QUIRINO

STATE UNIVERSITY
CABARROGUIS CAMPUS

MODULE IN
CONTEMPORARY WORLD

GE 6

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN
CRIMINOLOGY
 https://bit.ly/30S9QL1

UNIT 1
Unit Outcome:
INTRODUCTION TO
GLOBALIZATION At the end of this unit, the learners must have:
1. articulated different approaches and
interpreation of globalization.

Introduction

Through times, people around the world have never been as connected as
today. Daily news or information are just on the tip of your fingers as you switch
on your radio, television or smart phones. Travel and movement of the people to
different places and across the world becomes easier and faster fast. Variety of
products from many points of the world are available in all. goods and securies
ower the world has brough multinational companies and foreign investors to
our shores. Also to mention the trending Zombie movies, Korean Dramas, hair
styles, outfits and the likes have invaded the whole world of arts and culture. All
these experiences or phenomenon are brought by technological advancement,
economic movement and political interconnectedness among nation-state which
some authors called “globalization.”

Anthony Giddens (2013) described globalization as “the intensification

of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local
happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa.”

This unit will present to you the various expressions of globalization, its
perspectives and theories dealing with experiences and events that shaped
globalization.

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Lesson 1: Defining Globalization

Lesson Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the learners must have:
1. discussed the interconnecting definition of globalization;
2. examined the dimensions and history of globalizations;
3. appreciated the dynamic experiences of globalization.

Fun Quiz!

Before we properly proceed to our topic, I would like you to check things
you have maybe in your bedroom, kitchen or in your bag. Can you tell their brands,
their country of origin or the influencer of these things you have? Write it on the
table below.

Table 1

Items Country of Origin Known Influencer

What can you say about your answers? What have you realized?
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What is Globalization?

Globalization is a broad term mostly people linked to economic aspect; the

integration of national economies into international economy by trading, foreign
investment, flow of capital resources, movement of people or migration, the
proliferation of technology and presence of military. This consequently pertains
to the aspects of our society manifested by globalization. Moreover, it is mostly
identified to be powered by combination of economic, technological, socio-cultural,
political and biological aspects.

The term “globalization” can be tracked back to the early 1960s. In the book
of Roland Robertson, Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture (London:
Sage, 1992) “globalization refers both to the compression of the world and
intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole.” “Compression” meaning
the world turns small in which everything is not far to reach and accessed by
everyone in the world. Furthermore, it is a process that breaks the gap, boundary
or barriers between nation-state to create common consciousness. “Intensification”
means the extent and strength of consciousness or practice not limited to a specific
geographical place but is able to cross the boarders of nation-states. Consider this
example, the use of Nike products, many people not only Filipinos are consumer
of these American products. Your favorite Guess products are sold in worldwide
markets and even in internet.

As espoused by Ritzer (2015), “globalization is a transplanetary process or

a set of processes involving increasing liquidity and growing multidirectional flows
of people, object, places, and information as well as the structures they encounter
and create that are barriers to, or expedite those flows…” So how is it happening?
Because of globalization movement of people, products and ideas are increased
in various directions that reach consumers easily and quickly. On the other hand,
the emergence of hindrances limit and diminish the flow of people, products and
ideas.

Globalization on the description of Manfred Steger (2009) states that “it

is the expansion and intensification of social relations and consciousness across
world-time and across world-space.” When you say “expansion” it relates to making
oa new connection of social network and further multiplying it that expands across
political, economic, cultural and geographic borders. Meaning, globalization creates
a wider opportunity for social relations among nation-states. But how can social
relations or connections may happen? The use of social media for example, tcould
create global connects between individuals. Another is when a nation-state like our
country the Philippines joins or registers as member of international organization like
United Nation or ASEAN. Meanwhile, Steger referred intensification as expanding,
stretching, accelerating the presence of connection or network a nation-state to
another nation-states.

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 Steger (2009) also cited that globalization has four main dimensions:
economic, political, cultural, and ecological, with ideological aspects for each
category.

1. Economic - Economic globalization is the intensification and stretching of

economic interrelations around the globe. It embraces such things as the
occurrence of a new global economic order, the internationalization of trade
and finance, the dynamic changing power of transnational corporations,
and the greater role of international economic institutions.

2. Political - Political globalization is the intensification and expansion of

political interrelations around the globe. It comprises the modern-nation
state system and its changing place in today’s world, the role of global
governance, and the path of our global political systems.

3. Military - Military globalization, as subdomain of political globalization,

is defined as the intensification and stretching of military power across
the globe through numerous means of military power (nuclear military
weapons, radiation weapons simply weapons of mass destruction). This
form of globalization occurs across offensive and defensive uses of power
and survival in international field. Beyond states, global organizations such
as the United Nations also extend military means globally through support
given by both Global North and South countries.

4. Cultural - Cultural globalization is the intensification and expansion of cultural

flows across the globe. Culture is a very wide-ranging concept and has
various facets, but in the argument on globalization, Steger means it to refer
to “the symbolic construction, articulation, and dissemination of meaning.”
Topics under this heading include discussion about the development of a
global culture, or lack thereof, the role of media in shaping our identities and
desires, and the globalization of languages.

5. Ecological - Topics of ecological globalization include population growth,

access to food, worldwide reduction in biodiversity, the gap between rich
and poor as well as between the global North and global South, human-
induced climate change, and global environmental degradation.

Furthermore, Steger also posits that his definition of globalization must

we separated with an ideology he termed globalism. Globalization refers to the
process and direction of change over time, globalism refers to a set of ideologies
ranging from the worship of the free-market to global jihadism, and globality is a
“single socio-political space on a planetary scale.” It is a wide spread belief among
powerful people that the global interaction of economic market be beneficial for
everyone (Paul, 2013).

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A Brief History of Globalization

The contemporary world is the era of a digital-driven period of globalization.

This era is called “ Globalization 4.0”. But, when did globalization start? What were
its major phases?

https://www.google.com/search?q=era+of+globalization&rlz

Silk roads (1st century BC-5th century AD, and 13th-14th

centuries AD)

As one could remember, people have been trading goods. But as of the
1st century BC, a noteworthy phenomenon occurred. For the first time in history,
luxury products from China started to appear on the other edge of the Eurasian
continent – in Rome. They got there after being hauled for thousands of miles
along the Silk Road. Trade had stopped being a local or regional affair and started
to become global.

Silk was mostly a luxury good, and so were the spices that were added to
the intercontinental trade between Asia and Europe. The Silk Road could prosper
in part because two great empires dominated much of the route. If trade was
interrupted, it was most often because of blockades by local enemies of Rome or
China. If the Silk Road eventually closed, as it did after several centuries, the fall of
the empires had everything to do with it. And when it reopened in Marco Polo’s late
medieval time, it was because the rise of a new hegemonic empire: the Mongols. It
is a pattern we’ll see throughout the history of trade: it thrives when nations protect
it, it falls when they don’t.

Spice routes (7th-15th centuries)

The next chapter in trade happened with the Islamic merchants. As the
new religion spread in all directions from its Arabian heartland in the 7th century,

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so did trade. The founder of Islam, the prophet Mohammed, was famously a
merchant, as was his wife Khadija. Trade was thus in the DNA of the new religion
and its followers, and that showed. By the early 9th century, Muslim traders already
dominated Mediterranean and Indian Ocean trade; afterwards, they could be found
as far east as Indonesia, which over time became a Muslim-majority country, and
as far west as Moorish Spain.

The main focus of Islamic trade in those Middle Ages were spices. Chief
among them were the cloves, nutmeg and mace from the fabled Spice islands
– the Maluku islands in Indonesia. They were extremely expensive and in high
demand, also in Europe. Globalization still didn’t take off, but the original Belt (sea
route) and Road (Silk Road) of trade between East and West did now exist.

Age of Discovery (15th-18th centuries)

It was in this era, from the end of the 15th century onwards, that European
explorers connected East and West – and accidentally discovered the Americas.
Aided by the discoveries of the so-called “Scientific Revolution” in the fields of
astronomy, mechanics, physics and shipping, the Portuguese, Spanish and later
the Dutch and the English first “discovered”, then subjugated, and finally integrated
new lands in their economies.

The most (in)famous “discovery” is that of America by Columbus, which all

but ended pre-Colombian civilizations. But the most consequential exploration was
the circumnavigation by Magellan: it opened the door to the Spice islands, cutting
out Arab and Italian middlemen. The European empires set up global supply
chains, but mostly with those colonies they owned. Moreover, their colonial model
was chiefly one of exploitation, including the shameful legacy of the slave trade.
The empires thus created both a mercantilist and a colonial economy, but not a
truly globalized one.

First wave of globalization (19th century-1914)

This started to change with the first wave of globalization, which roughly
occurred over the century ending in 1914. By the end of the 18th century, Great
Britain had started to dominate the world both geographically, through the
establishment of the British Empire, and technologically, with innovations like the
steam engine, the industrial weaving machine and more. It was the era of the First
Industrial Revolution.

