Chemical structure of protein

The building blocks of proteins are amino acids, which are small organic molecules that
consist of an alpha (central) carbon atom linked to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a
hydrogen atom, and a variable component called a side chain. Within a protein, multiple
amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds, thereby forming a long chain. Peptide
bonds are formed by a biochemical reaction that extracts a water molecule as it joins the
amino group of one amino acid to the carboxyl group of a neighboring amino acid. The linear
sequence of amino acids within a protein is considered the primary structure of the protein.
Proteins are built from a set of only twenty amino acids, each of which has a unique side
chain.

About 10–35% of calories should come from protein. Proteins are needed in our diets for
growth (especially important for children, teens and pregnant women) and to improve
immune functions. They also play an important role in making essential hormones and
enzymes, in tissue repair, preserving lean muscle mass, and supplying energy in times when
carbohydrates are not available.
Pregnant women need protein to build their bodies and that of the babies and placentas, to
make extra blood and for fat storage. Breastfeeding mothers need protein to make breastmilk.
Sources of protein
The main sources of proteins are meats, chicken, eggs, breastmilk, beans, ground nuts, lentils,
fish, cheese and milk.
All animal foods contain more protein than plants and are therefore usually better sources of
body building foods. However, even though plant proteins are usually not as good for body-
building as animal proteins, they can become more effective nutritionally when both are
mixed with each other.

FATS AND OILS

Chemical composition of fats
Although natural fats consist primarily of glycerides, they contain many other lipids in minor
quantities. Corn oil, for example, may contain glycerides plus phospholipids, glycolipids,
phosphoinositides (phospholipids containing inositol), many isomers of sitosterol and
stigmasterol (plant steroids), several tocopherols (vitamin E), vitamin A, waxes, unsaturated
hydrocarbons such as squalene, and dozens of carotenoids and chlorophyll compounds, as
well as many products of decomposition, hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerization of any of
the natural constituents.
Fatty acids contribute from 94 to 96 percent of the total weight of various fats and oils.
Because of their preponderant weight in the glyceride molecules and also because
they comprise the reactive portion of the molecules, the fatty acids influence greatly both the
physical and chemical character of glycerides. Fats vary widely in complexity; some contain
only a few component acids, and at the other extreme more than 100 different fatty acids
have been identified in butterfat, although many are present in only trace quantities. Most of
the oils and fats are based on about a dozen fatty acids (see table). In considering
the composition of a glyceride it is particularly important to distinguish between the saturated
acids (acids containing only single bonds between carbon atoms, such as palmitic or stearic),
with relatively high melting temperatures, and the unsaturated acids (acids with one or more
pairs of carbon atoms joined by double bonds, such as oleic or linoleic), which are low
melting and chemically much more reactive.
Common fatty acids

common carbon double melting

systematic name formula
name atoms bonds point (°C)

caprylic octanoic C7H15COOH 8 0 16.5

capric decanoic C9H19COOH 10 0 31.5

lauric dodecanoic C11H23COOH 12 0 44

myristic tetradecanoic C13H27COOH 14 0 58

palmitic hexadecanoic C15H31COOH 16 0 63

stearic octadecanoic C17H35COOH 18 0 72

arachidic eicosanoic C19H39COOH 20 0 77

oleic cis-9-octadecenoic C17H33COOH 18 1 13.4

cis-9,cis-12-
linoleic C17H31COOH 18 2 −5
octadecadienoic

cis-9, cis-12, cis-15-

linolenic C17H29COOH 18 3 −11.3
octadecatrienoic

cis-9, cis-11, cis-13-

eleostearic C17H29COOH 18 3 49
octadecatrienoic

12-hydroxy-cis-9-
ricinoleic C17H33COOH 18 1 + OH 16
octadecenoic
 Common fatty acids

common carbon double melting

systematic name formula
name atoms bonds point (°C)

