Hepatitis B
(a) 1 and 2 only 3. HIV-AIDS
(b) 3 only Select the correct answer using the codes given
(c) 1, 2 and 3 below: (2013)
(d) None of the Above (a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
Q16. Consider the following diseases:
(c) 1 and 3 only
1. Diphtheria
(d) 1, 2 and 3
2. Chickenpox
3. Smallpox

ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (a)
10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (b)

==========================================================================================

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6 GENETICS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

6.1 CONCEPT OF HEREDITY & VARIATIONS
• Genetics is called the ‘Science of heredity and variation’.
• Heredity means continuity of features from one generation to another. A dog reproduces to give birth
to pups only. This is the essence of heredity.
• Hereditary information is present in the fertilised egg or zygote. The zygote develops into an organism
of a particular type only.
• Asexual reproduction tends to preserve the similarities among all the individuals belonging to a given
line of descent. While in sexual reproduction, both similarity and variation are clearly observed even
among offspring. Thus, heredity can be defined as, ‘resemblances among individuals related by descent’
or ‘the transmission of traits from parents to the offspring’.
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is the carrier of the genetic information from generation to generation.
Every chromosome contains DNA and genes are segments of DNA. In some viruses, Ribonucleic Acid
(RNA) is the genetic material.

6.1.1 GENES AS UNIT OF HEREDITY

• Genes are the units of heredity and are the
instructions that make up the body’s blueprint. They
code for the proteins that determine virtually all of
a person's characteristics.
• Humans have an estimated 35,000 genes.
• Most genes come in pairs and are made of strands
of genetic material called deoxyribonucleic acid,
or DNA.
• Genetic disorders are caused by one or more
changes, or mutations, in the instruction code of a
particular gene(s), preventing the gene(s) from
functioning properly.
• The study of human genetics is the study of human variation that is carried in the genes.
• The physical location of a gene is its locus. Different versions of genes are called alleles. For example, an
eye colour gene may have a blue allele and a brown allele.
• Genes are organized in structures called chromosomes.

6.1.2 CHROMOSOMES
• In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is
packaged into thread-like structures called
chromosomes.
• Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled
many times around proteins called histones that
support its structure.
• In humans, each cell normally contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes, for a total of 46.
• Twenty-two of these pairs, called autosomes, look
the same in both males and females.

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• The 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes, differ between males and females.
• Females have two copies of the X chromosome, while males have one X and one Y chromosome.

6.1.3 DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)

• DNA is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms.
• It is considered the ‘blueprint’ of the cell; it carries all of the genetic information required for the cell to
grow, to take in nutrients, and to propagate.
• Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can
also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).
• The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine (C) and thymine (T).
• Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in
all people.
• The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the information available for building and maintaining
an organism, similar to the way in which letters of the alphabet appear in a certain order to form words
and sentences.
• DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is
also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule.
• Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long
strands that form a spiral called a double helix.
• An important property of DNA is that it can replicate or make copies of itself.
• Each strand of DNA in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases.
• Only about 1 percent of DNA is made up of protein-coding genes; the other 99 percent is noncoding.
Noncoding DNA does not provide instructions for making proteins. Scientists once thought noncoding
DNA was ‘junk’, with no known purpose.

6.1.4 RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)

• RNA is one of the three major biological macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life
(along with DNA and proteins).
• Cells access the information stored in DNA by creating RNA to direct the synthesis of proteins through
the process of translation.
• The three main types of RNA directly involved in protein synthesis are messenger RNA (mRNA),
ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA).
- Messenger RNA (mRNA) serves as the intermediary between DNA and the synthesis of protein
products during translation. If DNA serves as the complete library of cellular information, mRNA
serves as a photocopy of specific information needed at a particular point in time that serves as the
instructions to make a protein. If a cell requires a certain protein to be synthesized, the gene for
this product is ‘turned on’ and the mRNA is synthesized through the process of transcription.
- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a type of stable RNA that is a major constituent of ribosomes. It ensures
the proper alignment of the mRNA and the ribosomes during protein synthesis and catalyzes the
formation of the peptide bonds between two aligned amino acids during protein synthesis.
- Transfer RNA (tRNA) is a small type of stable RNA that carries an amino acid to the corresponding
site of protein synthesis in the ribosome. It is the base pairing between the tRNA and mRNA that
allows for the correct amino acid to be inserted in the polypeptide chain being synthesized.

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• Although RNA does not serve as the hereditary information in most cells, RNA does hold this function for
many viruses that do not contain DNA. Thus, RNA clearly does have the additional capacity to serve as
genetic information.
• Although RNA is typically single stranded within cells, there is significant diversity in viruses.
Rhinoviruses, which cause the common cold; influenza viruses and the Ebola virus are single-stranded
RNA viruses. Rotaviruses, which cause severe gastroenteritis in children and other immunocompromised
individuals, are examples of double-stranded RNA viruses.

(a) DNA is typically double stranded, whereas RNA is typically single stranded.
(b) Although it is single stranded, RNA can fold upon itself, with the folds stabilized by short areas of
complementary base pairing within the molecule, forming a three-dimensional structure.

6.1.5 ALLELES
• An allele is a variant form of a gene.
• Humans are called diploid organisms because they have two alleles at each genetic locus, with one allele
inherited from each parent.
• Each pair of alleles represents the genotype of a specific gene.
• Alleles contribute to the organism's phenotype, which is the outward appearance of the organism

6.2 ABO BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM IN HUMANS

• There are four common blood groups in the ABO system: O, A, B, and AB.
• The blood groups are defined by the presence of specific carbohydrate sugars on the surface of red blood
cells.
• An ABO incompatible blood transfusion can be fatal, due to the highly immunogenic nature of the A and
B antigens, and the corresponding strongly haemolytic antibodies.
• The ABO antigens are developed well before birth and remain throughout life. Children acquire ABO
antibodies passively from their mother before birth, but by three months of age infants are making their

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own; it is believed that the stimulus for such antibody formation is from contact with ABO-like antigenic
substances in nature.
• The ABO blood type is inherited in an autosomal codominant fashion. The A and B alleles are codominant,
and the O allele is recessive.

