Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L.

Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

UNIT-I: LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS

Chapter-2 FIBER OPTICS
Fiber Optics: Introduction to optical fiber- Advantages of optical fibers - Total internal
reflection, Construction of optical fiber - Acceptance angle - Numerical aperture-
Classification of optical fibers. fiber optic laser - Applications.
1. Explain working principle of optical fiber. (OR)
Discuss total internal reflection in optical fiber. (OR)
Derive expression for critical angle of optical fiber.
The mechanism of light propagation along fibers can be understood using the principle of
geometrical optics. The transmission of light in optical fiber is based on the phenomenon of
total internal reflection.

Fig. Light propagation from denser medium to rarer medium

Let n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of core and cladding respectively. Here n1> n2.

1. When θ1 < θc, then the ray refracted is into the second medium as shown in below fig1.
2. When θ1 = θc, then the ray travels along the interface of two media as shown in fig2.
3. When θ1 > θc then the ray totally reflects back into the same medium as shown in fig3.
As the angle of incidence (θ1) increases, the angle of refraction (θ2) also increases and for a
particular angle of incidence the angle of incidence becomes π/2. This angle of incidence is
called critical angle (θc).
i.e. If θ1 = θc then θ2 = π/2 ……….(1)
When angle of incidence (θ1) exceeds critical angle (θC), the incident light ray totally
reflected back into the same medium. This phenomenon is called “total internal reflection”.

Using Snell’s law: n1Sinθ1 = n2Sinθ2

Sinθ1/ Sinθ2= n2/ n1

Sinθc / Sinπ/2 = n2/ n1 (since from (1))

Sinθc = n2/ n1

θc = Sin-1 (n2/ n1)

This is expression for critical angle (θC).

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

2. Explain structure of an optical fiber.

The optical fiber is a dielectric substance made up of either glass or plastic to transfer optical
signals from point to another point.

Core
Cladding
Sheith (Buffer)
Fig. Structure of Optical fiber
The optical fiber consists of three main parts:
1. Core 2. Cladding 3. Sheith (Buffer)
1. Core: Core is the most interior part of the optical fiber. It is used as the denser
medium. It is generally made up of either glass or plastic. A typical glass fiber consists of
a central core of thickness 50μm. Its refractive index is n1.
2. Cladding: Cladding is surrounded to the core. It is used as the rarer medium. It is also
generally made up of either glass or plastic. Cladding is made up of glass of slightly
lower refractive index than core’s refractive index, whose over all diameter is 125μm to
200μm. Its refractive index is n2. The relation between the refractive indices is n1 > n2.
3. Sheith (Buffer): A thick plastic coating around the cladding is called Sheith (Buffer).
It protects optical fiber from contaminants and provides mechanical strength to the fiber.
It is made up of plastic material.
3. Explain how optical fibers are classified?
(OR) Describe various types of optical fibers.
Optical fibers are classified in three different ways as follows:
I. Depending on the refractive index profile of the core, optical fibers are classified into two
categories (1) Step Index and (2) Graded Index Fibers
Step Index Fibers: In step index fibers the refractive index of the core is uniform
throughout the medium and undergoes an abrupt change at the interface of core and cladding.
The diameter of the core is about 50-200μm and in case of multi-mode fiber; and 10 μm in
the case of single mode fiber. The transmitted optical signals travel through core medium in
the form of meridian rays, which will cross the fiber axis during every reflection at the core-
cladding interface. The shape of the propagation appears in a zig-zac manner. The inter
model distortion and group delay takes places in multi-mode step index fibers.
Refractive index profile:

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

Graded Index Fibers: In these fibers the refractive index of the core varies radially. As the
radius increases in the core medium the refractive index decreases. The diameter of the core
is about 50μm-200 μm. The transmitted optical signals travel through core medium in the
form of helical rays, which will not cross the fiber axis at any time. The inter model distortion
and group delay are reduced in multi-mode graded index fibers.
Refractive index profile:
α

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

II. Depending on the number of modes of propagation, optical fibers are classified into two
categories; they are (1) Single mode and (2) Multi mode fibers.
Single mode means the fiber enables one type of light mode to be propagated at a time.
While multimode means the fiber can propagate multiple modes. Single mode fiber core diameter
is much smaller than multimode fiber. Its typical core diameter is 9 µm. And, multimode fiber
core diameter is 50 µm and 62.5 µm typically, which enables it to have higher "light gathering"
ability. The cladding diameter of single mode and multimode fiber is 125 µm.
Due to the large core size of multimode fiber, some low-cost light sources like LEDs
(light-emitting diodes) that works at the 850nm and 1300nm wavelength are used in multimode
fiber cables. While the single mode fiber often uses a laser or laser diodes to produce light
injected into the cable. And the commonly used single mode fiber wavelength is 1310 nm and
1550 nm.
Multimode fiber bandwidth is limited by its light mode; whereas, single mode fiber
bandwidth is unlimited.