5, 8, 11, 14-
arachidonic C19H31COOH 20 4 −49.5
eicosatetraenoic

erucic cis-13-docosenoic C21H41COOH 22 1 33.5

In the series of saturated acids, the melting point increases progressively from below room
temperature for the acids of lower molecular weight to high melting solids for the longer
chain acids. Unsaturated acids may contain up to six double bonds, and as unsaturation
increases the melting points become lower. Glycerides based predominantly on unsaturated
acids, such as soybean oil, are liquids; and glycerides containing a high proportion of
saturated acids, such as beef tallow, are solids. The carbon atoms in fatty acids are arranged
in straight chains, and the first site of unsaturation (double bond) in most of the unsaturated
acids appears between the ninth and tenth carbon atoms, starting the counting from the
terminal carboxyl group (see table). The specificity of location of unsaturation in fatty acids
obtainable from both plant and animal sources suggests that all are formed by a common
enzymatic dehydrogenation mechanism.
Saturation and unsaturation in fatty acids

a
saturated
CH3−CH2−CH2−CH2−CH2−CH2−CH2−CH2−CH2−CH2−CH2−C fatty acid
lauric acid
OOH with 12
carbon
atoms

an
unsaturate
d fatty
acid with
oleic acid CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH one
double
bond and
18 carbon
atoms

an
unsaturate
d fatty
acid with
linoleic
CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH two
acid
double
bonds and
18 carbon
atoms
 Saturation and unsaturation in fatty acids

an
unsaturate
d fatty
acid with
linolenic
CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH three
acid
double
bonds and
18 carbon
atoms

an
unsaturate
d fatty
acid with
arachidon CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)3
four
ic acid COOH
double
bonds and
20 carbon
atoms
Since the glycerides, which make up 90 to 99 percent of most individual fats or oils of
commerce, are esters formed by three fatty-acid molecules combining with one molecule
of glycerol, they may differ not only in the fatty acids that they contain but also in the
arrangement of the fatty-acid radicals on the glycerol portion. Simple triglycerides are those
in which each molecule of glycerol is combined with three molecules of one acid—e.g.,
tripalmitin, C3H5(OCOC15H31)3, the glyceryl ester of palmitic acid, C15H31COOH. Only a few
of the glycerides occurring in nature are of the simple type; most are mixed triglycerides (i.e.,
one molecule of glycerol is combined with two or three different fatty acids). Thus
stearodipalmitin, C3H5(OCOC15H31)2(OCOC17H35), contains two palmitic acid radicals and
one stearicacid radical. Similarly, oleopalmitostearin, C3H5(OCOC15H31)(OCOC17H33)
(OCOC17H35), contains one radical each of oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids. Each
mixed triglyceride containing three different acid radicals may exist in three different
isomeric forms, because any of the three can be linked with the centre carbon of the glycerol
molecule. A mixed triglyceride containing two radicals of the same acid and one radical of
another acid has only two isomeric forms.
Monoglycerides and diglycerides are partial esters of glycerol and have one or two fatty-acid
radicals, respectively. They are seldom found in natural fats except as the products of partial
hydrolysis of triglycerides. They are easily prepared synthetically, however, and have
important applications mainly because of their ability to aid in the formation and stabilization
of emulsions. As constituents of shortening in baked products they increase product volumes,
improve tenderness, and retard staling. They also have technical importance as intermediates
in the manufacture of coatings and resins.