6.3 CHEMISTRY OF BLOOD TRANSFUSION

• A blood transfusion is a common, safe medical
Blood Donate Blood To Receive Blood
procedure in which healthy blood is given to the
Type From
person through an intravenous (IV) line that has been
inserted in one of the blood vessels. Some people A+ A+, AB+ A+, A-, O+, O-
need blood transfusions for certain conditions and O+ O+, A+, B+, AB+ O+, O-
disorders, including: anaemia, haemophilia, cancer, B+ B+, AB+ B+, B-, O+, O-
sickle cell disease, kidney disease and liver diseases.
AB+ AB+ Everyone
• There are four common types of blood transfusions:
i. Red Blood Cell Transfusions: A person may A- A+, A-, AB+, AB- A-, O-
receive a red blood cell transfusion if they have O- Everyone O-
experienced blood loss, if they B- B+, B-, AB+, AB- B-, O-
have anaemia (such as iron deficiency anaemia),
or if they have a blood disorder. AB- AB+, AB- AB-, A-, B-, O-

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i. Platelet Transfusions: A platelet transfusion can help those who have lower platelet counts, such
as from chemotherapy or a platelet disorder.
i. Plasma Transfusions: Plasma contains proteins important for health. A person may receive a
plasma transfusion if they have experienced severe burns, infections, or liver failure.
ii. Whole Blood Transfusion: A person may receive a whole blood transfusion if they have experienced
a severe traumatic haemorrhage and require red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

6.3.1 O- AS UNIVERSAL DONOR

• People with type O- blood are called universal donors because their donated red blood cells have no A,
B or Rh antigens and can therefore be safely given to people of any blood group.

6.3.2 AB+ AS UNIVERSAL ACCEPTOR

• People with type AB+ blood are universal recipients because they have no antibodies to A, B or Rh in
their blood and can receive red blood cells from a donor of any blood type.

6.4 GENOME SEQUENCING & HUMAN GENOME PROJECT

• Genome Sequencing refers to entire genetic makeup of human beings. The genome is the totality of
genetic information of a cell, organism or organelle.
• This includes all genes as well as non-coding DNA sequences (e.g. introns, promoters, short tandem
repeats, etc.)
• The human genome is the genome of Homo sapiens, which is composed of 23 distinct pairs of
chromosomes (22 autosomal + XY/XX) with a total of approximately 3 billion DNA base pairs containing
an estimated 20,000–25,000 genes.
• Genome sequencing is figuring out the order of DNA nucleotides, or bases, in a genome—the order of
As, Cs, Gs, and Ts that make up an organism's DNA. The human genome is made up of over 3 billion of
these genetic letters.
• A DNA sequence that has been translated from life's chemical alphabet into the alphabets of written
letters might look like this:

• In this particular piece of DNA, an adenine (A) is followed by a guanine (G), which is followed by a thymine
(T), which in turn is followed by a cytosine (C), another cytosine (C), and so on.

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• There are an estimated 20,000–25,000 human protein-coding genes. The estimate of the number of
human genes has been repeatedly revised down from initial predictions of 100,000 or more as genome
sequence quality and gene finding methods have improved, and could continue to drop further.

6.4.1 BENEFITS OF GENOME SEQUENCING

• Easy availability of Genes: The genome sequence will represent a valuable shortcut, helping scientists
find genes much more easily and quickly.
• Better Functioning: Understand how the genome as a whole works—how genes work together to direct
the growth, development and maintenance of an entire organism.
• New Studies: Genes account for less than 25 percent of the DNA in the genome, and so knowing the
entire genome sequence will help scientists study the parts of the genome outside the genes.
• Better Disease Diagnosis: Better understanding of genome might help in diagnosing many diseases at an
early stage or even before birth, gene functions, their metabolism etc.
• Replacement of Defective Genes: Knowledge may help in replacing defective genes.

6.4.2 THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP)

• Begun formally in 1990, the U.S. Human Genome Project was a 13-year effort coordinated by the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE) and the National Institutes of Health. The project originally was planned to
last 15 years, but rapid technological advances accelerated the completion date to 2003.
• HGP goals
- identify all the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA,
- determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA,
- store this information in databases,
- improve tools for data analysis,
- transfer related technologies to the private sector, and
- address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project.
• To help achieve these goals, researchers also studied the genetic makeup of several nonhuman
organisms. These include the common human gut bacterium Escherichia coli, the fruit fly, and the
laboratory mouse.
• The completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003 lead to many outcomes. Some important
outcomes are:
- Mapping - The number, location, size and sequence of human genes is now established.
- Screening - This has allowed for the production of specific gene probes to detect sufferers and
carriers of genetic diseases.
- Medicine - The discovery of new proteins have led to improved treatments (pharmacogenetics and
rational drug design).

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- Ancestry - Comparisons with other genomes have provided insight into the origins, evolution and
migratory patterns of man
6.4.3 GENOME INDIAN PROJECT
• Taking inspiration from the Human Genome Project, the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) initiated
the ambitious ‘Genome India Project’ (GIP) on 3rd January 2020. The GIP aims to collect 10,000 genetic
samples from citizens across India, to build a reference genome.
• The project is led by the Centre for Brain Research at Bengaluru-based Indian Institute of Science, which
acts as the central coordinator between a collaboration of 20 leading institutions, each collecting samples
and conducting its own research.
• Institutes involved include the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) in Bengaluru as well as several Indian
Institutes of Technology (IITs). For conducting the project, investigators in hospitals will lead the data
collection through a simple blood test from participants and the information will be added to biobanks.
• Some of the priority areas are Precision health, Rare genetic disorders, Mutation spectrum of genetic
and complex diseases in the Indian population, Genetic Epidemiology of Multifactorial Lifestyle
Diseases, and Translational Research.
• This initiative reflects India’s progress in gene therapies and precision medicine, and its movement
towards emerging next-generation medicine which yields the possibilities for greater customization,
safety, and earlier detection.
• This initiative would help lay the foundation of personalized healthcare for a very large group of persons
on the planet.
6.4.4 INDIGEN INITIATIVE
• Launch: Undertaken by CSIR in April 2019.
• Implementing Agencies: CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB), Delhi.
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad.
• Objective: Facilitate genetic epidemiology.
- Develop public health technology applications using population genome data.
• Achievements: Benchmarking scalability of genome sequencing and computational analysis at a
population scale within a defined timeline.
• Significance: Enables decoding of the human genetic blueprint via whole genome sequencing.
- Acts as a major driver for biomedical science advancements.
• Aim: Conduct whole genome sequencing for thousands of individuals representing diverse ethnic groups
from India.
6.5 BIOTECHNOLOGY & ITS TYPES
• The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity has come up with one of many definitions of
biotechnology: “Biotechnology means any technological application that uses biological systems, living
organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use.”
• It includes various laboratory techniques which enhance the usefulness of various biological organisms
or products to mankind.
• In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in all the areas: pharmacogenomics,
drug production, genetic testing and gene therapy.

