Unit – 1

Signals & Spectra

Q. Draw & explain block diagram of communication system.

Ans :

The elements of basic communication system are as follows

• Information or input signal

• Input Transducer
• Transmitter
• Communication channel or medium
• Noise
• Receiver
• Output Transducer
1. Information or input signal
• The communication systems have been developed for communicating useful
information from one place to other
• The information can be in the form of sound signal like speech or music or it can be
in the form of pictures.
2. Input Transducer
• The information in the form of sound, picture or data signals cannot the
transmitted as it is.
• First it has to be converted into a suitable electrical signal.
• The input transducers commonly used in the communication systems are
microphones, TV etc.
3. Transmitter
• The function of the transmitter block is to convert the electrical equivalent of the
information to a suitable form
 • It increases the power level of the signal. The power level should be increased in
order to cover a large range. The transmitter consists of the electronics circuits
such as amplifier, mixer, oscillator, and power amplifier.
4. Communication channel or medium
• The communication channel is the medium used for the transmission of electronic
signals from one place to the another.
• The communication medium can be conducting wires, cables, optical fibres or free
space. Depending upon the type of the communication medium, two types of the
communication system will exist
a. Wire communication or line communication
b. Wireless communication or radio communication
5. Noise

• Noise is an unwanted electrical signal which gets added to the transmitted signal
when it is travelling towards receiver.
• Due to noise, the quality of the transmitted information will degrade. One added
the noise cannot be separated out from the information
• Hence noise is ab big problem in the communication systems.

6. Receiver
• The reception is exactly the opposite process of transmission. The received signal
is amplified and demodulated and converted in a suitable form
• The receiver consists of the electronic circuits like mixer, oscillator, detector and
amplifier.
7. Output Transducer
• It consists of the electrical signal at the output of the receiver back to the original
form i.e. sound or TV pictures.
• The typical example of the output transducers are loud speakers, picture tubes etc.

Q. State any six properties of Fourier Transform.

Q. What are different types of signals?
Ans : Signals are classified into the following categories:
• Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals
• Deterministic and Random Signals
• Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
• Symmetrical or Asymmetrical Signals
• Energy or Power signals
Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals
1. signals which can be defined exactly by a mathematical formula are known as
deterministic signals.
2. Random signals cannot be described by a mathematical equation.
Q. What is Fourier transform? Write the mathematical expression of Fourier Transform and
explain the necessity of Fourier Transform.
Ans: The Fourier Transform is a mathematical technique that transforms a function of
time, x(t), to a function of frequency, X(ω). It is closely related to the Fourier Series.
Fourier transform of signal f(t) is given by,

Fourier transform tells the relative amplitude of frequencies present in the signal. It can
be defined for both discrete time and continuous time signal. Any signal can be
represented as mixture of many harmonic frequencies. Fourier transform help in filter
applications, where we need only certain range of frequencies then we first need to know
what are the amplitudes of frequencies contains in the signal.

Q. Differentiate between energy and power signals.

Ans:

Q. Explain the concept of baseband and bandpass signals.

Ans :

• Baseband signal is normally referred to as the original message signal which is

intended to be transmitted. Baseband signal is normally a message signal and only
 one communication channel is available at any time. The baseband signal is
transmitted over a single frequency as discrete pulse. Examples – Ethernet
protocols, landline cable, network cables.
• Passband signal refers to modulated or filtered signal which ultimately gets
converted back to baseband signal. The passband signal is transmitted by
multiplexing several signals simultaneously. Example – Radio receiver.

Q. Differentiate between analog and digital messages.

Ans:

Q. Write short note on regenerative repeaters.

Ans:

• For any communication system to be reliable, it should transmit and receive the
signals effectively, without any loss. A PCM wave, after transmitting through a
channel, gets distorted due to the noise introduced by the channel.
• The regenerative pulse compared with the original and received pulse, will be as
shown in the following figure.
 • For a better reproduction of the signal, a circuit called as regenerative repeater is
employed in the path before the receiver. This helps in restoring the signals from
the losses occurred. Following is the diagrammatical representation.

• This consists of an equalizer along with an amplifier, a timing circuit, and a

decision making device. Their working of each of the components is detailed as
follows.

1. Equalizer

• The channel produces amplitude and phase distortions to the signals. This is due
to the transmission characteristics of the channel. The Equalizer circuit
compensates these losses by shaping the received pulses.

2. Timing Circuit

• The timing circuit, allots the timing interval for sampling at high SNR, through the
received pulses.