Physical and chemical properties

Fats (and oils) may be divided into animal and vegetable fats according to source. Further,
they may be classified according to their degree of unsaturation as measured by their ability
to absorb iodine at the double bonds. This degree of unsaturation determines to a large extent
the ultimate use of the fat.
Liquid fats (i.e., vegetable and marine oils) have the highest degree of unsaturation,
while solid fats (vegetable and animal fats) are highly saturated. Solid vegetable fats melting
between 20 and 35 °C (68 and 95 °F) are found mainly in the kernels and seeds of tropical
fruits. They have relatively low iodine values and consist of glycerides containing high
percentages of such saturated acids as lauric, myristic, and palmitic. Fats from fruits of many
members of the palm family, notably coconut and babassu oils, contain large amounts of
combined lauric acid. Most animal fats are solid at ordinary temperatures; milk fats are
usually characterized by the presence of short-chain carboxylic acids (butyric, caproic, and
caprylic); and marine oils contain a large number of very long chain highly unsaturated acids
containing up to six double bonds and up to 24 or even 26 carbon atoms.
Fats are practically insoluble in water and, with the exception of castor oil, are insoluble in
cold alcohol and only sparingly soluble in hot alcohol. They are soluble in ether, carbon
disulfide, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, petroleum benzin, and benzene. Fats have no
distinct melting points or solidifying points because they are such complex mixtures of
glycerides, each of which has a different melting point. Glycerides, further, have several
polymorphic forms with different melting or transition points.
Fats can be heated to between 200 and 250 °C (392 and 482 °F) without undergoing
significant changes provided contact with air or oxygen is avoided. Above 300 °C (572 °F),
fats may decompose, with the formation of acrolein (the decomposition product of glycerol),
which imparts the characteristic pungent odour of burning fat. Hydrocarbons also may be
formed at high temperatures.
Fats are hydrolyzed readily. This property is used extensively in the manufacture
of soaps and in the preparation of fatty acids for industrial applications. Fats are hydrolyzed
by treatment with water alone under high pressure (corresponding to a temperature of about
220 °C [428 °F]) or with water at lower pressures in the presence of caustic alkalies, alkaline-
earth metal hydroxides, or basic metallic oxides that act as catalysts. Free fatty acids and
glycerol are formed. If sufficient alkali is present to combine with the fatty acids, the
corresponding salts (known popularly as soaps) of these acids are formed, such as the sodium
salts (hard soap) or the potassium salts (soft soaps).

Fats and oils are concentrated sources of energy and so are important nutrients for young
children who need a lot of energy-rich food. Fats can also make meals more tasty and
satisfying. Fat is found in meat, chicken, milk products, butters, creams, avocado, cooking
oils and fats, cheese, fish and ground nuts.

Water
A 50 kg adult contains about 31 litres of water and a one year old, 10 kg child contains nearly
8 litres of water. Almost every part of the body contains large amounts of water.
People can live without solid food for a few weeks, but we cannot live without water for
more than a few days. An adult needs about 2–3 litres of water each day. That is why giving
drinks are so important when people lose a lot of water, such as when they have diarrhoea.
Water is essential for life. We need water for a number of reasons:
For the body to make cells and fluids such as tears, digestive juices and breastmilk
For the body to make sweat for cooling itself
For essential body processes — most take place in water
For keeping the lining of the mouth, intestine, eyelids and lungs wet and healthy
For the production of urine, which carries waste from the body.