Types of Biotechnology
1. Green biotechnology:
- Green biotechnology is defined as the application of biological techniques to plants with the aim of
improving the nutritional quality, quantity and production economics.
- It is done by implanting foreign genes to plant species that is economically important.
- This contains three main areas: plant tissue culture; plant genetic engineering and plant molecular
marker assisted breeding.

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2. Red biotechnology:
- Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes and is concerned with the discovery and
development of innovative drugs and treatments.
- A key prerequisite was an increasing understanding of how proteins function, their roles in
communication between and within cells, and the diseases caused when these proteins
malfunction. This includes: Gene Therapy, Stem Cells, Genetic Testing, designing of organisms to
produce antibiotics etc.
3. White biotechnology:
- This field of biotechnology is applied to industrial processes. White biotech uses moulds, yeasts,
bacteria and enzymes to produce goods and services or parts of products.
- It offers a wide range of bio-products like detergents, vitamins, antibiotics etc.
- Most of the white biotech processes results in the saving of water, energy, chemicals and in the
reduction of waste compared to traditional methods.
4. Blue biotechnology:
- Blue biotechnology is concerned with the application of molecular biological methods to marine and
freshwater organisms.
- It involves the use of these organisms, and their derivatives, for multiple purposes, the most
remarkable are the identification process and development of new active ingredients from marine
origin.
5. Yellow biotechnology:
- Yellow biotechnology’ refers to biotechnology with insects — analogous to the green (plants) and red
(animals) biotechnology.
- Active ingredients or genes in insects are characterized and used for research or application in
agriculture and medicine.
6.6 PRINCIPLES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
• Among many, the two core techniques that enabled birth of modern biotechnology are:
i. Genetic Engineering: Techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material (DNA and RNA), to
introduce these into host organisms and thus change the phenotype of the host organism.
ii. Bioprocess Engineering: Maintenance of sterile (microbial contamination-free) ambience in
chemical engineering processes to enable growth of only the desired microbe/eukaryotic cell in
large quantities for the manufacture of biotechnological products like antibiotics, vaccines,
enzymes, etc.

6.7 GENETIC ENGINEERING & RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

6.7.1 GENETIC ENGINEERING
• Genetic engineering, sometimes called genetic modification, is the process of altering the DNA in an
organism’s genome; changing one base pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a whole region of DNA, or introducing
an additional copy of a gene.
• It may also mean extracting DNA from another organism’s genome and combining it with the DNA of that
individual.
• Genetic engineering is used by scientists to enhance or modify the characteristics of an individual
organism.
• Genetic engineering can be applied to any organism, from a virus to a sheep.

A. Benefits
• Organisms can be ‘tailor-made’ to show desirable characteristics. Genes can also be manipulated in
trees, for example, to absorb more CO2 and reduce the threat of global warming.
• Genetic disorders may also be fixed by replacing the faulty gene with a functional gene.

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• Disease-carrying insects, such as mosquitoes, may be engineered into becoming sterile insects. This will
help in curbing the spread of certain diseases, e.g. malaria and dengue fever.
• Genetic Engineering could increase genetic diversity and produce more variant alleles that could also
be crossed over and implanted into other species. It is possible to alter the genetics of wheat plants to
grow insulin as an example.

B. Hazards of Genetic Engineering

• If a wrong DNA segment is inserted and if it gets expressed, it can cause new diseases in human beings.
• Aid in biological warfare.
• New strains of bacteria, fauna, can be hostile to human being.
• Genetic engineering borderlines on many moral and ethical issues.

6.7.2 RECOMBINANT DNA (RDNA) TECHNOLOGY

• rDNA technology refers to the joining together of DNA molecules from two different species that are
inserted into a host organism to produce new genetic combinations that are of value to science,
medicine, agriculture, and industry.
• rDNA technology utilizes the power of microbiological selection and screening procedures to allow
investigators to isolate a gene that represents as little as 1 part in a million of the genetic material in an
organism. This process is called molecular cloning.
• Recombinant DNA in a living organism was first achieved in 1973 by Herbert Boyer, of the University of
California at San Francisco, and Stanley Cohen, at Stanford University, who used E. coli restriction
enzymes to insert foreign DNA into plasmids.

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Applications
i. Therapeutic Products – Vaccines, Growth Hormones, Antibodies, Vectors, Recombinant Protein ,
Anticancer Drugs
ii. Genetically Modified Products – Fruits, GM vegetables, GM crops, GM microbes, GM animals
iii. Energy Applications – Biohydrogen, Bioethanol, Biomethanol, Biobutanol
iv. Diagnosis – Gene Therapy, CRISPR, Monitoring Devices, Therapeutic strategies

6.8 TOOLS OF GENETIC ENGGINEERING

i. Restriction Enzymes and Ligases: The creation of rDNA molecules is possible due to the use of naturally
occurring restriction endonucleases (restriction enzymes), bacterial enzymes produced as a protection
mechanism to cut and destroy foreign cytoplasmic DNA that is most commonly a result of bacteriophage
infection. Each restriction enzyme cuts DNA at a characteristic recognition site, a specific, usually
palindromic, DNA sequence typically between four to six base pairs in length.
ii. Plasmids: After restriction digestion, genes of interest are commonly inserted into plasmids, small pieces
of typically circular, double-stranded DNA that replicate independently of the bacterial chromosome.
iii. Molecular Cloning using Transformation: The most commonly used mechanism for introducing
engineered plasmids into a bacterial cell is transformation, a process in which bacteria take up free DNA
from their surroundings.
iv. Molecular Cloning Using Conjugation or Transduction: The bacterial process of conjugation can also be
manipulated for molecular cloning. F plasmids, or fertility plasmids, are transferred between bacterial
cells through the process of conjugation.