Fig. Types of fibers based on modes

III. Depending on the signal loss, optical fibers are classified into three categories; they are
(1) Low loss fibers (2) Medium loss fibers and (3) High loss fibers
In Low-loss optical fibers, both core and cladding are made up of glass materials (GeO2 or
SiO2). They have loss in the range of 5 - 20 dB/km.
In Medium-loss optical fibers, core is made up of glass materials (GeO2 or SiO2) and cladding
is made of plastics (Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), polystyrene and polycarbonates). They
have loss in the range of 20 - 50 dB/km.
In High-loss optical fibers, both core and cladding are made up of plastics (Polymethyl
methacrylate (PMMA), polystyrene and polycarbonates). They have loss > 50 dB/km.

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

4. Distinguish Step Index and Graded Index Fibers.

5. Define Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture of an optical fiber and

derive formula for them. (OR)
Derive light gathering capacity of an optical fiber.
Acceptance angle and Acceptance cone: The maximum angle of launching an optical
signal into a fiber is called acceptance angle, at which highest amount of light can be
transmitted through it. Rotating the acceptance angle about the fiber axis 3-dimensionally
gives the acceptance cone of the fiber. Light launched at the fiber end within this acceptance
cone alone will be accepted and propagated to the other end of the fiber by total internal
reflection.
θa =(αL)max--------- (i)

o
Fig. Acceptance cone obtained by rotating the acceptance angle by 360 (3-dimensionally)

Numerical Aperture: The light gathering capacity of the optical fiber is known as
Numerical Aperture (NA). The sine angle of the acceptance angle is called Numerical
Aperture (NA).
NA = Sin (αL)max

(OR)

NA = Sin θa --------- (ii)

Formula derivation:
When the light beam is launched into a fiber, the entire light may not pass through the core
and propagate. Only the rays, which make the angle of incidence greater than critical angle at
the core-cladding interface, undergo total internal reflection. The other rays are refracted to

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

the cladding and are lost. Hence the angle we have to launch the beam at its end is essential
to enable the entire light to pass through the core. This maximum angle of launch is called
acceptance angle. The sine angle of the maximum acceptance angle is called Numerical
Aperture.

θ
αr
αL

Consider an optical fiber of cross sectional view as shown in figure. no, n1and n2 are
refractive indices of air, core and cladding respectively such that n1 > n2 > no. Let light ray is
incident on interface of air and core medium with an angle of incidence αL (known as
launching angle). This particular ray enters the core at the axis point A and proceeds after
refraction at an angle αr from the axis. It then undergoes total internal reflection at B on core
at an internal incidence angle θ.

In triangle ABC , αr = (90 – θ) ……………………. (1)

From Snell’s law at Air-Core interface ,

n0 sin αL = n1sin αr …………….(2)

=> sin αL= sin αr …………………….(3)

From equations (1), (3)

sin αL = sin(90-θ )

=> sin αL= cosθ …………………..(4)

When αL = αL(max) then θ = θc …………………..(5)

Substituting (5) in (4)

Hence equation (4) can be written as

sin αL(max) = cos θc…………………..(6)

We know that

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

-1
The critical angle, θc = sin (

sin θc = (

cos θc = √

=√

√
= ……………………(7)
Therefore, substituting (7) in (6)

√
sin αL(max) = .

√
sin αL(max) = .

√
sin αL(max) =

√
-1
αL(max) = θa = sin ……………………(8)
( )
This is expression for acceptance angle.

The maximum extent of launching angle is called acceptance angle or acceptance cone angle.
Rotating the acceptance angle about the fiber axis gives the acceptance cone of the fiber.

Numerical aperture:- Light collecting capacity of the fiber is expressed in terms of

acceptance angle using numerical aperture. Sine of the maximum acceptance angle is called
the numerical aperture of the fiber.
√
Numerical aperture =NA = Sin αL(max) = Sin θa = …………….(9)
For air no= 1; and for water no=

NA = √ …………… (10) for air

NA = √ …………… (11) for water

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

Numerical aperture in terms of Index difference (Δ):

But, the fractional index difference of the fiber is

Let ∆ = …………… (12)

∆=

∆= (since, for most of the fibers n1 ≈ n2)

∆= ……………(13)

From equation (12), we can write,

= 2∆
Taking under root on both sides

√ =√ ……………(14)

Substituting (14) in (9) we get

√
NA =

NA = .√ ………(15)

For air no= 1, then the above equation can changed as

NA = √ ………(16)

For water no = , then the above equation can changed as

NA = √ ………(17)

Numerical aperture of the fiber is dependent only on refractive indices of the core and
cladding materials and is not a function of fiber dimensions.