FIBRE
Fibre is a mixture of different carbohydrates which are not digested like other nutrients but
pass through the gut nearly unchanged. Foods rich in fibre are ‘kocho’; vegetables like
cabbage, ‘kosta’, carrots, cassava; fruits like banana and avocado; peas and beans; whole-
grain cereals like wheat flour and refined maize or sorghum.
Including fibre in the diet
Fibre should be included in the diet for the following reasons:
Fibre makes food bulky or bigger — this can help a person who is overweight to eat less food
Fibre makes the faeces soft and bulky; this can help prevent constipation
Fibre slows the absorption of nutrients, so it helps nutrients to enter the blood stream slowly.
This is important for patients with diabetes mellitus.
Micronutrients
Vitamins
Vitamins are groups of related substances present in small amounts in foodstuffs and are
necessary for the body to function normally. Vitamins are also called protective foods. They
are grouped together because, as their name implies, they are a vital factor in the diet.
Classifications of vitamins
Vitamins are classified into two groups:
Fat soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and K) are soluble in fats and fat solvents. They are
insoluble in water. So these are utilised only if there is enough fat in the body.
Water soluble vitamins (vitamins B and C, and folic acid) are soluble in water and so they
cannot be stored in the body.
The best sources of micronutrients in our diets are fruits and vegetables. These two food
groups contain essential vitamins and minerals. Animal sources of foods are also both good
sources of micronutrients. However, an adequate micronutrient intake can only be achieved
through sufficient intake of a balanced diet that includes plenty of fruits and vegetables.
Table 2.1 overleaf sets out the functions of some of the important vitamins and examples of
sources of food for each of these.
Table 2.1 Functions and sources of vitamins.
Vitamins Night vision. Healing Food sources
epithelial cell
Normal development
of teeth and bones
Vitamin A Needed for absorption of Breastmilk, tomatoes,
calcium from small cabbage, lettuce,
intestines pumpkinsMangoes,
Calcification of the skeleton papaya, carrots
Liver, kidney, egg yolk,
milk, butter,
cheese cream
Vitamin D For blood clotting Ultra violet light from
the sun
Eggs, butter, fish
Fortified oils, fats and
cereals
Vitamin K Metabolism of Green leafy vegetables
carbohydrates, Fruits, cereals, meat,
proteins and fats dairy products
B complex Prevention of scurvy Milk, egg yolk, liver,
Aiding wound healing kidney and heart
Assisting absorption of iron Whole grain cereals,
 meat, whole bread,
fish, bananas
Vitamin C Fresh fruits (oranges,
banana, Mango, grapefruits,
lemons, potatoes) and
vegetables (cabbage, carrots,
pepper, tomatoes)
Breastmilk

Minerals
Minerals are the substances that people need to ensure the health and correct working of their
soft tissues, fluids and their skeleton. Examples of minerals include calcium, iron, iodine,
fluorine, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, selenium, and sodium. outlines the functions of some
of these important minerals and examples of sources of food for each of these.
Functions and sources of common minerals.
What are the main sources of micronutrients and why are they important
Minerals Function Food sources
Calcium Gives bones and Milk, cheese and dairy
teeth rigidity and productsFoods fortified
strength with calcium, e.g. flour,
cereals. eggs, fish cabbage
Iron Formation of Meat and meat products
haemoglobin Eggs, bread, green leafy
vegetables, pulses, fruits
Iodine For normal Iodised salt, sea vegetables,
metabolism of cells yogurt, cow's milk, eggs,
and cheese
Fish; plants grown in iodine-
rich soil
Zinc For children to grow and Maize, fish, breastmilk,
develop normally; for meat, beans
wound healing
Fluorine Helps to keep teeth strong Water

The mixture of foods to use

The staple food is the common type of food that is consumed by the community. It should be
part of a balanced diet because it’s the main part of most meals. The staple diet may vary
from region to region. These foods are usually cheap, and provide most of the energy, protein
and fibre in a meal, as well as some vitamins.
Adding other foods to the staple food
In order to have a good balanced diet, people in your community will need to eat other foods
in addition to the staple foods. The additional foods are important because they:
Provide nutrients that may not be available in the staple food. For example, legumes such as
peas, beans and lentils add protein, iron and other minerals and fat; green and yellow
vegetables and fruits add vitamins A and C, folate, and fibre
Make the food less bulky
Make the diet more tasty and interesting to eat.
A diet which is composed of staples, legumes and vegetables or fruits is a good, balanced diet
because this combination of foods will provide most of the nutrients that the people in your
community need. Animal sources are good because they contain plenty of protein, have high
energy (due to the fats), and the iron is easily absorbed compared with the iron sourced from
plants. Therefore adding small amounts of animal products like meat, milk and eggs to
staples, legumes and vegetables will improve the balanced diet. As well as protein, animal
foods will also provide fat (for energy) and vitamins (especially vitamin A and folate), iron
and zinc. But these foods may not be easily available and even if they are, they are usually
expensive.