6.9 VECTORLESS TRANSFER OF GENES

• It is the process of gene transfer into the host cell
without using a vector. This possible by four
important methods: Microinjection,
Electroporation, Chemical Mediated Gene Transfer,
Biolistic Method or Gene Gun method.
• Microinjection: An alternative method of
transfection is called microinjection. Because
eukaryotic cells are typically larger than those of
prokaryotes, DNA fragments can sometimes be
directly injected into the cytoplasm using a glass
micropipette.

6.10 APPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

6.10.1 APPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN MEDICINE

• Biotechnology techniques are used in medicine for diagnosis and treating different diseases. It gives
opportunities for the people to protect themselves from dangerous diseases.
• The field of Biotechnology, genetic engineering has introduced techniques like gene therapy,
recombinant DNA technology and polymerase chain reaction which use genes and DNA molecules to
diagnose diseases and insert new and healthy genes in the body which replace the damaged cells.
• There are some applications of biotechnology which are playing their part in the field of medicine and
giving good results:
1. Biopharmaceuticals:
- The drugs are being developed with the use of microorganisms without using any synthetic materials
and chemicals.

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- Large molecules of proteins are usually the source of biopharmaceutical drugs. They, when targeted
in the body, attack the hidden mechanisms of the diseases and destroy them without any side
effect(s).
- Now scientists are trying to develop such biopharmaceutical drugs which can be treated against the
diseases like hepatitis, cancer and heart diseases.
2. Gene therapy:
- It is an experimental technique that uses genetic modifications to treat or prevent disease. It allows
correction of a gene defect.
- Approaches to gene therapy:
1. Replacing a mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene.
2. Inactivating, or “knocking out,” a mutated gene that is functioning improperly.
3. Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease.
- For eg. A gene defect that has been diagnosed in a child/embryo. Here genes are inserted into a
person’s cells and tissues to treat a disease. Correction of a genetic defect involves delivery of a
normal gene into the individual or embryo to take over the function of and compensate for the non-
functional gene.
- The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4-year old girl with adenosine deaminase
(ADA). This enzyme is crucial for the immune system to function. In some children ADA deficiency
can be cured by bone marrow transplantation; in others it can be treated by enzyme replacement
therapy, in which functional ADA is given to the patient by injection.
3. Pharmaco-genomics: Pharmaco-genomics is an additional genetically
modified method which is used to learn the genetic information of a
personality. It analyzes the body’s reply to sure drugs. It is the mixture
of pharmaceuticals and genomics. The aspires of this field is to expand
such drugs which are inserted in the person according to the genetic
information there in the individual.
4. Genetic Testing: It is a technique of heredity and is used to conclude the genetic diseases in parents, sex
and carrier screening. The technique of genetic testing is to use DNA probes which have the sequence
alike to the mutated sequences. This technique is also used to recognize the criminals and to test the
parenthood of the child.
5. Vaccines:
- Oral vaccines have been in the works for much existence as a likely solution to the increase of disease
in immature countries, where costs are excessive due to extensive vaccination.
- By planning and injecting antigenic proteins into the Genetically Modified crops from transferable
pathogens that will activate an immune will be a great help in dealing with such diseases.
- An example of this is a patient-specific vaccine for treating cancer. An anti-lymphoma vaccine has
been made using tobacco plants carrying RNA from cloned malignant B-cells. The resultant protein
is then used to vaccinate the patient and boost their immune system beside the cancer. Tailor-made
vaccines for cancer treatment have shown substantial promise in preliminary studies.
6. Genetically Engineered Insulin:
- Management of adult-onset diabetes is possible by taking insulin at regular time intervals which is
being isolated from pancreas of slaughtered animals like cattle, pigs and horses.
- Insulin from an animal source, though caused some patients to develop allergy or other types of
reactions to the foreign protein.
7. Molecular Diagnosis:
- For effective treatment of a disease, early diagnosis and understanding its pathophysiology is very
important.

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- Using conventional methods of diagnosis (serum and urine analysis, etc.) early detection is not
possible. Recombinant DNA technology, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Enzyme Linked
Immuno-sorbent Assay (ELISA) are some of the techniques that serve the purpose of early diagnosis.
- Presence of a pathogen (bacteria, viruses, etc.) is normally suspected only when the pathogen has
produced a disease symptom. By this time the concentration of pathogen is already very high in the
body.
- However, very low concentration of a bacteria or virus (at a time when the symptoms of the disease
are not yet visible) can be detected by amplification of their nucleic acid by PCR.
- PCR is now routinely used to detect HIV in suspected AIDS patients. It is being used to detect
mutations in genes in suspected cancer patients too. It is a powerful technique to identify many other
genetic disorders.
- ELISA is based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction. Infection by pathogen can be
detected by the presence of antigens (proteins, glycoproteins, etc.) or by detecting the antibodies
synthesised against the pathogen.
8. DNA Fingerprinting:
- The chemical structure of everyone’s DNA is the same. The only difference between people (or any
animal) is the order of the base pairs. There are so many millions of base pairs in each person’s DNA
that every person has a different sequence.
- Using these sequences, every person could be identified solely by the sequence of their base pairs.
- However, because there are so many millions of base pairs, the task would be very time-consuming.
Instead, scientists are able to use a shorter method, because of repeating patterns in DNA.
- These patterns do not, however, give an individual “fingerprint,” but they are able to determine
whether two DNA samples are from the same person, related people, or non-related people.
- Scientists use a small number of sequences of DNA that are known to vary among individuals, and
analyze those to get a certain probability of a match.
9. Stem Cells – Explained ahead in the next section.

6.10.2 APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENT

• The use of Biotechnology for solving environmental problems and ecosystem is known as Environmental
Biotechnology. It is applied and is used to study the natural environment.
• There are different types of Applications of Environmental Biotechnology.
1. Bio-marker: This type of Application of environmental Biotechnology gives response to a chemical
that helps to measure the level of damage caused or the exposure of the toxic or the pollution effect
caused. In other word, Biomarker can also be called as the Biological markers the major use of this
applications helps to relate the connection between the oils and its sources.
2. Bio-energy: The collective purport of Biogas, biomass, fuels, and hydrogen are called the Bioenergy.
The use of this application of Environment Biotechnology is in the industrial, domestic and space
sectors. One of the pioneer examples of green energy are the wastes collected from the organic and
biomass wastes. The Biomass energy supply has become a prominent importance in every country.
3. Bioremediation: The process of cleaning up the hazardous substances into non-toxic compounds is
called the Bioremediation process. This process is majorly used for any kind of technology clean up
that uses the natural microorganisms.
4. Biotransformation: The changes that take place in the biology of the environment which are changes
of the complex compound to simple non-toxic to toxic or the other way round is called the
biotransformation process. It is used in the Manufacturing sector where toxic substances are
converted to Bi-products.