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The World Wars

In the years between the world wars, the financial markets, which were still
connected in a global web, caused a further breakdown of the global economy
and its links. The Great Depression in the US led to the end of the boom in South
America, and a run on the banks in many other parts of the world. Another world
war followed in 1939-1945. By the end of World War II, trade as a percentage of
world GDP had fallen to 5% – a level not seen in more than a hundred years.

Second and third wave of globalization

Under the leadership of a new hegemon, the United States of America, and
aided by the technologies of the Second Industrial Revolution, like the car and the
plane, global trade started to rise once again. At first, this happened in two separate
tracks, as the Iron Curtain divided the world into two spheres of influence. But as of
1989, when the Iron Curtain fell, globalization became a truly global phenomenon.

The newly created World Trade Organization (WTO) encouraged nations all
over the world to enter into free-trade agreements, and most of them did, including
many newly independent ones. In 2001, even China, which for the better part of
the 20th century had been a secluded, agrarian economy, became a member of
the WTO, and started to manufacture for the world. In this “new” world, the US set
the tone and led the way, but many others benefited in their slipstream.

The new technology from the Third Industrial Revolution, the internet,
connected people all over the world in an even more direct way. The internet also
allowed for a further global integration of value chains.

In the 2000s, global exports reached a milestone, as they rose to about

a quarter of global GDP. Trade, the sum of imports and exports, consequentially
grew to about half of world GDP. In some countries, like Singapore, Belgium, or
others, trade is worth much more than 100% of GDP.

Globalization 4.0

In a world increasingly dominated by two global powers, the US and China,

the new frontier of globalization is the cyber world. The digital economy, in its
infancy during the third wave of globalization, is now becoming a force to reckon
with through e-commerce, digital services, 3D printing. It is further enabled by
artificial intelligence, but threatened by cross-border hacking and cyberattacks.

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 At the same time, a negative globalization is expanding too, through the
global effect of climate change. Pollution in one part of the world leads to extreme
weather events in another. And the cutting of forests in the few “green lungs” the
world has left, like the Amazon rainforest, has a further devastating effect on not
just the world’s biodiversity, but its capacity to cope with hazardous greenhouse
gas emissions.

Summary

Globalization has been in our circulation a very long time ago. It has
affected the system of every nation’s society and thinking. Globalization as defined
by many is the intensification of worldwide social relations that enable the global
society to be connected, that every event affects one another leading towards
progress and development. Then globalization as a process transform social
relation and transaction into a transcontinental or interregional flow of network
activity and exercise of power. However, many commentators view globalization
on the opposite side, like Martin Khor, President of the Third World Network in
Malaysia, who referred globalization as colonization.

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 Name: Score:
Curriculum and Section:
Subject:
Unit No.: Date:

Let’s Do This!

I. Discuss below the definition of globalization according to:

1. Manfred Steger - _______________________________________________

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2. Roland Robertson - _____________________________________________

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3. George Ritzer - _________________________________________________

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 In the concept map below, describe and explain briefly how
globalization happens in its 5 dimensions.

GLOBALIZATION

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Lesson 2: Theories of Globalization

Lesson Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the learners must have:
1. articulated perspectives or theories of globalization;
2. integrated theories of globalization in understanding issues and events in
the contemporary world.

Introduction

Globalization is usually used as the spread and connectedness of production,

communication and technologies across the world. That spread has involved the
interlacing of economic and cultural activity. Others would also refer globalisation
with the presence of world-wide organization like united nation, World Bank and
International Monetary Fund. The speed of communication and exchange, the
complexity and size of the networks involved, and the sheer volume of trade,
interaction and risk is what we now label as “globalization.”

This part will tackle the theories which will help you understand the concepts
of globalization.

Fun Quiz!

https://www.google.com/search?q=glocalization&tbm

Before we unfold the theories of globalization, let’s take a look at the picture
above as this will help clear out our thoughts.

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 What product can you see? _______________________. Do you notice
something peculiar about it? _____________. What is it ____________________
_______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________. With
these, how can you relate it with our previous lesson, globalization? ___________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________.

Theories of Globalization

1. The World System Theory

This theory was proposed by Emmanuel Wallerstien (Goldfrank 2000).

A world-system is multicultural territorial division of labor which production and
exchange of basic goods and raw materials is necessary for the everyday life
of its inhabitants.

He pointed out that some nation-state failed to develop due to

asymmetrical trade in global capitalism making them difficult to compete and
become dependent to rich nation–states. For him globalization represents the
triumph of a capitalist world economy. For a tie, certain countries become the
world hegemon. The key structure of the capitalist world-system is the division
of the world into three great regions, or geographically based and hierarchically
organized tiers: the core, semi-periphery and the periphery. The core countries
focus in higher skill, capital intensive production and the rest of the world
focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive production and extraction of raw materials.

The world system perpetuates dominance by the core and dependency

of the periphery. Thus in this view, globalization also perpetuates inequality-
global economic system is inherently unfair.

2. Theories of Global Capitalism

a. Leslie Sklair’s transnational Practices (TNP).

According to Sklair (2000) transnational practices
operate in three spheres; the economic, political and
the cultural-ideological. These practices originate
with non-state actors and cross state borders. The
economic spheres, whose agent is transnational
capital-the executives of transnational corporations.
The political spheres, whose agent is a transnational
capitalist class-they are the globalizing bureaucrats,
William Robinson. https://www.
politicians and professionals. Then the cultural- google.comsearch?q=b.+William+
ideological, whose agent is cultural elites-the Robinson+global+capitalism&rlz

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 consumerist elites in the media and commercial sectors.

b. William Robinson’s Transnational State Apparatus.

For Robinson (2017), Global capitalism evolved
an epochal shift. From world economy to global
economy. World Economy, wherein each country
developed a national economy that was linked
to others through trade and finances in an
integrated international market. Global Economy the
globalization of the production process itself, which
breaks down and functionally integrates what were William Robinson. https://www.
previously national circuits into new global circuits of google.comsearch?q=b.+William+
Robinson+global+capitalism&rlz
production and accumulation.

Furthermore, this global capitalism involves three planks: (a)

transnational production - integration of every country and much of
humanity into a new globalized system of production, finance, and services;
(b) transnational capitalists - made up of the owners and managers of
transnational capital. Its interests lie in promoting global, not national,
circuits of accumulation; and (c) transnational state - a supranational
political authority (Robinson, 2017).

Robinson (2017) referred The Transnational State (TNS) is a loose

network comprised of supranational political and economic institutions
together with national state apparatuses that have been penetrated and
transformed by transnational forces. National states as components of a
larger TNS structure now tend to serve the interests of global over national
accumulation processes. The supranational organizations are staffed by
transnational functionaries and whose find their counterparts in transnational
functionaries who staff transformed national states.

3. The Network Society by Manuel Castell

A network society is a society whose social

structure is made up of networks powered by
microelectronics-based information and communication
technologies.

Globalization is seen to exercise the

technological change in various ways and processes.
This new economy is described as informational
which is knowledge based, production of information
is organized on a global scale and global network
Emmanuel Wallerstien. https://
interaction is used for productivity. Whereby, internet www.google.com/search?q=
usher the constructions of a new symbolic environment Emmanuel+Wallerstien+
&tbm=isch&ved
which makes “virtuality a reality” ( Castell, 2005).

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 This new symbolic environment is characterized with: SPACE OF
FLOWS, in which informational flows bring physical spaces closer through
networks; TIMELESS TIME in which technology is able to manipulate the
natural sequence of events; and REAL VIRTUALITY based on a hypertext
reality and global interconnection which bends space and time relations.

Castell also argues that globalization is a network of production, culture

and power that is constantly shaped by advances in technology, which range
from communication technologies to genetic engineering. This globalization
represents a new age of information (2005).

Information has become the key substance of all human activity and is
directly integrated into culture, institutions and experience. The development
of new information technology (IT), in particular, computers and the Internet,
representing a new technological paradigm and leading to a new “mode of
development” that Castells terms “informationalism.” Informationalism refers
to a technological paradigm that replaces and subsumes the previous paradigm
of industrialism.

Yet, castells (2005) mentioned that it creates digital divide, the division
of the world into those areas and segments of population. Segment that
switched on to the new technological system and segment that switched off
or the marginalized. With it, information age does not necessarily mean that
the world has become flat, rather with technological advance Castell argues
that it creates a global forms of exclusion and inclusions, fragmentation and
integration.

