Components of a Computer

A computer is a system ot hardWare which can

DTescribed form (i.e. in accept data (obseruas
a
specified sequence) and which can ation, factsan
instruction ted into it and then supply the results of process the dat d
aOroup of elements that work together to
carry
the in a
specified processing concepts) ina
concee
ding to
and. for
out some a
set of
goal. So a computer system consists of some common tasks at. Asystemis
hardware
Input Unit components/elements." hieve a(ocommon
ts. These are
a

Central Processing Unit

MainMain Memory
Output Unit
Storage Unit
The basic elements of a
computer system are shown in Fig. 6.16.

Central Processing Unit

The central
processing unit (CPU)
is heat of the
the
computer system.
All processings are carried out
the CPU. by

Input Device Main Memory

Data are
input through
the input device. The computer system Output Device
The results
function of the
The needs stored programs are
output
input by the output device in a
and data to
device is to put the carry out the form that
intoa form
data processing. These
can be
that is stored programs and understood by humans.
acceptable to the data are stored in
Computer. main memory.
the

Backing Store
As the main
memory is of
space, some data and
limited
are stored in the programs
backing store.
Fig.6.16: Basic Elements of a
A
Computer System
and
computer system accepts data
provides the result (output). and instructions as input from the proces data
the input
The
B10RA Comniutar Findamantnla Input Unit
user,, processes
and/or
ando
is
responsible for accep
 nding them to Processing Unit. The Processing Unit is
user
a n d send
the
instruction(s)
from
the data on the basi given instruction(s) nd sending the result to
of
ng
responsible
for
processing
Unit presents the output/result to the user. Memory Unit Main
The Output
halding the data and instructions as well as intermediate results during
Unit.
Output for
responsible

Memory) is
the procesing. whien you turn off the computer. In order to use
dd the output will disappear
as

Sto
the computer system
o r anothe computer system, it is better to store it ina
again in
need a relative more permanent storage.
the outputreadable fo
omputer form. So we
readable since the first electronic
used in computers have changed dramatically
technologies
While the most users still use the Von Neumann architecture.
computers
of the 1940s,
general-purpose
architecture specification describes a computer with four main
The Von
Neumann
and Logic Unit (ALU), the control circuitry, the memory, and the
Onents: the Arithmetic
These parts are n t e r c o n n e c t e d by a bundle of wires and are typically
innit and output devices.
timer or clock.
driven by a
Input Unit
for accepting data and instructions from
The Input Unit of a computer system responsible
is

instructions are input/fed to the computer with the help of an input device.
the user. Data and
each of which is used for different purpose. For example,
There are many types of input devices,
is used to data and instructions whereas mouse is used to select the desired
type
keyboard
command/option.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Central processing Unit (CPU) is CPU
the brain ofa computer, where all sorts of
PC MAR
processing are initiated, carried out and
BE Memory
completed. It is the CPU of a computer,
which determines the class and the Control
unit
quality of the computer. The CPU is built
on a
single chip called a microprocessor.
Intel, Motorola, Apple, and Sun etc. are a IR MBR
tew
examples of
microprocessor
designers: Intel designed the tirst
MBR= Memory Bufer Register Address Data Control
Microprocessor in the year 1971. The MAR= Memory Address Register bus bus bus
main function IR Instruction Register
of the CPU is to accept and
execute the instructions stored PC=Program Counter
in the
omputer's main memory. Fig.6.17: Components of aCPU (block dlagram)
CPU Consists of
*hich are
are used
Several Integrated Circuits (ICs). A CPU consists of a Set of Registers, (SRs)
used to store
ALU perforr instructions, operands, and the result of the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
Control Unt
qiences tho
the rthmetic and most ofthe logical operations on operands.
operations of the computer.
 CPU consists of three
major parts:
Arithmetic &Logical Unit
Control Unit
Registers
Arithmetic-Logical Unit (ALU)
ne AU contains the electronic circuitry that executes all arithmetic & logical operaoons.