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6.10.3 APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN FOOD PROCESSING

• Food processing is a process by which non-palatable and easily perishable raw materials are converted
to edible and potable foods and beverages, which have a longer shelf life.
• Biotechnology has a major application in the food sector. It helps in improving the edibility, texture, and
storage of the food; in preventing the attack of the food, mainly dairy, by the virus like bacteriophage;
producing antimicrobial effect to destroy the unwanted microorganisms in food that cause toxicity; to
prevent the formation of mycotoxins; and degradation of other toxins and anti-nutritional elements
present naturally in food.
• Biotechnology also plays a very important role in protein engineering. In this, favourable enzymes of the
microorganisms, which are responsible for the improved fermentation, are produced commercially at a
large scale by culturing the microorganisms in tanks, etc.
• The method, by which the microbial organisms and their derivatives are used to increase the edibility and
the shelf life of foods, is known as fermentation.
• Almost one-third of the diet in the whole world consists of fermented food. Hence the process of
fermentation must be carefully monitored especially in rural areas as improper method of fermentation
may cause contamination of food thereby, affecting the health of the people. Fermentation is also used
in preparing microbial cultures, food additives, preservatives, etc.
• Fermented foods have traditionally been known for their better flavour, texture and nutritional value.
Their high nutritional content led an interest in development of more high yielding strains for obtaining
better quality products. Most fermented foods are produced by solid state fermentation.
• Some examples of fermented foods are cheese, idli, dosa, buttermilk etc. Below are the production
processes for some of these fermented foods. The basic processes remain the same for these fermented
food production but the temperatures and detailed procedures differ from place to place.
- Yoghurt: Microorganism: Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus (1:1 ratio).
- Buttermilk: Microoganism: Streptococcus lactis and Streptococcus cremoris, Lecuconostoc
cremoris.
- Cheese: Microorganism: Streptococcus lactis, Streptococcus cremoris, Lactobacillus lactis for curd
formation Penicillium roquefortii, P. cammebertii for ripening.

6.10.4 APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE

Plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes have been altered by manipulation are called Genetically
Modified Organisms (GMO). Genetic modification has:
• made crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat).
• reduced reliance on chemical pesticides (pest-resistant crops).
• helped to reduce post harvest losses.
• increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants (this prevents early exhaustion of fertility of soil).
• enhanced nutritional value of food, e.g., Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice.

Some of the applications of biotechnology in agriculture are:

A. Bt. Cotton:
• Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill certain insects such as beetles,
lepidopterans (tobacco budworm) and dipterans (mosquitoes, flies).
• During a particular phase of growth, B. thuringiensis forms protein crystals. These crystals contain a
toxic insecticidal protein. This toxic protein exists as an inactive protoxins.
• But once insect eats this inactive toxin, it converts into an active form due to the alkaline pH of the gut
which solubilises the crystals.
• The activated toxin binds to the epithelial cells of mid-gut and creates pores that causes cell lysis, swelling
and eventually death of the insect.

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• Specific Bt toxin genes are isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis and are incorporated into several crop
plants for instance, cotton.
• As most Bt toxins are insect-group specific, therefore choice of gene depends upon the targeted pest and
crop.
• The toxin is coded by a gene named ‘cry’. There are many of them for instance; the proteins encoded by
the genes cryIAc and cryIIAb control the cotton bollworms and that of cryIAb control corn borer.

B. Pest Resistant Plants:

• Meloidegyne incognitia (a nematode) infects the roots of tobacco plants which results in the reduction
of crop yield.
• To prevent this infestation, a novel strategy was adopted which was based on the process of RNA
interference (RNAi). RNA interference takes place in all eukaryotic organisms. It is a method of cellular
defence.
• It involves silencing of a specific mRNA due to a complementary double stranded RNA molecule that
binds to and prevents translation of the mRNA (silencing).
• By using Agrobacterium vectors, nematode-specific genes are introduced into the host plant. The
introduced DNA produces both sense and anti-sense RNA in the host cells.
• These two RNA’s being complementary to each other form a double stranded (dsRNA). dsRNA initiates
RNAi and results in silencing the specific mRNA of the nematode.
• The result is that the parasite cannot survive in a transgenic host expressing specific interfering RNA and
the transgenic plant therefore gets protected from the parasite.

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C. GM Mustard
• DMH-11 is a Genetically Modified (GM) mustard hybrid.
• Hybrids are normally obtained by crossing 2 genetically diverse plants from the same species. The 1st-
generation offspring resulting from it has higher yields than what either of the parents is individually
capable of giving.
• But there is no natural hybridization system in mustard, unlike in, say, cotton, maize or tomato. This is
because its flowers contain both the female (pistil) and male (stamen) reproductive organs, making the
plant naturally self-pollinating.
• What scientists have done is to create a viable hybridization system in mustard using GM technology. The
resulting GM mustard hybrid, it is claimed, gives 25-30% more yield than the best varieties such as
'Varuna' currently grown in the country.

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• Scientists at the Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants (CGMCP) in Delhi University, however,
showed that this problem could be addressed by crossing Indian mustard cultivars with juncea lines of
East European origin like 'Early Heera' and 'Donskaja'.
• The combination of the 2 divergent gene pools enhanced the crossing options; the resultant F1 progeny
were found to exhibit significant heterosis.
• Heterosis, also called hybrid vigour, led to an increase in such characteristics as size, growth rate,
fertility, and yield of a hybrid organism over those of its parents. Plant and animal breeders exploit
heterosis by mating two different pure-bred lines that have certain desirable traits. The first-generation
offspring generally show, in greater measure, the desired characteristics of both parents.