4. Theories of Space, Place and Globalization

a. Time-Space-Distanciation by Anthony Giddens

Giddens defines time-space distanciation as ‘the intensification of

worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that
local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and
vice versa’ – social relations are ‘lifted out’ from local contexts of interaction
and restructured across time and space

b. Global Risk Society by Anthony Giddens

Giddens (2009) provocatively argues that globalization has led to

the creation of a “global risk society.” Human social and economic activities,
especially in modernity, produce various risks such as pollution, crime, new
illnesses, food shortages, market crashes, wars, etc., and societies have
become more responsible for managing these risks that their activities
intentionally or, more often than not, unintentionally produced.

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 c. Time-Space-Compression” by David Harvey

Time-space compression is the process whereby time is reorganized

in such a way as to reduce the constraints of space, and vice-versa. It
also refers to the way the acceleration of economic activities leads to the
destruction of spatial barriers and distances.

5. Theories of Transnationality and Transnationalism

Transnationality refers to the rise of new communities and the formation

of new social identities and relations that cannot be defined through the
traditional reference point of nation-states.

TRANSNATIONALISM refers to the multiple ties and interactions linking

people or institutions across the borders of nation states. Transnationalism
means living in another country than their country of origin. It is “a process by
which migrants, through their daily life activities create social fields that cross
national boundaries.” Immigrant communities do not de-link themselves from
their home country; instead, they keep and nourish their linkages to their place
of origin (Sánchez, 2010).

6. Theories of Global Culture

There are three main bodies of theory regarding the effects of

globalization on local culture: homogenization, hybridization and heterogeneity
or polarization. Each of these processes can be demonstrated in different parts
of the world.

• Homogenization is the name given to the process whereby globalization

causes one culture to consume another. Homogenization theories see
a global cultural convergence and would tend to highlight the rise of
world beat, world cuisines, world tourism, uniform consumption patterns
and cosmopolitanism (Appadurai). Many use the term Americanization
to depict specifically the way that American culture has been exported
to all corners of the globe.

• Hybridization - Cultures are however rarely simply consumed. More often

two cultures clash and a new hybrid culture is formed. Hybridization
stresses new and constantly evolving cultural forms and identities
produced by manifold transnational processes and the fusion of
distinct cultural processes.

• Polarization or heterogeneity - this condition continued cultural

difference and highlight local cultural autonomy, cultural resistance
to homogenization, cultural clashes and polarization, and distinct
subjective experiences of globalization.

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7. Global Village by Marshall McLuhan

The late Marshall McLuhan, a media and communication theorist,

coined the term “global village” in 1964 to describe the phenomenon of the
world’s culture shrinking and expanding at the same time due to pervasive
technological advances that allow for instantaneous sharing of culture.

McLuhan chose the insightful phrase “global village” to highlight

his observation that an electronic nervous system (the media) was rapidly
integrating the planet - events in one part of the world could be experienced
from other parts in real-time, which is what human experience was like when
we lived in small villages.

Moreover, his insight known as “the medium is the message” suggests

that the qualities of a medium have as much effect as the information it transmits.
It is from this that various medium are used to convey information in best way
possible it is.

8. McDonaldization by George Ritzer

Ritzer (1996) claimed that the contemporary world is undergoing

process of Mcdonaldization. McDonaldization theory is defined as “the process
whereby the principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more
and more sectors of American society and the world.” The said theory follows
the Four Main Dimensions such as;

Efficiency - The optimum method of completing a task. It is he rational

determination of the best mode of production. Individuality is not allowed.

Calculability - The assessment of outcomes based on quantifiable rather

than subjective criteria. In other words, quantity over quality. They sell the Big
Mac, not the Good Mac.

Predictability - The production process is organized to guarantee

uniformity of product and standardized outcomes. All shopping malls begin to
look the same and all highway exits have the same assortment of businesses.

Control - The substitution of more predictable non-human labor for

human labor, either through automation or the deskilling of the work force.

9. Glocalization by Roland Robertson

The theory of Robertson suggested that the global is only manifested

in the local. GLOCALIZATION means that ideas about home, locality and
community have been extensively spread around the world in recent years,
so that the local has been globalized, and the stress upon the significance

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 of the local or the communal can be viewed as one ingredient of the overall
globalization process.

10. “Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy”

by Arjun Appadurai

For anthropologist Arjun Appadurai (1997), different kinds of globalization

occur on multiple and intersecting dimensions of integration that he calls
“scapes.” Appadaurai uses the suffix SCAPE to connote the idea that these
processes have fluid, irregular, variable shapes. Mediascapes are about the
flows of image and communication. Ethnoscapes are concerned with the flows
of individuals around the world. Ideoscapes deal with exchanges of ideas and
ideologies. Technoscapes refer to the flows of technology and skills to create
linkages between organizations around the world. Financescapes relate to the
interactions associated with money and capital.

Summary

Various perspectives have described how globalization take part in the

world wide social relation. The world system theory of Emmanuel Wallerstein
discussed the regions of globalization; core, semi-periphery and the periphery
which described the opposing scenario of the world. The global capitalism that
examined the transnational production and global economy. Another was the
network society of Manuel Castells, showing the informational change made by
technological advancement. Notable theory was the work of Anthony Giddens,
expressing that globalization diminished time and space. He also cited the risk of
globalization in many aspects of the world.

On the aspect of global culture, there are three main bodies of theory
regarding the effects of globalization on local culture: homogenization, hybridization
and heterogeneity or polarization. Moreover the idea of “global village” was
introduced by Marshall McLuhan, that technological advancement was made as
culture was shared and spread. Another famous theory was the McDonaldization
theory of George Ritzer, the westernization of the world and the principle of a fast-
food chain process.

Meanwhile Roland Robertson stresses upon the significance of the local or

the communal which can be viewed as one ingredient of the overall globalization
process. And finally the theory of Arjun Appadurai suggested that globalization
occurs in different dimensions he calls scapes.

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 Name: Score:
Curriculum and Section:
Subject:
Unit No.: Date:

Let’s Do This!

I. Fill up the table below with necessary information to sum up your learning.
Choose 3 theories only. You may use a separate paper.

Theory of Concept’s brief Proponent

Main concept
Globalization description or Author

II. This time please read and summarize news (or collect newspaper clippings)
that has a global impact. Analyze the news and make your reaction or reflection
about it using a theory. Do it in a piece of pad paper.

I. Identification: Give the idea being asked on the items below. Write
your answer before each item.

1. What is referred to as the intensification of worldwide

social relations which links distant localities in such a way
that local happenings are shaped by events occurring
many miles away and vice versa.
2. To Wallerstein, what economy succeed in globalization?
3. What is referred to as the large amount of power given
to an authority which in theory is placed higher than the
state?
4. To Castells, what constructs of a new symbolic
environment, global in its reach, makes “virtuality a
reality.”
5. What is referred to by McLuhan as an electronic nervous
system that was rapidly integrating the planet?

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II. True or false: Determine whether the following statements are true or false.

1. The periphery regions of capitalist world are those that

possessed power in economy and politics.
2. Globalization is applied to almost everything.
3. Based on the world system theory, poor countries are
dependent on rich states.
4. The core societies dominate and exploit weak and poor
periphery.
5. The transnational practices believed that globalization do not
originate from the state agencies.
6. The transnational capitalist class pursue their own interest in
an expanding global capitalist system.
7. The global capitalism has transformed from world economy
to a global economy.
8. To Manuel Castells, the technological change is referred to
globalization.
9. Globalization is also referred to by other people as colonization
of society.
10. To Robinson, other countries did not modernize due to trade
asymmetrical of market.
11. To L. Sklair, globalization promotes social inequality.
12. McLuhan developed an idea of “the medium is the message.”
13. The “Core” is the least privilege in the globalization.

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 https://bit.ly/31OLlNX

UNIT 2
Unit Outcomes:
THE GLOBAL
ECONOMY At the end of this unit, the learners must have:
1. articulated the definition of market
integration and its different types;
2. explained the importance of International
Financial Institutions and The Bretton
Woods System.

Introduction

Globalization has brought enormous changes to the lives of the people.

Humans are the major contributors to the development of the economy. But also,
at the same time, humans are the direct descendants of the success and failures
of decisions made throughout history. It is therefore, a necessity to be acquainted
with the trends and changes of our modern world. With such, knowledge and
understanding of the various concepts of globalization and how it affects each
economy is vital for the survival and success of every human.

The world is moving in fast pace as technology changes every quarter of

the year. Distance from each other is no longer an issue because of technology
and easy travel opportunities. There is shorter waiting time and everything is fast
because communication is reaching even at the farthest part of the world.

This module aims to make the students better understand how each
economy and market works and how it is affects us. This module will discuss
about the basic concepts of global economy, market integration and global city. It
will also introduce the history and types of market integration and how it affects our
economy.

20
Lesson 1: Market Integration

Lesson Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the learners must have:
1. defined and articulated market integration and its different types;
2. reflected on how different types pf market integration affects their lives.