e t i c and logical unit, ALU, is the device that performs elementary

operations su ch as
or
nmetic operations (addition, subtraction, and so on),
parison operations (for example, comparing logical operations (AND, OR, NO and
the contents of two bytes for
thmetic-logical unit (ALU) is the
part of
a CPU that
equality).
c operands computer instruction words.
in carries out arithmetic logic operations o
and
multiplication (") and Arithmetic
division (). The logical operations are additüon (+),
subtraction
nat use
logical operations involve
than or operators, such as, greater than
equal to (<=). comparisons ot two quanuuc
(>), less than (<). greater than or equal (>= ),less
to
In some
LU). Some processors, the ALU is divided into two
and another processors contain more than units, an arithmetic unit
for one AU- for (AU) and a logic unit
sometimes done byfloating-point operations. example, one for
a
floating point unit on(Ina personal computers floatingfixed-point
point
operations
Typically, the ALU has direct separate chip called a numeric operatuons are
memory (random
Inputs and outputsaccess memory
input and output access to the
or RAM
coprocessor.)
in processor controller, main
electronic pathpersonal
a
flow along an
instruction word computer), and
bus. Theinputoutput devices.
that
(sometimes called(sometimes
is called
called machine
a a
an
"op code"), one or instruction word) that input consists of an
operation code tells the more
operands, contains an
operation. (For
ALU what
operation
and operation code
sometimes a format
format may be example, two
to
operands perform and the code. The
combined with might
the op code and
be added ed operands
rands are
together oror compared used in the
are
floating-point instruction. The output consists tells, foror example, whether logically.
logically.) the
settings indicate whether the
that of this isaa lly.) -The
The
operation was
result that is
a

placed in fixed-poins
fixed-poi n t
Control Unit performed successfully. storagea
storage reuit or
register ar
and
The control unit
contains
computer system to carry out, or electronic circuit that uses electrical
ctrical signals to
of the system to do so. It execute, stored
directs both the ALU andprogram instructions; rather it direct
direct the.
the
.
entire
bytes in memory contain the current Memory. The control unit direct
directs other parts
instruction that kee
keeps
what operation to
perform and retrieving the
at the
computer is performing. traelParts
it, and transfers the result back to
the
formation (from performing,it
memory) telling
of which
unit goes to the next instruction appropriate memory location. that needs to perform
instruction (typically located in the next slot Once that
is a jump instruction
that ocCurs
occurs, theneform
informing the
computer that the (memory control
address, less the
another location). When referring to the next
instruction isie ss
memory, the current instruction instrucuon the
modes to determine the relevant address in may use variou locat ated in
memory.
ddressing
0 Computer Fundamentals
 ontrol Unit also Computer Hardware
CxCuuon ot generates timings
instructions. It also transfers and control signals and sends them to other the units ror
data to and from main
Oemporary menory inputoutput aevices.
to
computers contain the ALU and control unit into a
w as the Central single integrated circuit
Cw Siall Processing Unit or CPU.
Typically, the
integrated circuits near the CPU. Some compuler's memory 1s Jocated on a
ajor larger computers differ rom this model in one
respect-theyhave multiple CPUs and
control units working
eCOputers, used mainly for research purposes and
simultancously.
Additionally, a
SIgiicantly from this model, but they have the scientific computung, have dilfered
because their researchers for little commercial application,
programming model has not yet standardised.
The
functioning of acomputer is, therefore, in principle quite
each clock
cycle, the computer fetches instructions and data from its straightlorward.
The
Typically, on
CXecuted, the results are stored, and the next memory. instructions are
halt instruction is instruction is fetched. This procedure repeats until a
encountered.
Buses
All of the basic
components of the computer are tied together by communications
buses. A computer bus is paths called
simply a parallel collection of conductors that carry data and control
signals from one unil to another. Any computer has three major system buses identified by the
of information they carry. The three major type
system buses are: Address bus, Data bus, Control bus.
These buses are actually, the extensions of the
microprocessor's internal communications
structures.

The address bus is a unidirectional pathway that carries addresses

generated by the
microprocessor to the memory and 1/0 elements of the computer. The size of the address bus,
determined by the number of conductors in the bus, determines the number of memory locations
and/or 1/O elements the microprocessor can address. If the address bus is composed of 16 lines (or
bits), the microprocessor can generale 65,536 (2 to the power of l6) distinct address codes. If the
address bus size is increased to a 20-bit word size, the microprocessor's capability to address
memory and I/0 elements is increased to 1,048,576 (2 to the power of 20) possible addresses.