6.10.5 RISKS POSED BY GMOS:

The main types of risks posed by GMOs can be classified as health risks, environmental risks, & socio-economic
risks.
A. Health risks
• Allergies: There is a worry that the introduction of novel gene products with new proteins will cause
allergic responses. The expression of Brazil nut protein in soybean confirmed that genetic engineering
can lead to the expression of allergenic proteins.
• Toxicity: The possible introduction or increase of toxic compounds might increase toxicity. As novel
proteins produced in plants have the potential to cause human toxicity, further test and scrutiny are
needed.
• Pleiotropic effects: Previously unknown protein combinations may have unforeseen secondary effects in
food plants. While further monitoring is needed, no significant secondary effects have been found from
commercially available transgenic plants or products.
• Antibiotic resistance: Concern has been expressed about antibiotic markers such as kanamycin that are
used in plant transformation. These are still used to treat infections in humans and increased exposure
to them might cause infections to become resistant to antibiotics, rendering these medicines ineffective.
B. Environmental risks
• Unintended effects on non-target species: Although laboratory studies have reported damage to the
larvae of monarch butterfly feeding on the pollen from Bt plants, no studies have shown an actual
negative effect on butterfly densities in the wild. Further research is needed.
• Effects of gene flow to close relatives: Pollen dispersal can lead to gene flow, but only trace amounts are
dispersed more than a few hundred feet. The transfer of conventionally bred or transgenic resistance
traits to weedy relatives could worsen weed problems, but such problems have not been observed or
adequately studied.
• Increased weediness: Some new traits introduced into crops - such as pest or pathogen resistance - could
cause transgenic crops to become problem weeds. This could result in serious economic and ecological
harm to farm or wildlife habitats.
• Pests developing resistance to pest-protected plants: Insects, weeds and microbes have the potential to
overcome most of the control options available to farmers, with significant environmental impacts. But
management approaches can be used to delay pest adaptations.
• Concerns about virus-resistant crops: Engineered plants containing virus resistance may facilitate the
creation of new viral strains, introduce new transmission characteristics or cause changes in susceptibility
to other, but related, viruses.
• Threats to biodiversity:
- The GM varieties threaten to ‘outcross’ with conventional crops or wild plants that are rare or
endangered thus danger of replacing them completely in future leading to loss of flora and fauna
biodiversity.
- GM crops may harm bees and other small insects that help in pollination, along with ingesting
harmful insects.

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- Adverse impact on soil – reducing productivity, impact on grazing animals eg. Bt cotton
C. Socio-economic & Other Risks
• Expensive GM seeds as seed makers charge high prices. For instance, Monsanto (maker of BT cotton
seed) demands 30% royalty.
• Greater control of biotech companies over farmers who may become extremely dependent on
them. For eg. Genetic Use Restriction Technology (GURT) to produce the terminator seeds wherein
crops die off after one harvest without producing offspring, forcing farmers to buy new seeds every
time.
• Bt. Cotton yield not consistent - decline in yield after the initial 2-3 years caused additional distress
to the farmers, driving them to suicide.
• The rights of non-GM farmers to stay GM-free get adversely affected.
• Concentration of intellectual property and resources for research on GM crops in the private sector.
This may prevent their access for public sector research.
• Input intensive – GM crops Needs more irrigation, fertilizers, pesticides etc., eventually.
6.11 CONCEPT OF STEM CELLS
• Stem cells are the body's raw materials — cells from which all other cells with specialized functions are
generated. They are biological cells found in all multicellular organisms.
• Stem cells have two important characteristics that distinguish them from other types of cells:
i. First, they are unspecialized cells that renew themselves for long periods through cell division.
ii. Second is that under certain physiologic or experimental conditions, they can be induced to become
cells with special functions such as the beating cells of the heart muscle or the insulin-producing
cells of the pancreas.
• When a stem cell divides, each new cell which is formed has the potential to either remain a stem cell or
become another type of cell (which can have more specialised function).
• Stem cell therapy, also known as regenerative medicine, promotes the repair response of diseased,
dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives.
• Scientists primarily work with two kinds of stem cells from animals and humans: embryonic stem cells
and adult stem cells, which have different functions and characteristics.
• Stem cells are important for living organisms for many reasons. In the 3-5 day old embryo, called a
blastocyst, stem cells in developing tissues give rise to the multiple specialized cell types that make up
the heart, lung, skin, and other tissues during early life and growth.
• In some adult tissues, such as bone marrow, muscle, and brain, discrete populations of adult stem cells
generate replacements for cells that are lost through normal wear and tear, injury or disease.
• It has been hypothesized by scientists that stem cells may, at some point in the future, become the basis
for treating diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, and heart disease.

6.11.1 TYPES OF STEM CELLS

A. Embryonic Stem Cells:
• They are derived from embryos that have developed from eggs that are fertilised in vitro in an IVF (in-
vitro fertilisation) clinic and are given for research purposes with the consent of the donors. They are not
taken from eggs fertilised in the human body.
• Embryonic stem cells remain undifferentiated or unspecialised till their culture is grown under specific
conditions.
• Once cells are allowed to form embryoid bodies, they begin to differentiate spontaneously. They can
form many types of cells like nerves cell, heart muscle cell etc.
B. Non-Embryonic (adult) Stem Cells:
• They are considered as undifferentiated cells which are found among differentiated cells in a tissue or
organ.

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• The adult stem cell can differentiate to produce some or all of the major specialised cell types of the
tissue or organ.
• The main role of adult stem cells in a living organism is to maintain and repair the tissue in which they
are found. For example, hematopoietic stem cells are a type of adult stem cell found in bone marrow.
• They are also known as somatic stem cells. The term 'Somatic' refers to cells of the body and not to the
germ cells like sperms or eggs.
• Adult stem cells are found in a specific area of each tissue. They are found in many organs and tissues
like skeletal muscle, bone marrow, brain, skin, teeth, heart, gut, liver, peripheral blood, blood vessels,
ovaries epithelium and testis.

Embryonic stem cells Vs Non-embryonic somatic stem cells/ adult stem cells
• One major difference between adult and embryonic stem cells is their different abilities in the number and
type of differentiated cell types they can become.
- Embryonic stem cells can become all cell types of the body because they are pluripotent.
- Adult stem cells are thought to be limited to differentiating into different cell types of their tissue of
origin.
• Embryonic stem cells can be grown relatively easily in culture. Adult stem cells are rare in mature tissues, so
isolating these cells from an adult tissue is challenging, and methods to expand their numbers in cell culture
have not yet been worked out. This is an important distinction, as large numbers of cells are needed for stem
cell replacement therapies.

C. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs):

• The adult stem cells are genetically reprogrammed to give rise to an embryonic stem cell.
• It is forcibly made to express genes and factors that are crucial for maintaining the underlying properties
of embryonic stem cells.
• Scientists have recently discovered how to turn adult stem cells into pluripotent stem cells. These new
types of cells are called induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). They can differentiate into all types of
specialized cells in the body. This means they can potentially produce new cells for any organ or tissue.
• In 2006, induced pluripotent stem cells in mouse were first reported and late in 2007 Human iPSCs were
reported. Mouse iPSCs shows the significant characteristics of pluripotent stem cells such as expressing
stem cell markers, forming many different tissues when injected into the embryo of mouse at an early
stage of development. Similarly, Human iPSCs also expressed the characteristics like stem cell markers
and features of all three germ layers.

D. Cord Blood Stem Cells and Amniotic Fluid Stem Cells: Cord Blood Stem Cells are harvested from the umbilical
cord after childbirth. They can be frozen in cell banks for use in the future. These cells have been successfully
used to treat children with blood cancers, such as leukaemia, and certain genetic blood disorders. Stem cells have
also been found in amniotic fluid. Amniotic Fluid is the fluid that surrounds a developing baby inside the mother’s
womb. However, more research is needed to help understand the potential uses of amniotic fluid stem cells.

6.11.2 POTENTIAL USES OF HUMAN STEM CELLS

• The main aim of stem cell therapy is to repair a damaged tissue that can't heal on its own. The ongoing
researches on stem cell therapies give a hope to cure the diseases whose treatment, otherwise, is not
possible or not efficient.
• The stem cell therapies not only involve the process of transplantation of stem cells into the body but
also to manoeuvre the stem cells already present in the body and produce new tissues.
• There are number of stem cell therapies existing today, but most of them are at experimental stages or
costly. However, bone marrow transplantation is quite successful.

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• The scientists have anticipated that the stem cells can be used to treat cancer, Type 1 diabetes mellitus,
cardiac failure, neurological diseases, etc.
1. Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) - It is a known clinical application of stem cell transplantation. In
chemotherapy or radiotherapy (process to eliminate endogenous cancer cells), the blood cells get
damage. In bone marrow transplantation, different blood cell types are restored.
2. Skin replacement - The skin stem cells are found in the hair follicle and can be removed by plucking the
hair. By using these skin stem cells, the scientists can grow skin from the plucked hair of a person. Skin
stem cells are cultured to form an epidermal equivalent of the person's own skin and provide tissue for
autologous graft.
3. Brain cell transplantation - Stem cells can be used to treat Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease
by replenishing the damaged tissue.
4. Organ and tissue regeneration - Tissue regeneration is one of the important application of stem cell
therapy. Stem cells can be used to grow a particular tissue or the organ.
5. Treatment for diabetes - Diabetes is caused by abnormal metabolism of insulin (it is produced by islets
of Langerhans located in pancreas). It affects people all around the world. Recently, insulin expressing
cells have been derived from mouse stem cells. Thus, future research might aim at providing a stem cell-
based therapy to treat diabetes and replace the constant need for insulin injections.

CLONING
• Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living part, or a complete organism.
• Cloning of an animal was successfully performed for the first time by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the
Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland.
• They cloned successfully a sheep named Dolly. Dolly was born in 1996 and was the first mammal to be cloned.
Technology used in such development was Somatic cell Nuclear Transfer Technology.
• Dolly was a healthy clone of the Finn Dorsett sheep and produced several offspring of her own through normal
sexual means.
• Since Dolly, several attempts have been made to produce cloned mammals. However, many die before birth
or die soon after birth. The cloned animals are many-a-time found to be born with severe abnormalities.

6.12 GEAC & CARTAGENA PROTOCOL

6.12.1 GENETICALLY ENGINEERING APPRAISAL COMMITTEE (GEAC)
• GEAC is a statutory body constituted under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and functions in
the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).
• GEAC is chaired by the Special Secretary/Additional Secretary of MoEF&CC and co-chaired by a
representative from the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
• As per Rules, 1989, it is responsible for appraisal of activities involving large scale use of hazardous
microorganisms and recombinants in research and industrial production from the environmental angle.
• The committee is also responsible for appraisal of proposals relating to release of genetically engineered
(GE) organisms and products into the environment including experimental field trials.
• The approval of the GEAC is mandatory before genetically modified organisms and products derived
from them can be used commercially.
• The Committee has the power to take punitive action against people/body under the Environment
(Protection) Act.

6.12.2 CARTAGENA PROTOCOL ON BIOSAFETY

• The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international
agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living modified organisms

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(LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on biological diversity, taking
also into account risks to human health.
• Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) are any living organisms that possess a new combination of genetic
material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology; they are a subset of genetically modified
organisms (GMOs). Genetically modified seeds, cuttings and tissue cultures are living parts of plants and
therefore LMOs.
• It was adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003.
• 172 countries are party to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. 103 countries are signatories to the
Cartagena Protocol.
• India is a signatory to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and ratified it on January 23, 2003.
• It is a legally binding protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
• The Protocol applies to the transboundary movement, transit, handling and use of all living modified
organisms that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversity, taking also into account risks to human health.
• The Protocol promotes biosafety by establishing rules and procedures for the safe transfer, handling,
and use of LMOs, with specific focus on transboundary movements of LMOs.
• The protocol does not cover
- Products derived from LMOs (e.g. paper from GM trees) and
- LMOs, which are pharmaceuticals for humans that are addressed by other relevant international
agreements or organizations.

CURRENT CONNECT
BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment) Policy: It primarily concentrate on the
following strategic sectors: high- value bio-based chemicals, biopolymers & enzymes; smart proteins & functional
foods; precision biotherapeutics; climate resilient agriculture; carbon capture & its utilization; marine and space
research.
• Objective: The policy aims to promote high-performance biomanufacturing.
• Focus: This involves producing diverse products, addressing farming and food challenges, and advancing
bio-based manufacturing through advanced biotechnology.
• Key features of Bio E3:
• The BioE3 policy's key aspects involve supporting innovation-driven R&D and entrepreneurship across
various thematic sectors.
• This will expedite the development and commercialization of technology through the establishment of
Biomanufacturing & Bio-AI hubs and Biofoundry.
• In general, this Policy will bolster the Government's initiatives such as 'Net Zero' carbon economy &
'Lifestyle for Environment' and will guide India towards accelerated 'Green Growth' by encouraging
'Circular Bioeconomy'.
• The BioE3 Policy will nurture an advanced future that is more sustainable, innovative, and responsive to
global challenges and sets out the Bio-vision for Viksit Bharat.