Economies around the world are already showing various spots of

homogeneity and it is all attributed to the integration of economies around the
world as a result of globalization. To fully understand the economy, one should
look at the different perspectives of the market and how it works and how they
adjust to the changes brought by globalization. Markets which include companies
and corporations are making tremendous efforts to adapt to changes, with the
challenges of rigid competition and trade rules. With these developments in
economy, trends in the market emerge and paved the way to various types of
market integration which has started in the 19th century with the establishment
of a better navigation and maritime technology as well as the advancement in
communication.

Fun Quiz!

Before we proceed with the topic, may I ask you to answer the following.
Give at least 5 corporations you are familiar with and their line of business.

1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
4. ______________________________
5. ______________________________

Market Integration (Kohls and Uhl) is a process that refers to corporate

expansion by consolidating additional marketing functions and activities within
a single management framework. Integration shows the company’s market
relationship and its extent affects the company’s behavior.

It is the process by which company combines different activities around the

world so that they operate using the same methods. It is when two businesses
are brought together through a merger or takeover, and the nature and type of

21
integration is based on activities of each business and where they operate in the
supply chain of an industry.

Global Market Integration involves the process of product standardization

and technology development centralization.

History of Market Integration

It was during the 19th century when Market Integration showed substantial
advances in international market integration. The realization of the creation of
world economy had made technological advancement critical in these times. It
was in this century when the locomotive and marine steam engine revolutionized
world transportation. Steamships connected the world’s ports and railroads ran
inland. With these goods could be transported across the world. The emergence
of electric telegraph was evolutionary. The opening of Suez Canal which allowed
shorter travel make transport easier. And lastly, the technological change in the
shape of steel hulls and steel masts made sailing ships larger and more efficient.

The imposition of taxes among countries was practiced at this century. But
in 1846 when the merchants of Manchester England struck a victory for free trade
by forcing the British government to abandon tariffs on imported goods. Although
these move has made countries vulnerable to the trade surplus and deficit as
major disadvantage of free trade.

In the second half of the 19th century, Asia saw market integration in one of
Asia’s key commodities, RICE. The transport and information networks established
and created an intra-Asian economy. This period also saw the integration of the
world wheat market and world rice market, creating a global market in basic good
grains.

Challenges because of Great Depression of 1930s hampered free trade

and forced countries to raise their tariffs to keep foreign product out and help their
local farmers.

The integration of the global market restarted when American corporations

began to emerge after the Second World War with the rise of new conglomerates.
It was then also when countries began to extend their reach beyond boarders.
There are changes in the patterns of trade and technology that took place because
of the advancement in shipping and navigation.

22
Types of Market Integration

1. Horizontal Market Integration - is a competitive strategy in which two

companies of the same nature merge or one larger company acquires a
smaller company.

Example: The acquisition of Miramax and Pixar of a much larger

company Disney.

The acquisition of Smart of a much smaller company Sun.

2. Vertical Market Integration - It is a competitive strategy of a firm own to own

the upstream suppliers and downstream buyers; this is an arrangement in
which supply chain of a company is also owned by that company.

Example: A car company began making their own steel for their car
parts instead of investing to other corporations.

Nescafe Corporation buying their own land, and producing

their own coffee grain, employing their own coffee growers.

A. Forward Vertical Integration - This process occurs when a company

decides take control of the post-production process or is acquiring a
business further up into the supply chain.

Example: A car manufacturer acquires an automotive dealership.

Starbucks has the production of its own coffee bean to

the cup of coffee sold to consumers.

B. Backward Vertical Integration - This process occurs when a company

decides to buy another company that makes an input product acquiring
company’s product.

Example: A car manufacturer acquires a tire manufacturer or car

parts distributor.

3. Conglomerate Market Integration - This involves a combination or fusion of

companies that are involved in unrelated business activities.

Two types of mergers of conglomerate:

A. Pure Mergers conglomerates involves companies that have nothing in

common.

Example: Henry Sy of SM Investments Corp acquired a 34.5

23
 percent stake in 2GO Group Incorporation.

B. Mixed Mergers Conglomerates - combination of companies that are

looking for product extensions or market extensions.

Effects of Market Integration

1. Wider selection of goods and services that have not been previously available.
This is made available because of the ease of navigation and transportation.
The goods from one country can easily reach different countries around the
world because of trade. The consumers of one country can choose different
products from other country and enjoy a wide variety of choices.
2. Acquisition of goods and services at a lower cost. The free flowing of goods
and services as a result of globalization can reach many countries. It makes
competition for buyers stiffer for companies resulting to the drop of prices to
keep up with the competition.

3. Political Cooperation. This cooperation happens because of strong economic

ties, which allows peaceful conflict resolution and allows greater stability.

4. Erosion of national sovereignty. This happens when members of economic

unions are required to follow the rules on trade, monetary policies and other
agreements.

5. Employment opportunities. This tends to improve because trade liberalization

leads to market expansion, technology sharing and cross boarder investment.
Therefore, skilled workers are demanded in all parts of the world which allows
more opportunities to earn.

Bretton Woods System

Because of the increasing

trade and development, in July
1944, The United Nations Monetary
and Financial Conference was
held and an international monetary
system was developed in Bretton
Woods, Hampshire. They sought to
create a system that would ensure
exchange rate stability, prevent
competitive devaluations, and www.amp.dw.com
promote economic growth. The

24
delegates to the conference agreed to establish the International Monetary Fund
and what becomes to be the World Bank Group and a system developed in order
to address international monetary order. Bretton Woods Agreement has a goal
of creating a system that would facilitate international trade while protecting the
autonomous policy goals of individual nations.

The primary designers of the Bretton Woods System were the British
economist John Maynard Keynes and American Chief International Economist of
the U.S. Treasury Department Harry Dexter White. Keynes’ hope was to establish
a powerful global central bank to be called the Clearing Union and issue a new
international reserve currency called Bancor. White’s plan envisioned a more
modest lending fund and a greater role for the U.S. dollar, rather than the creation
of a new currency. In the end, the adopted plan took ideas from both, leaning more
towards White’s plan.

The delegates of the conference agreed to establish two new institutions:

1. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) that would monitor exchange rates
and lend reserve currencies to nations with balance-deficits. This institution
came into formal existence in December 1945.

2. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development which is also

known as World Bank Group which is responsible for providing financial
assistance for the reconstruction after World War II and the economic
development of less developed countries.

In 1958, Bretton Woods System became fully functional as currencies

became convertible. Countries settled international balances in dollars, and US
dollars were convertible to gold at a fixed exchange rate at $35 an ounce. Bretton
Woods System was in place until persistent US Balance of payments deficits led
to foreign held dollars exceeding the US gold Stock. It was President Nixon the
dollars convertibility to gold in 1971. The system collapsed but created a lasting
influence on international currency exchange and trade through its development of
the IMF and World Bank.

International Financial Institutions and Its Role

International Financial Institutions are institutions that provide financial

support and professional advice for economic and social development activities in
developing countries and promote international economic cooperation and stability.
All IFI’s are active in supporting programs that are global in scope, in addition to
their primary role of financing and providing technical assistance to programs at
the country level.

25
The Traditional goals of these institutions are:

1. To reduce global poverty and improve people’s living condition and

standards.
2. To support sustainable economic, social and institutional development.
3. To promote regional cooperation and integration.
4. To enhance measures that promote economic growth and protection of
the environment.

IFI’s achieve these objectives through loans, credits and grants to national
government. Such funding is usually tied to specific projects that focus on economic
and socially sustainable development. IFI’s also provide technical and advisory
assistance to their borrowers and conduct extensive research on development
issues. These institutions provide businesses or governments with loan for
emergency purposes or for normal business functions.
All IFI’s admit only sovereign countries as its owner members, but are all
characterized by a broad country membership, including both borrowing developing
countries and developed donor countries. Also, All IFI’s have independent legal
and operational status and a high level of cooperation is maintained among them.

International Financial Institutions

1. World Bank and International Monetary Fund- were founded after World
War II. their establishment was mainly because of peace advocacy
after war. It aimed to help the economic stability of the world. both of
them are basically banks, but instead of being started by individuals
like regular banks, they were started by countries. they were designed
to complement each other. IMF main goal was to help countries which
were in trouble. The World Bank, in comparison revolved around the
eradication of poverty and it funded specific projects that helped them
reach thier goals, especially in poor countries.
• International Bank for Reconstruction and Develoment (IBRD)
• International Development Association (IDA)
• International Finance Corporation (IFC)
• Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
• International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
(ICSID)

2. Multilateral Development Banks

• African Development Bank (AFDB)
• Asian Development Bank (ADB)
• The Inter-American Development Bank
• European Bank

26
Summary

• Market integration is a process that refers to corporate expansion by

consolidating additional marketing functions and activities within a single
management framework.
• There are three types of market integration namely; vertical, horizontal and
conglomerate systems.
• The Bretton Woods Agreement and system created a collective international
currency exchange and built International Financial Institutions like the
World Bank and International Monetary Fund.
• The Bretton Woods collapsed in the 1970’s but created a lasting influence
in trading and foreign currency exchange.