In contrast to the address bus, the data bus is bi-directional in nature. Data flows along the data
bus from he microprOcessor to memory during a Write operation. Conversely, data moves from
memory to the microprocessor during a Read operation. The direction for data movement is the
same for Read and Write operations between the microprocessor and the Input/Output devices.
As all the computer elements must share the data bus, any device connected to the bus must
have the capability to put its outputs in a high impedance state (floating) when not involved in an
overation with the microprocessor. This prevents data from having more than one source placed
the bus at one time.
on

If two devices attempt to place data on the bus at the same time, conlusion and damage to the
devices results. The size of the data bus usually corresponds to the word size the computer. Ia
of
general, the larger the data bus, the more powerful the system (8-16-32 bits).
The control bus carries the timing and control signals necessary to coordinate the activities of

the entire system.

Unlike the other two buses, the control bus signals are not necessarily related to
 Computer Hardware
each other. Some are output Signals from the
microprocesco
rOprocessor from Input and Output elements. Each different re
input
unique set of control signals, which it can or generate respond to. essor typesignals to t
hvas its qywn
Registers
A Register is a single, temporary storagellocation within the CPU.
single bit or wide as several bytes. Registers are used to Registers may be smll
hold data. inct as
special binary codes. Registers inside the CPU are called General 0 address, or
adres,
Purposes Register Data can be
loaded from register or memory into a register. Data in register can
or

another register. Registers are temporary storage areas tor instruction added/ suh
be added/ subtracted an be
or data. Regite
/from
for special additional storage locations that offer the advantages of speed. Registers are used
Accumulator: An accumulator collects the results of
computations,
Address Register: An address register keeps tracks of where a
given instrucion or piece
of data is stored in memory.
Store Register: A storage register holds data
temporarily, which has been restricted or is
about to be sending to memory.
General-Purpose Register: A general-purpose register is used for several functions ie.
arithmetic operations.
Instruction Register: It holds the instruction which is being executed.
The size of the register (16-bit register or 32-bit register), which is also called the word size,
indicates the amount of data with the computer can work. The bigger the size of register, the lster
the computer can process a set of data. Registers retain information on a temporary bastis. Keg sters

are not considered as a part of main memory. Registers have the ability to receiveintom
it temporarily and then pass it as directed by supervisory control unit.

Memory
he
Memory holds the data after it is fed into the system and before it is processed, anLds the
data after it has been processed but before it has been released to the output device.it
programs (computer instruction) needed by the CPU.
There are two
types of built-in memory, in a computer system:
Non-Volatile Memory and
Volatile Memory a nr e g s t e

The CPUcontains the

logicand circuitry to run the computer. The CPU ao
une:
a
at
les

for storing data and

instructions, but these are small areas that canInhold
Also, the data and instructions are temporarily stored in registers. oniyaj
au dition
ograms
to th emory

Ulached t o the
CPU needs to have nillions of bytes space where it can store the whole prog
consists of small circuit board
This

some
chips either on motherboard or on a small
circue qucA
motherboard. This built-in-memory allows the data very
CPU to store and retrieve
retrieve
ofd t a or

Duilt-in-memory is called as main memory or Primary Memory. This semico ent ohe
also known as Random access een
memory (RAM). A RAM is that 1 in which a oft h elocations

instruction can be
directly stored and retrieved by selecting and using a
storage media.
 puter- lardwar
Gomputer-Hardware
memory in modern
ot
The Primary storage computers consists of
microelectronics
Millions of semiconductor.
.ac Millions
semiconductor storagecircuits. semiconductor storage Circuits can be imprinted on LSI
circitchips. Memory chips with capacities of 512MB to 2GB are used in current computers.
n e maior disadvantage of semiconauctor
memory IS its nature of volatility,i.e., it tends to lose
the contents stored when the computer's power is shut off.

Output Unit
The Output Unit is responsible for producing the result, i.e., output in user readable form.
There are different kinds of output devices; but the monitor or VDU (Visual Display Unit) is the
most commonly used output device. Another important output device is the printer, used to get the
printed output of processed data.
processed data i.e., information to the user in a
Tne runction of an output device is to present
and graphic output.
COmprehensive form. Printers and plotters are used to get the hard copy oftext
ne sound output is generated with the help of sound cards and speakeTS.