3. Decision Device

• The timing circuit determines the sampling times. The decision device is enabled
at these sampling times. The decision device decides its output based on whether
the amplitude of the quantized pulse and the noise, exceeds a pre-determined
value or not.

Q. Briefly explain the concept of negative frequency.

Ans :

• Frequency as a vector quantity possessing both magnitude and direction.

• Distinguishing positive from negative frequencies becomes important in Fourier
analysis. The reason is that the Fourier transform doesn't just break up a signal
into simple positive sinusoids. It actually decomposes the signal into complex
 exponentials that can be thought of as sine and cosine waves rotating in both
directions.
• For an additional perspective on negative versus positive frequencies, recall that
frequency (ω) is also the rate of change of phase (ϕ) with respect to time (t),
expressed in calculus by the expression ω = dϕ/dt. (This makes sense because the
units of frequency are expressed in cycles, degrees, or radians per second).
• Hence a positive frequency (+ω) means that phase is increasing with time, while
a negative frequency (−ω) implies that phase is decreasing with time.

Q. Write a note on Energy Spectral Density.

Ans :

• The distribution of the energy of a signal in the frequency domain is known

as energy spectral density (ESD) or energy density (ED) or energy density
spectrum. The ESD function is denoted by ψ(ω)ψ(ω) and is given by,
ψ(ω)=|X(ω)|2

• For an energy signal, the total area under the energy spectral density curve plotted
as the function of frequency is equal to the total energy of the signal.

• The properties of energy spectral density (ESD) are given as follows −

• Property 1 – If x(t)x(t) is the input signal to a linear time-invariant system with

impulse response h(t), then the energy spectral density (ESD) of the input and
output signals are related as −
ψy(ω)=|H(ω)|2ψx(ω)

Property 2 – The total area under the energy spectral density curve is equal to
the total energy of the signal, i.e.,

• Property 3 – The energy spectral density (ESD) function ψ(ω) and the
autocorrelation function R(τ)of an energy signal form a Fourier transform pair,
i.e.,

•
Q. Write a note on Power Spectral Density.
Ans:

• The PSD specifies the power of various frequencies present in the signal and we
can determine the range of power over which the signal frequencies are operating
at. Essentially, the PSD profile is a plot of the power over frequency.

• PSD is specified as W/Hz.

Benefits Of Power Spectral Density Profile

• Using the PSD profile, we can identify the frequency components having relatively
weaker power levels in the given frequency range of interest.

• The received test signal (control signal) is studied using a spectrum analyzer. The
PSD profile is studied and this is compared to the PSD of the test signal before it
was transmitted through the channel.

• By studying the PSD profile, we can determine the frequency components with
reduced power levels as a result of channel noise. These frequency components
have relatively been more vulnerable to the noise when compared to the other
frequency components present in the signal.

• We can therefore adjust the power levels of the signal to be transmitted to combat
the effects of channel noise.

Q. Explain signal transmission through LTI system.

Ans :

• We have seen previously that if 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡) are input and output of a LTI system with
impulse response ℎ(𝑡), then: 𝑌(𝜔) = 𝐻(𝜔) 𝑋(𝜔)
• In certain types of systems we require the input to pass through the system without
distortion.

• For example:

1. Signal transmission over a communication channel.

2. Amplifying systems.

• Distortionless transmission implies that for a specific frequency band the output is the
same as the input apart from:

1. A constant multiplicative factor.

2. A delay.

• Therefore, if 𝑥(𝑡) is the input and 𝑦(𝑡) is the output, distortionless transmission implies
that: 𝑦 (t) = 𝐺0𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡𝑑)

• Taking the Fourier transform of the above yields: 𝑌(𝜔) = 𝐺0𝑋(𝜔)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡𝑑

• Knowing that: 𝑌(𝜔) = 𝐻(𝜔)𝑋(𝜔) we can write that the transfer function of a
distortionless system is:

𝐻(𝜔) = 𝐺0𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡d

• So the distortionless transmission is possible if following conditions are satisfied :

1. |𝐻(𝜔)| = 𝐺0 ….. amplitude response must be a constant

2. ∠𝐻(𝜔) = −𝜔𝑡𝑑 ….. phase response must be a linear function of 𝜔 with

slope −𝑡𝑑 which passes through the origin
 Unit – 2
AM Transmission and Reception for Signal Tone

Q. Distinguish between baseband and carrier communication.

Ans :
Q. Explain need of modulation and advantages of Modulation.

Ans :

Need for Modulation

The baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For such a signal, to travel
longer distances, its strength has to be increased by modulating with a high frequency carrier
wave, which doesn’t affect the parameters of the modulating signal.

• Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the

communication systems:
• Increase The Signal Strength
The baseband signals transmitted by the sender are not capable of direct
transmission. The strength of the message signal should be increased so that it
can travel longer distances. This is where modulation is essential. The most vital
need of modulation is to enhance the strength of the signal without affecting the
parameters of the carrier signal.
• Wireless Communication System
Modulation has removed the necessity for using wires in the communication
systems. It is because modulation is widely used in transmitting signals from one
location to another with faster speed. Thus, the modulation technique has helped
in enhancing wireless communication systems.
• Prevention Of Message Signal From Mixing
Modulation and its types prevent the interference of the message signal from
other signals. It is because a person sending a message signal through the phone
cannot tell such signals apart. As a result, they will interfere with each other.
However, by using carrier signals having a high frequency, the mixing of the
signals can be prevented. Thus, modulation ensures that the signals received by
the receiver are entirely perfect.
• Antenna size gets reduced
The signals within 20 Hz to 20 kHz frequency range can travel only a few
distances. For the effective transmission of a signal, the height of the
antenna h should be λ / 4 in length . Thus, modulation is required to increase the
frequency of the message signal and to enhance its strength to reach the receiver.
Length of the antenna can be easily calculated using this formula:
h = λ = c/f
= (3 x 10 8) / f
Here, h = height of antenna
 λ = wavelength of the transmitted signal
f = carrier wave frequency
• Multiplexing of signals occur
• Adjustments in the bandwidth is allowed

• Reception quality improves

Q. Draw standard waveforms of given signals:

i) Sine Waveform ii) Triangular Waveform iii) Square Waveform iv) Sawtooth
Waveform
Ans :
i) Sine Waveform :

ii) Triangular Waveform

iii) Square Waveform

 iv) Sawtooth Waveform

Q. Draw the block diagram of analog communication system and explain each block in
detail.

Ans :

1. Information or input signal

• The communication systems have been developed for communicating useful
information from one place to other
• The information can be in the form of sound signal like speech or music or it can be
in the form of pictures.
2. Input Transducer
• The information in the form of sound, picture or data signals cannot the
transmitted as it is.
• First it has to be converted into a suitable electrical signal.
 • The input transducers commonly used in the communication systems are
microphones, TV etc.
3. Transmitter
• The function of the transmitter block is to convert the electrical equivalent of the
information to a suitable form
• It increases the power level of the signal. The power level should be increased in
order to cover a large range. The transmitter consists of the electronics circuits
such as amplifier, mixer, oscillator, and power amplifier.
4. Communication channel or medium
• The communication channel is the medium used for the transmission of electronic
signals from one place to the another.
• The communication medium can be conducting wires, cables, optical fibres or free
space. Depending upon the type of the communication medium, two types of the
communication system will exist
a. Wire communication or line communication
b. Wireless communication or radio communication
5. Noise

• Noise is an unwanted electrical signal which gets added to the transmitted signal
when it is travelling towards receiver.
• Due to noise, the quality of the transmitted information will degrade. One added
the noise cannot be separated out from the information
• Hence noise is ab big problem in the communication systems.

6. Receiver
• The reception is exactly the opposite process of transmission. The received signal
is amplified and demodulated and converted in a suitable form
• The receiver consists of the electronic circuits like mixer, oscillator, detector and
amplifier.
7. Output Transducer
• It consists of the electrical signal at the output of the receiver back to the original
form i.e. sound or TV pictures.
• The typical example of the output transducers are loud speakers, picture tubes etc.

Q. Explain how modulation reduces height of antenna?

Ans :
 • For the transmission of radio signals, the antenna height must be multiple of λ/4 ,
where λ is the wavelength .
λ = c /f

where c : is the velocity of light

f: is the frequency of the signal to be transmitted

• The minimum antenna height required to transmit a baseband signal of f = 10 kHz is

calculated as follows :

The antenna of this height is practically impossible to install .

• Now, let us consider a modulated signal at f = 1 MHz. The minimum antenna height is
given by,

This antenna can be easily installed practically.

• Thus, modulation reduces the height of the antenna.

Q. Classify different sources of information. Give examples of each type of sources

Ans :

1. Analog Information Source:

The information produced by this type of source is continuous in nature.
Examples: voice, music, images or photos.

Fig. Analog information signal

2. Digital Information Source:

The information takes the form of sequence of binary 0s and 1s. It is in the form of discrete
signal like 001100011100….
Examples: Text, digitized music, or video etc.

Fig. Digital information signal