27
 Name: Score:
Curriculum and Section:
Subject:
Unit No.: Date:

Let’s Do This!

I. Let us try to apply what you learned:

1. Identify the different types of market integration present in your locality.

Give 3 examples and narrate why you think they belong to this type.
2. Browse the internet on how International Financial Institutions helped
our country Philippines and give your opinion about it by writing a short
reflection.

Note: This is due 2 weeks after you receive this lesson.

Let us assess your learning by answering the following questions:

1. How does market integration affect the lives of an ordinary man? (200
words)
2. Philippines has been one of the major borrowers of money from IFI’s
ever since. What do you think is the impact of the IFI’s to the Philippines
as a country? (200 words)

Note: Your answer should be based on your opinion and your

understanding of the different concepts. Please use Tahoma 12 and
observe 1.5 spacing. Submit a week after this lesson.

28
Lesson 2: Global City

Lesson Outcome:
At the end of this lesson, the learners must have:
1. articulated the concept and feature of global city.

Introduction

Globalization and technology

advancement have made significant impact
on various cities around the world. Global
city is a contemporary concept and has
revolutionizing effort on the way economist
view.

Global City is a concept of the

twentieth century which is an image of a very
highly urbanized area but are full energized www.blog.degruyter.com
and governed by modern state of the art technology and advanced communication
capacity. It is a city know to be an economic super power. It is also known to be
the “brain hubs” and the centers of a “knowledge economy.”

Fun Quiz!

Before we proceed to our discussion, may I ask you to answer the following.
What are your expectations about a Global city? list down your answer.

1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
4. ______________________________
5. ______________________________

29
Global Cities

Global cities are cities with mostly large populations. But size is not all
that matters. One of the most important quality of global city is its openness to
business, ideas and people because it allows growth and development. Global
cities drive the global economy, they are economic power houses with head offices
of multinational institutions, business services, legal and consulting expertise,
exchanges banks and global corporations on its territory. They also drive in land,
water and air connectivity, where major airports and solid transit infrastructure that
make global cities accessible in all areas, that helps attract tourist and business
ventures. Global cities have top educational institutions, consulate, think tanks
and the venues for international conferences which drive political engagement
and undertakings. Also, they are cultural capitals, Museums, symphonies, world
renowned restaurants, night life and sports are catered in these cities. And most
importantly, global cities are led by people who think globally and understand the
importance of connectivity of local politics to world politics.

Global City as defined by Saskia Sassen (1991) are identified in 4 ways:

1. It is a key location for finance and specialized service firms which have
replaced manufacturing as the leading economic services
2. It is a site of production, including the production of innovations in leading
industries.
3. It is highly concentrated command points in the organization of the world
economy.
4. It is where products and innovations are produced.
5. Global cities are major nodes in the interconnected systems of information
and money, and the wealth that they capture is intimately related to the
specialized businesses that facilitate those flows.

www.globalsherpa.org

30
Attributes of Global City

1. Seats of Economic Power

2. Centers of Authority
3. Centers of Political Influence
4. Centers of Higher Learning and Culture

At Kearney list, developed in conjunction with the Chicago Council on Global

Affairs, Global Cities index uses criteria across five dimensions:

a. Business Activity (Headquarters, service firms, capital market value,

number of international conferences, value of goods through ports and
airports.
b. Human Capital (size of foreign born population, quality of universities,
number of international schools, international student population number
of residents with college degrees).
c. Information Exchange (accessibility to major TV news channels, internet
presence, Number of international news bureaus, censorship, and
broadcast subscribers rate).
d. Cultural Experience (number of sporting events, museums, performing
arts venues, culinary establishments, international visitors, and sister
city relationship).
e. Political Engagement (Number of embassies and consulates, think tanks
international organizations, political conferences.

Challenges of Global City

1. Global cities can be sites of great inequality and poverty.

2. Environmental threats due to global climate change.
3. Scarcity of Resources such as Water, Good and Energy due to increase
in demand.
4. Techonological dependence.
5. Challenge of Good Governance because of complexity and require
dedicated of minds.

Summary

The concept Global city drives the global economy, they are economic
power houses with head offices of multinational institutions, business services,
legal and consulting expertise, exchanges banks and global corporations on its
territory.

Global city has 5 dimensions namely: business activity, human capital,

information exchange, cultural experience and political engagement.

31
 Name: Score:
Curriculum and Section:
Subject:
Unit No.: Date:

Let’s Do This!

I. Aside from the identified 10 leading global cities in the world, which of the
following can be considered as a global city.

Philippines Germany Slovania

India Pakistan Nigeria
Switzerland Brazil Russia
Myanmar Mexico Australia
Japan Turkey Iran
United Arab Emirates France Tanzania
Sudan South Korea Argentina
Malaysia Afghanistan Canada
The Netherlands Peru Angola

Let us assess your learning by answering the following questions:

1. Do you consider living in a global city? if yes, which global city do you
want to live in? Why do you want to live in this city? If no, Why do you
not wish to live in a global city?

Note: Use Tahoma 12 and observe 1.5 spacing.

32
 https://bit.ly/2PQJuTf

UNIT 3 Unit Outcome:

POLITICAL
THOUGHT, GLOBAL At the end of this unit, the learners must have:
GOVERNANCE 1. discussed the Political Thought, Global
AND INTERSTATE Governance and Interstate System.
SYSTEM

Introduction

Governments do exist interdependently. In an open economic structure, one

country needs the support of other countries in terms of trade, military resources
and financial capital. However, a few countries decide to operate independent of
other nations for whatever reasons they find beneficial for themselves. It could
be the vast resources available within its territory that obtaining assets from other
countries is not necessary anymore, or the wealth of nation abundantly obtainable
as the needs arise. However, before countries decide to collaborate or not with other
countries, they collectively evolve and progress, calling themselves sovereign.

33
Lesson 1. Introduction to Political Thought

Lesson Outcome:
At the end of this lesson, the learners must have:
1. described the theoretical formation of states over time as a by-product of
evolution, expansion and development.

1. Persons settling in one geographical territory, living in a community, sharing

similar purposes in life, obeying social contracts, organized by an authority,
and enjoying freedom from any external control is described as a State. Its
role is to create a healthy environment, conducive to attaining better welfare
and construct policy frameworks that enable various agencies of the state to
explore and realize the full potential of the people while maintaining workable
standard operations that support and protect public interest.

2. Max Weber (pronounced as Max Veba) defined a state as a polity that

maintains monopoly on the legitimate use of violence. It sounds very cruel
but is justifiable if it is to establish a standard behaviour among residents
of the state. For example paying taxes, keeping the environment clean,
respect to other members in the society, avoiding all actions that destroy the
future of the young like drug addiction, prostitution, theft and burglary, etc.

3. There are four (4) theories of a state: Force Theory, Evolutionary Theory,
Divine Right Theory and Social Contract Theory. A state is created through
some force, as the losers of war subject themselves to the victorious new
rulers; the Force Theory follows this thought. The evolutionary theory supports
the idea that formation of states developed naturally and gradually as by
product of historical development, factors of which include family and kinship,
religion, natural social instinct, economic needs and politics. (Evolutionary
Theory)

4. On the other hand, a political doctrine, in support to monarchical absolutism,

asserted that kings derived their authority from God and could not be
accountable for their actions by an earthly authority like the parliament. This
is the idea pushed by the Divine Right Theorists. The Social Contract Theory
is the view that persons’ moral and or political obligations are dependent
upon an agreement among them that form the society in which they live
(Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy).

5. What is then the role of the government running off the state?
Major State responsibilities include schools, hospitals, conservation and

34
 environment, roads, railways and public transport, public works, agriculture
and fishing, industrial relations, community services, sport and recreation,
consumer affairs, police, prisons and emergency services. These form
government spending and subsidies that are primarily sourced from
taxes. Moreover, government‘s role to development includes controls over
production, distribution, consumption of commodities. To achieve these
objectives, it devises physical controls, monetary and fiscal measures that
are essential for reducing economic and social inequalities (Suman) that
prevail in underdeveloped economies like the Philippines.

Technical Terms

1. Monetary measures are policies on money supply management and interest

rates regulation by the Central Bank that help achieve a macroeconomic
objective like curving inflation, regulating consumption, achieving target
growths and maintaining certain level of liquidity.

2. Fiscal measures are policy handles of the government like taxation and
government spending that greatly affect overall spending adjustments of the
country.

3. Economic inequality measures the extent to which income, most commonly

measured by household or individual, is distributed in an uneven manner.