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

6. Mention advantages of optical fibers in communication

systems.
1) Enormous Band width: - In the coaxial cable transmission the band width is up to
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around 5000 MHz only where as in fiber optical communication it is as large as 10 GHz.
Thus the information carrying capacity of optical fiber system is far superior to the copper
cable system.
2) Electrical isolation: - Since fiber optic material are insulators unlike there metallic
counterpart, they do not exhibit earth loop and interface problems. Hence communication
through fiber even in electrically hazarders environment do not cause any fear of spark
hazards.
3) Immunity to interference and cross talk: - Since optical fibers are dielectric
waveguides, they are free from any electromagnetic interference (EM) and radio
frequency interference (RIF). Hence fiber cables do not require special shielding from
EMI.
4) Signal security: - Unlike the situation with copper cables a transmitted optical signal
cannot be drawn fiber without tampering it. Such an attempt will affect the original signal
and hence can easily detect.
5) Small size and weight: - Since fibers are very small in diameter the space occupied the
fiber cable is negligibly small compare to metallic cables. Optical cables are light in
weight; these merits make them more useful in air crafts and satellites.
6) Low transmission loss: - Since the loss in fibers is as low as 0.2dB/Km , transmission
loss is very less compare to copper conductors. Hence for long distance communication,
fibers are preferred. Number of repeaters required is reduced.
7) High speed transmission: - Since the speed of laser light is 3 x 108 m/s, the modulated
information can travel with the velocity v=C/μ; where μ is refractive index of core
medium.
8) High data transmission: - Optical fiber can transmit much more information as
compared to ordinary coaxial cable.
9) Low cost: - Since fibers are made up of silica which is available in nature, optical fibers
are less expensive.
10) Optical fibers are flexible, light-weight and non-corrosive.
7. List out the application of optical fibers in daily life.
1) Optical fibers are used as sensors to measure temperature, pressure etc.
2) These are used in medical equipment like Endoscopy and Laparoscopy to observe
interior organs of human body. 
3) These are used in communication system for high speed, high data, high secure, low
noise and low loss transmission. 
4) These are used in local area network (LAN) systems.
5) For decorative equipment in home needs. 
6) These are used in defense areas for the sake of high security. 
7) These are used in electrical engineering. 
8) These are used in fault finding in pipelines.

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

8. Explain construction and working principle of fiber optic laser with


relevant diagrams.
Construction: Fiber optic laser is a multi-level solid state laser. The system consists of
mainly three parts viz., active material, resonant cavity and excitation source.
1) ACTIVE MATERIAL: An optical fiber made up of silicate or phosphate glass is used as
active material. The core material is doped with one of the lanthanide ions (rare earth
ions) such as neodymium (Nd3+) ions, ytterbium (Yb3+) ions, praseodymium (Pr3+) ions,
erbium (Er3+) ions, thulium (Tm3+) ions, holmium (Ho3+) ions, and dysprosium (Dy3+)
ions. The rare earth ions can produce laser transitions in UV-VIS-NIR regions.
2) RESONANT CAVITY: A couple of perfect and partial mirror at the ends of the optical
fiber is used as optical cavity. Both the surfaces of mirrors are optically flat and exactly
parallel to each other. The perfect mirror is known as Fiber Bragg Grating. This grating
element is used to emit specific wavelength of the laser output such that 2l=nλ, where l=
length of the fiber and λ is wavelength of the laser output.
3) EXCITING SYSTEM: A diode laser of less intensity and poor mono-chromacity is used
as the excitation source. This is the optical pumping.

Fig. Schematic of fiber optic laser

940 nm
Laser transitions

Diode laser pump 1030 nm 1050 nm

Fig. Energy level diagram of ytterbium (Yb3+) ions doped- fiber optic laser.

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

Working Principle:

1. When the diode laser is switched on, the laser light undergoes total internal reflection
at the interface of cladding and buffer. However, some part of the diode laser light
transmits into the rare earth ions- doped core, in turn which gets total internal
reflection at the interface of core and cladding.

2. The diode laser light strikes the rare earth ions (Ln3+ ions) and excites them to a
higher energy level. In time, this leads to a population inversion between a metastable
state and any other lower states.

3. First, a photon is released by an Ln3+ ion with spontaneous emission of radiation. This
photon is used to make collision with another excited atom and two photons are
released by stimulated emission of radiation. These two photons knock out two more
photons and so on.

4. The photon beam improves its strength making back and forth oscillations between
perfect mirror (Bragg’s grating) and the partial mirror. When the sufficient intensity is
commenced, then the photon beam rushed out as LASER out put through the partial
mirror.

Advantages:
1. The fiber lasers produce laser transitions in UV-VIS-NIR regions.

2. Fiber lasers typically operate in the continuous-wave or in the pulsed mode.

3. The power is 100W - 20 kW.

Disadvantages:
1. These are expensive (high cost).

Applications:
1. Fiber lasers are perfect for a variety of applications such as laser cutting, texturing,
cleaning, engraving, drilling, marking and welding.

2. The fiber lasers find applications in many different sectors such as medicine, defence,
telecommunications, etc.

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