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UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS 9PYQs)

Q1. 'Aerial metagenomics' best refers to which one Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
of the following situations? (2023) (2021)
(a) Collecting DNA samples from air in a habitat at (a) 1 only
one go (b) 2 only
(b) Understanding the genetic makeup of avian (c) Both 1 and 2
species of a habitat (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) Using air-borne devices to collect blood samples
Q6. In the context of recent advances in human
from moving animals
reproductive technology, "Pronuclear Transfer" is
(d) Sending drones to inaccessible areas to collect
used for (2020)
plant and animal samples from land surfaces and
(a) fertilization of egg in vitro by the donor sperm
water bodies
(b) genetic modification of sperm producing cells
Q2. 'Microsatellite DNA' is used in the case of which (c) development of stem functional embryos cells
one of the following? (2023) into
(a) Studying the evolutionary relationships among (d) prevention of mitochondrial diseases in
various species of fauna offspring
(b) Stimulating 'stem cells' to transform into diverse
Q7. Consider the following statements:
functional tissues
1. Genetic changes can be introduced in the cells
(c) Promoting clonal propagation of horticultural
that produce eggs or sperms of a prospective
plants
parent.
(d) Assessing the efficacy of drugs by conducting
2. A person's genome can be edited before birth at
series of drug trials in a population
the early embryonic stage.
Q3. Consider the following statements: 3. Human induced pluripotent stem cells can be
DNA Barcoding can be a tool to: injected into the embryo of a pig.
1. assess the age of a plant or animal. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
2. distinguish among species that look alike. (2020)
3. identify undesirable animal or plant materials in (a) 1 only
processed foods. (b) 2 and 3 only
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (c) 2 only
(2022) (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1 only
Q8. With reference to the recent developments in
(b) 3 only
science, which one of the following statements is not
(c) 1 and 2
correct? (2019)
(d) 2 and 3
(a) Functional chromosomes can be created by
Q4. Bollgard I and Bollgard II technologies are joining segments of DNA taken from cells of
mentioned in the context of (2021) different species.
(a) clonal propagation of crop plants (b) Pieces of artificial functional DNA can be created
(b) developing genetically modified crop plants in laboratories.
(c) production substances of plant growth (c) A piece of DNA taken out from an animal cell can
(d) production of biofertilizers be made to replicate outside a living cell in a
laboratory.
Q5. Consider the following statements: (d) Cells taken out from plants and animals can be
1. Adenoviruses have single-stranded DNA made to undergo cell division in laboratory petri
genomes whereas retroviruses have double- dishes.
stranded DNA genomes.
Q9. RNA interference (RNAi)' technology has gained
2. Common cold is sometime caused by an
popularity in the last few years. Why? (2019)
adenovirus whereas AIDS is caused by a
1. It is used in developing gene silencing therapies.
retrovirus.

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2. It can be used in developing therapies for the 1. across plants different species of
treatment of cancer. 2. from animals to plants
3. It can be used to develop hormone replacement 3. from microorganisms to higher organisms
therapies. Select the correct answer using the codes given
4. It can be used to produce crop plants that are below.
resistant to viral pathogens. (a) 1 only
Select the correct answer using the code given (b) 2 and 3 only
below. (c) 1 and 3 only
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2 and 3
Q14. What are the reasons for the people's
(c) 1 and 3
resistance to the introduction of Bt brinjal in India?
(d) 1 and 4 only
(2012)
Q10. What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in 1. Bt brinjal has been created by inserting a gene
news? (2019) from a soil fungus into its genome.
(a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene 2. The seeds of Bt brinjal are terminator seeds and
editing therefore, the farmers have to buy the seeds
(b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of before every season from the seed companies.
pathogens in patients 3. There is an apprehension that the consumption
(c) A gene that makes plants pest- resistant of Bt brinjal may have adverse impact on health.
(d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically 4. There is some concern that the introduction of
modified crops Bt brinjal may have adverse effect on the
biodiversity.
Q11. With reference to the Genetically Modified
Select the correct answer using the codes given
mustard (GM mustard) developed in India, consider
below:
the following statements:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
1. GM mustard has the genes of a soil bacterium
(b) 2 and 3 only
that give the plant the property of pest-
(c) 3 and 4 only
resistance to a wide variety of pests.
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
2. GM mustard has the genes that allow the plant
cross-pollination and hybridization. Q15. Other than resistance to pests, what are the
3. GM mustard has been developed jointly by the prospects for which genetically engineered plants
IARI and Punjab Agricultural University. have been created?
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 1. To enable them to withstand. drought
(2018) 2. To increase the nutritive value of the produce
(a) 1 and 3 only 3. To enable them to grow and do photosynthesis
(b) 2 only in spaceships and space stations.
(c) 2 and 3 only 4. To increase their shelf life
(d) 1, 2 and 3 Select the correct answer using the codes given
below: (2012)
Q12. In the context of the developments in
(a) 1 and 2 only
Bioinformatics, the term 'transcriptome', sometimes
(b) 3 and 4 only
seen in the news, refers to (2016)
(c) 1,2 and 4 only
(a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by
an organism Q16. At present, scientists can determine the
(c) the description of the mechanism of gene arrangement or relative positions of genes or DNA
expression sequences on a chromo- some. How does this
(d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place knowledge benefit us?
in cells 1. It is possible to know the pedigree of livestock.
Q13. Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic 2. It is possible to understand the causes of all
Engineering) allows genes to be transferred (2013) human diseases.

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3. It is possible to develop disease- resistant animal Q17. A genetically engineered form of brinjal, known
breeds. as the Bt-brinjal, has been developed. The objective
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? of this is (2011)
(2011) (a) To make it pest-resistant
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) To improve its taste and nutritive qualities
(b) 2 only (c) To make it drought-resistant
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) To make its shelf-life longer
(d) 1. 2 and 3

ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (a)
10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (a)

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