4. Areas of social inequality include access to voting rights, freedom of speech

and assembly, the extent of property rights and access to education, health
care, quality housing, traveling, transportation, vacationing and other social
goods and services. Apart from that, it can also be seen in the quality of
family and neighbourhood life, occupation, job satisfaction, and access to
credit. (Social Inequality)

35
 Name: Score:
Curriculum and Section:
Subject:
Unit No.: Date:

Let’s Do This!

I. Group yourself by fives, if not possible work independently.

Kindly choose five states and describe its history, economic system,
military strengths, political structures and general provisions of the government
to the people. (This is worth 50 full points, 10 points for each country and 2
points in each variable). You may limit your answers in five paragraphs for each
country. Submit your work, written in Word, Tahoma, 11 font, single space and
1” margin everywhere on ________________________ to ramsaragrace@
yahoo.com.

Answer what is described in the following sentences.

1. The distribution of Social Amelioration Program is an indicator of

the presence of
(a) economic stability
(b) aristocracy
(c) democracy
(d) social inequality
(e) political will

2. Earning differences among people in the society indicates the

presence of
(a) economic stability
(b) aristocracy
(c) economic inequality
(d) social inequality
(e) political will

3. Tax revenues and government spending are tools of the

government called
(a) employment policy
(b) monetary policy

36
 (c) trade policy
(d) tax policy
(e) fiscal policy

4. The Central Bank is responsible in regulating

(a) corporate taxes
(b) money supply
(c) drug trafficking
(d) government‘s spending roads and bridges
(e) GSIS loans

5. Subsidies are primarily sourced from

(a) the banks
(b) the pork barrel
(c) taxes
(d) salaries and wages
(e) personal loans

6. In Monarchical Absolutism, it is asserted that kings derived their

authority from
(a) the congress
(b) the house of commons
(c) the president of the country
(d) God
(e) the people

7. The state created by Spaniards after colonizing the Philippines is

an example of
(a) social contract theory
(b) force theory
(c) evolutionary theory
(d) monarchical absolutism
(e) feudalism theory

8. A social contract is beneficial to one if

(a) the law is implemented fully
(b) the others adhere to it as well
(c) the lawyers consider it as contract
(d) it lawful
(e) if it is moral

9. Max Weber (pronounced as Max Veba) defined a state as a polity

that maintains monopoly on the legitimate use of violence because
(a) the government is tyrant
(b) the government want to ensurepeacefor the good citizens
and physical control over the insurgents

37
 (c) the government is ready for war
(d) violence is the weapon against rebellion
(e) the people are naturally ready for violence

10. Quality of life is improved if people are

(a) healthy
(b) educated
(c) having enough choice sets
(d) enjoying freedom of speech
(e) all of those enumerated earlier

38
Lesson 2: The Republic

Lesson Outcome:
At the end of this lesson, the learners must have:
1. differentiated the concepts of an ideal city or an ideal state presented in
the discourse of Socrates and his companions about how to achieve a
perfect government as opposed to other kinds of states.

1. To understand the dynamics of political influences and instruments, it is

essential to review, Plato‘s best-known work and world’s most influential
works of philosophy and political theory, the Republic. The Republic contained
Socratic dialogue with Athenians and foreigners about the idea and meaning
of justice to an ideal utopian city. Will being just bring happiness to the just
man? Will he be happier than the unjust man will?

2. Socrates listened to the various definitions of justice from his companions.

Justice is essentially, giving what is owed. Justice is an art that gives good
to friends and evil to enemies. Justice is but the interest of the stronger.
Socrates overturned all these definitions by asserting that it is advantageous
for a man to be just and disadvantageous to be unjust. Socrates needed to
prove that justice is not only desirable, but that it belongs to the highest class
of desirable things.

3. His companions presented advantages of being unjust. The unjust man

could grow wealthy by injustice and does not need to be fearful of Divine
judgement in the afterlife because he can always allocate a portion of his
gains to religious losses, thus rendering him innocent in the eyes of the gods.
Socrates emphasized the need to define justice from the city rather than to
a person. The individual is unable to supply everything he needs and thus
seeks provisions from the city he called the Healthy State.

4. The healthy state needs guardians (now called political leaders) that protect
the city from attacks and the discussion furthered describing what type of
education is appropriate for them in their early years. They concluded that to
ascribe evil to the gods are untrue and hence, should not be taught. What
should be the lifestyle of the guardians? Essentially, the city is assumed to
contain individuals who are happy in the occupations that best suit them. If
the city is happy, the individuals are happy.

5. For the guardians, in the physical education and diet, the emphasis is on
moderation; for both poverty and excessive wealth corrupt them. Without
controlling their education, the city cannot control the future rulers. Socrates

39
 says that it is pointless to worry over specific laws, like those pertaining
to contracts, since proper education ensures lawful behaviour, and poor
education causes lawlessness (425a425c).

6. In a just human being, reason rules, spirit is reason’s ally, and appetite is
held in check. In this way, the three parts of the soul are organized in such a
way that action is in accordance with knowledge of what the good life is. This
knowledge belongs to reason. In this part of the soul, there is the knowledge
that existence in the body is temporary, that the body and its needs are
distractions, and that the good life is one of “contemplation”. (Henry George
Liddell)

7. Accordingly, Socrates defines justice as “working at that to which he is

naturally best suited”, and “to do one’s own business and not to be a busybody”
(433a–433b) and goes on to say that justice sustains and perfects the other
three cardinal virtues: Temperance, Wisdom, and Courage, and that justice is
the cause and condition of their existence. Socrates does not include justice
as a virtue within the city, suggesting that justice does not exist within the
human soul either, rather it is the result of a “well ordered” soul. A result
of this conception of justice separates people into three types; that of the
soldier, that of the producer, and that of a ruler. If a ruler can create just laws,
and if the warriors can carry out the orders of the rulers, and if the producers
can obey this authority, then a society will be just.Socrates proceeded to
search for wisdom, courage, and temperance in the city, because justice
will be easier to discern in what remains (427e). They find wisdom among
the guardian rulers, courage among the guardian warriors (or auxiliaries),
temperance among all classes of the city in agreeing about who should rule
and who should be ruled. Finally, Socrates defined justice as a state in which
each class performs only its own work, not meddling in the work of the other
classes (433b).

8. The virtues are then sought in the individual soul. Socrates creates an
analogy between the parts of the city and the soul (the city-soul analogy).
He argues that a completely unified soul could not behave in opposite ways
towards the same object, at the same time, and in the same respect (436b).
The guardians, both females and males, should be educated in wisdom,
temperance, justice and courage, gymnastics and physical training. Physical
training is aimed at maintaining good health and physical fitness in order for
them to live preventing illness and weakness and without needing medical
attention to focus their energies in serving the people.

9. Socrates and companions assume at essentially each individuals are

employed in an occupation that best suit them, saying that if the whole city
is happy, so are individuals. Moreover, lifestyles of guardians are that of
moderation because both poverty and excessive wealth lead to corruption.
Ensuring good education, the future leaders’ quality is also ensured.

40
 Proper education safeguards lawful behaviour while poor education causes
lawlessness. It is pointless to worry about laws when leaders’ behaviour is
corrupt.

10. Guardians are of three classes – guardian rulers must have the wisdom,
guardian warriors must possess courage and temperance should be found
among classes in the city agreeing who should rule and be ruled. For Socrates,
justice means each class performs only its own work and not meddling on the
work of others. Moreover, Socrates also discovered virtues in the city from
the individual soul, the city-soul analogy.

11. He argues that a completely unified soul could not behave in opposite ways
– meaning the city and the individual must possess the same behaviour
toward same objective. A person is wise if he is ruled by the part of the soul
that understands what is good for the part and for the whole. A person is
courageous if his soul preserves pleasures and pains and that the decision
is reached by the rational part; and a person is temperate if the three parts
agree that the rational part should lead. One person cannot be just if he does
not have the other virtues.

12. The ideal city will have harmonious cooperation of all the citizens of the city.
The philosopher-King must be intelligent, reliable and willing to lead a simple
life. Education‘s curriculum is designed to teach learners THE GOOD. Just
as visible objects need to be studied in order to be seen, so must also the
objects of KNOWLDEGE kings need in order to properly lead. A would be
philosopher – king must study arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy.

13. Would be guardians should be educated in military training, gymnastics,

martial arts and warfare and philosophy for five years. Math is taught for ten
years and five years dialectic training. Guardians may spend 15 years as
young leaders, and at 50 years of age, when they are fully aware of the form
of good and are mature already, they are now ready to lead.

14. The four unjust constitutions are timocracy, oligarchy, democracy and tyranny
being aristocracy as the best. Aristocracy is the just government, dominated
by wisdom loving system of government, ruled by the philosopher-king. When
the social structure breaks down and civil war is created, timocracy is formed.
Warrior generals, who are the ruling class of property owners, dominate
timocracy. When wealth accumulation replaces honour, the government
formed is oligarchy, where the rich are the ruling class.

15. When the number of poor widens and starts a revolt, democracy is established.
Democracy emphasizes maximum freedom and power is distributed evenly.
This form of government is dominated by desire in an undisciplined and
unrestrained ways. Populism of the democratic government leads to mob
rule, fuelled by fear of oligarchy, which can be exploited by tyrants to take

41
 power and establish tyranny.

16. In a tyrannical government, the city is enslaved to the tyrant, who uses his
guards to remove the best social elements and individuals from the city to
retain power (since they pose a threat), while leaving the worst. He will also
provoke warfare to consolidate his position as leader. In this way, tyranny is
the most unjust regime of all.

Technical Terms

1. City-soul analogy – Justice is the right order of the soul. The city-soul analogy
refers to Plato‘s argument saying that the just person is happier than the
unjust person and that if the city is composed of just persons, then the just
city is happier than the unjust cities. The city cannot go opposite to what is
good for the soul. (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

2. Timocracy - A timocracy in Aristotle’s Politics is a state where only property

owners may participate in government. The more extreme forms of timocracy,
where power derives entirely from wealth with no regard for social or civic
responsibility, may shift in their form and become a plutocracy where the
wealthy rule. Possession of property is required in order to hold office in
an Timocracy Also, government power and glory motivates the rulers. (Your
Dictionary)

3. Democracy is a system of government that bases its legitimacy on the

participation of the people, uniformly characterized by (1) competitive
elections, (2) the principle of political and legal equality, and (3) a high degree
of individual freedom, or civil liberties. (Dallas Learning Cloud)

4. Aristocracy is a form of government by a relatively small privileged class or

by a minority consisting of those presumed to be best qualified to rule. This
word is derived from the Greek word aristokratia meaning rule of the best.

5. Oligarchy is the rule of the few. There are numerous kinds of oligarchy rule and
Timocracy and Aristrocacy fall under it. One very attractive rule of government
is Geniocracy which is exclusively ruled by the geniuses. The criteria to govern
include excellence in problem solving and creative intelligence. A geniocratic
government usually has faster economic growth and better welfare. Germany
and Canada are two famous countries practising geniocracy. (Buddy Mantra)
Technocracy, a quite similarly defined form is a rule where the leaders are
technical experts as practiced by Peoples Republic of China and of Russia.

6. Tyranny comes from a Greek word tyrannos meaning an absolute ruler who
is unrestrained by law.

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Summary

Socrates and his companions figure out what an ideal city and healthy
state should be and how it evolve. The importance of education and inner values
determines the happy life of a just man who also lives with a community of just
men. The just person is happier than the unjust person is.

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 Name: Score:
Curriculum and Section:
Subject:
Unit No.: Date:

Let’s Do This!

I. Group yourself by fives, if not possible work independently.

Conceptualize your perfect village, or your perfect town, or your perfect

city or your ideal country. Identify the variables you wish to be in place in
your village, say day care center, police station, grades school and advanced
schools, etc. You may present your ideas in a drawing or pictures. This is
worth 10 points.

Answer the following as described below.

1. When governments are run by geniuses, that form of government

is known as
(a) democracy
(b) autocracy
(c) aristocracy
(d) oligarchy
(e) geniocracy

2. Oligarchy is defined as the rule of the

(a) people
(b) lawyers
(c) oligarchs
(d) few
(e) king

3. Tyranny is never good for the state because

(a) the ruler is unrestrained by law
(b) the president is corrupt
(c) the king is violent
(d) the leader is immoral
(e) the people are poor

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4. One possible drawback of democracy is its tendency toward
(a) populism
(b) oligarchy
(c) tyranny
(d) technocracy
(e) aristocracy

5. The four unjust constitutions are timocracy, oligarchy, democracy

and tyranny being aristocracy as the best because
(a) Aristocracy is the just government, dominated
by wisdom loving system of government, ruled
by the philosopher-king
(b) oligarchy is the form of government where the rich are
the ruling few
(c) democracy is the rule of government where people have
freedoms but could become abusive if uncontrolled
(d) timocracy is a government formed after conquest

6.
(a) Justice is the right order of the soul
(b) the just person is happier than the unjust person
(c) if the city is composed of just persons, then the just city
is happier than the unjust cities
(d) The city cannot go opposite to what is good for the soul
(e) all of those mentioned earlier, define the city-soul analogy.

7. Who should be educated in military trainings, gymnastics, maths,

dialectics, martial arts, warfare and philosophy in the ideal city?
(a) military generals
(b) righteous kings
(c) would be guardians
(d) oligarchs in preparation for control
(e) members of the parliament

8. In the ideal city, who should be intelligent, reliable and willing to

lead a simple life?
(a) the would be guardians
(b) military generals
(c) the philosopher king
(d) the members of congress
(e) members of the business club

9. How should education curriculum be designed for the ideal state?

(a) designed to emphasize academic freedom and press
autonomy
(b) designed to include vocational and technical education

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 (c) designed to focus on military skills and tactics for war
and invasion
(d) designed to teach the good infusing arithmetic geometry,
astronomy and music
(e) designed to teach trading, diplomacy and political values

10. Why is it advantageous for man to be just than to be unjust?

(a) It is because a just man‘s life is pleasurable and
consequently gives him happiness
(b) it is because a just man cannot separate himself from
his own soul
(c) it is because injustice creates reaction that destroys
man‘s peaceful sleep
(d) it is because justice will lead man to heaven
in the after life
(e) it is because man cannot go against himself

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Lesson 3: Great Political Theories

Lesson Outcome:
At the end of this lesson, learners must have:
1. differentiated great political theories established as alternative standards
of operations in a society and polity and explained the subtle meanings
underlying the thought.

I will present four political theories only for you to carry as you go through
life. These are the ideas on The Social Contract, Romanticism and Idealism,
Utilitarianism and Marxism. I hope these concepts will make you more equipped in
facing deals and ordeals in the societies you circulate now and in years ahead.

1. The Social Contract presents the reconciliation of the freedom of the individual
with the authority of the state. It appears to be like the constitution of the land.
In particular, it says.

Each of us puts his person and all his power in common, under
the supreme direction of the general will and in our corporate
capacity; we receive each member as an indivisible part of
the whole.

The contract presupposes alienation of each associate, together with all

his rights to the whole community. For, as one gives himself absolutely, the
conditions are the same for all; and this being so, no one has any interest in
making them burdensome to others. No one has anything more to demand for
if individuals retained certain rights, as there would be no common superior
to decide between them and the public, each, being on one point, his own
judge would ask to so on all, the state of nature would thus continue and the
association would necessary become inoperative and tyrannical.

2. Lastly, each man, in giving himself to all, gives himself to nobody, and as
there is no associate over whom he does not acquire the same rights as he
yields others over himself, he gains an equivalent for everything he loses
and an increase of force for the preservation of what he has. in simple words,
social contract is an agreement between the individual and the society and or
the government about upholding certain rights and abiding on certain laws in
order to ensure smooth relationship dynamics of citizens in a city or a country.

3. Romanticism and Idealism theory is a philosophical movement during the Age

of Enlightenment that emphasizes emotional self-awareness as a necessary
precondition to improving society and bettering the human condition. Some

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 of the main characteristics of Romantic literature include a focus on the writer
or narrator’s emotions and inner world; celebration of nature, beauty, and
imagination; rejection of industrialization, organized religion, rationalism, and
social convention; idealization of women, children, and rural life. Imagination,
emotion and freedom are the focal points of romanticism.

4. One key theme of the romantic period is revolution, democracy, and

republicanism. The essential political thinking of the period is liberty, equality
and brotherhood as a reaction against aristocratic social and political norms
of the Age of Enlightenment and of the scientific rationalization of nature.
While age of enlightenment or the age of reason dominates intellectual
discourse in Europe during 17th and 18th centuries, an emerging thought
had convinced many that the truest basis for political power was the consent
of the governed.

5. By the evolution of time, concepts of democracy and republicanism developed.

Republic form of government is a state ruled by representatives of the citizen
body. Citizens do not govern the state themselves but through representatives.
Democracy is a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an
equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Democracy allows people
to participate equally— either directly or through elected representatives—in
the proposal, development, and creation of laws. Though they may not be
identical, there are areas they both share the same such as election, the
current economic system and a particular social structure. The Venn diagram
below presents such condition.

Democracy Republic
Vote for
Majority Based change Constitution
decisions based decisions
Economic
National System Individual
Sovereignty Sovereignty
Social
No constraint on Structure Constraints the
the Government Government

Figure 1

6. Another key theme is the Sublime and the Transcendence. Many had
become fascinated with the ideal of sublime in physical, moral, intellectual,
metaphysical, aesthetic, spiritual greatness. Such greatness is beyond
measure and sublimity is on the perception of the perceiver, mind and
imagination. The briefest definition of sublimity is the presence of exquisite

48
 and admirable quality of beauty. Edmund Burke disputes such. He says there
are sublime experiences that bring terror, like seeing tsunami, or walking in
the edge of a cliff etc.

7. Absorbed by the personal genius of man, it was believed that this man got
the inspiration from tutelary spirits teaching him to work in certain set of
acceptable and admirable behaviour. This concept of some experiences of
inspiration symbolizes the truth of external realm called the transcendence.
The power of the imagination, genius, and the source of inspiration is real.

8. Quotes of Romanticism by William Wordsworth- the man who introduced

Romanticism.

a. Wisdom is near when we stoop than when we soar.

b. Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings; it takes its
origin from emotion, recollected in tranquillity.
c. Nature never did betray the heart that loved her.
d. With an eye made quiet by the power of harmony and the deep
power of joy, we see into the life of things.
e. Getting and spending, we lay waste of powers.
f. Fill your paper with the breathing of your heart.
g. The best portion of good man‘s life -his little, nameless,
unremembered acts of kindness and love

9. Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that states that the best action is the
one that maximizes utility. Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism,
described utility as the sum of all pleasure that results from an action, minus
the suffering of anyone involved in the action. Jeremy Bentham (1748—
1832) Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher and political radical. He
is primarily known today for his moral philosophy, especially his principle of
utilitarianism, which evaluates actions based upon their consequences.

10. Utilitarianism is one of the best known and most influential moral theories.
Utilitarians believe that the purpose of morality is to make life better by
increasing the amount of good things (such as pleasure and happiness)
in the world and decreasing the amount of bad things (such as pain and
unhappiness). The goal of utilitarian ethics is to promote the greatest happiness
for the greatest number. Jeremy Bentham, an English philosopher, was the
founder of utilitarianism; John Stuart Mill was its best-known defender.

11. Utilitarianism is based on the Greatest Happiness Principle, which states that
actions are considered moral when they promote utility and immoral when
they promote the reverse. Utility, itself, is, defined by Mill as happiness with
the absence of pain.

49
12. There are three principles that served as the basic axioms of utilitarianism.
a. Pleasure or happiness Is the only thing that truly has intrinsic value.
b. Actions are right insofar as they promote happiness, wrong insofar
as they produce unhappiness.
c. Everyone’s Happiness Counts Equally.

13. Quotes on Utilitarianism

a. Stretching his hand up to reach the stars, too often, man forgets the
flowers at his feet.
b. The power of the lawyer is in the uncertainty of the law.
c. It is the greatest good to the greatest number of people, which is
the measure of right and wrong.
d. Secrecy, being an instrument of conspiracy, ought never to be the
system of a regular government.
e. All punishment is mischief; all punishment in itself is evil.
f. Tyranny and anarchy are never far apart.
g. Nature has placed humankind under the governance of two
sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point
out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do.

14. Marxist social and political thought encompasses the Marxist class conflict
and Marxian economics. Together with Friedrich Engels, he wrote The
Communist Manifesto that lays the theory of class struggle and revolution.
Marx presented the flaws of capitalism in his book Das Kapital and argued
that capitalism shall naturally vanish because of the chaotic nature of free
market and surplus of labour.
15. Marx portrayed capitalist society as composing of the bourgeoisie and
the proletariat, i.e. the ones controlling the means of production and the
workers that transform raw commodities to valuable economic goods. The
bourgeoisie‘s power to control capital allows them to limit workers‘ ability
to produce and obtain what they need to survive. Capitalism is all about
commodities bought and sold, reducing the value of labour as another kind
of commodity for sale, like cars, wine, cloth and the like making labourers
weak in the capitalist economic system.

16. One very influential concept introduced in Marxist political and economic
thought is the labour surplus theory. This measures the difference between
wages paid to the workers and the price of goods sold, which the workers
previously manufactured. For example, if a worker who is making wall clocks
is given a daily wage of $300 and his productivity rate is 8 clocks per day,
which clock is sold for $300 each and that the market absorbs all 8 clocks
daily, then the value of labour of the worker is reduced to only one clock and
the revenue from the remaining clocks sold belongs to the capitalists. The
$2100 difference is called the surplus value of labour that is not enjoyed by
the workers.

50
17. To maintain their position of power and privilege, the bourgeoisie employ social
institutions as tools and weapons against the proletariat. The government
enforces the will of the bourgeoisie by physical coercion to enforce the
laws and private property rights to the means of production. The media and
academics, or intelligentsia, produce propaganda to suppress awareness of
class relations among the proletariat and rationalize the capitalist system.
Organized religion provides a similar function to convince the proletariat to
accept and submit to their own exploitation based on fictional divine sanction,
which Marx called “the opium of the masses.” The banking and financial
system facilitates the consolidation of capitalist ownership of the means of
production, ensnares the workers with predatory debt, and engineers regular
financial crises and recessions to ensure a sufficient supply of unemployed
labour in order to undermine workers‘ bargaining power. (Investopedia)

18. Quotes of Karl Marx

a. Surround yourself with people who make you happy, people who
make you laugh, who help you when you‘re in need, people who
genuinely care. They are the ones worth keeping in your life.
Everyone else is just passing through.
b. The philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways.
The point, however, is to change it.
c. Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of
real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the
sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and
the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.
d. The less you eat, drink and read books; the less you go to the
theatre, the dance hall, the public house; the less you think, love,
theorize, sing, paint, fence, etc., the more you save-the greater
becomes your treasure which neither moths nor dust will devour-
your capital. The less you are, the more you have; the less you
express your own life, the greater is your alienated life-the greater
is the store of your estranged being.
e. Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communistic revolution. The
proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a
world to win. Workingmen of all countries unite!
f. I am nothing but I must be everything.
g. If anything is certain, it is that I myself am not a Marxist.
h. If money is the bond binding me to human life, binding society to
me, connecting me with nature and man, is not money the bond of
all bonds? Can it not dissolve and bind all ties? Is it not, therefore,
also the universal agent of separation?
i. In proportion therefore, as the repulsiveness of the work increases,
the wage decreases

51
Summary

The Political Thoughts presented are Social Contract, Utilitarianism,

Romanticism and Marxist Ideal Society. Quotes from the forerunners of the thought
are takeaways as you choose the life of your own.

52
 Name: Score:
Curriculum and Section:
Subject:
Unit No.: Date:

Let’s Do This!

I. Work by threes, if not possible work independently. (10 points)

Try to depict the kinds of societies presented in the various political

theories in a drawing. You may put a few paragraphs for explanation of the
work you do.

Answer in five lines only for five full points each number.

1. Why do you think money separates us when it bonds us?

2. What is the problem of capitalism presented by Marx?
3. If actions are within our control, why is happiness not derived from
actions?
4. What will happen if the parties having the social contract betray one
another? How would social contract work?
5. What is the problem in the age of enlightenment that pushes the
emergence of romanticism thought?

53
 prostitution, and burglary. Police matters become one of the hit news in
each morning headlines and some dirty politicians may take advantage of
the poor by hiring them as internet trolls against their opponents. Another
social could come out from this trolling game. It could create social upheavals
and collective disruptions making the ordinary citizen and less informed
individuals confused.

6. Thus, in order to maintain social and economic order, countries try to

help one another through trade and international organizations aiming
at achieving a common goal of peace, harmony, economic growth and
technological advancements, social progress and cultural development. The
six international organizations we need to know include The United Nations,
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the European Union (EU), World
Trade Organization, the Group of Twenty (G20) and International Criminal
Court (ICC). Within our reach is the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

7. The UN’s mission is to promote international peace and stability, human

rights and economic development. Specialized agencies under it are UNICEF
(United Nations for Children‘s Fund), UNESCO (United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization), the World Bank, and the World Health
Organization (WHO). (Six Essential International Organizations You Need to
Know)

8. NATO’s mission is to safeguard its member‘s freedom and security through

both political and military means. Members of NATO are primarily countries in
North America and Europe including Turkey. EU’s mission is to help member
countries cooperate on economic, political and security matters. WTO, on
the other hand, has a mission to manage the rules of international trade and
to ensure the fair and equitable treatment of all members via negotiations
and trade disputes settlement. The G20 convenes officials from the largest
economies both the wealthiest economies and developing to jointly address
global concerns and to coordinate economic policies.

Summary

Countries organize themselves into organizations and regions to achieve a

common goal of subsistence, growth, progress in peace and harmony.

55
 Name: Score:
Curriculum and Section:
Subject:
Unit No.: Date:

Let’s Do This!

I. Individual work for 10 full points.

In a three page paper, describe in what way big companies and

international organizations have helped the Philippine economy.

Argue how the ASEAN region contributed to the growth of Philippine

society. Limit your answers in three paragraphs, with seven lines in a
each paragraph. Use actual data to support your arguments. 10 points

I hope I have helped a little. Thank you for this opportunity. I am glad
to have connected with you.

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