Data Collection Methods (Qualitative)

WEEK 10-11 1. Face-to-face interviews - researchers collect data directly from

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN subjects through one-on-one interaction.
- A survey is a research method where you collect and analyze 2. Qualitative questionnaires - usually consist of short, open-
data from a group of people. A questionnaire is a specific tool or ended questions.
instrument for collecting the data. A survey & a questionnaire are 3. Focus groups - Collecting data through focus groups is similar to
types of research instrument. conducting interviews, except it’s done in a group setting.
4. Observation - allows researchers to collect qualitative data by
- Sample -A subset, or some part, of a larger population. observing respondents in their natural setting.
- Population -Any complete group of entities that share some
common set of characteristics. Data Collection Methods (Quantitative)
- Population Element- An individual member of the population. 1. Interviews - Researchers can conduct interviews in-person,
Census -An investigation of all the individual elements that make online, or over the phone.
up the population. 2. Quantitative observation - can also be collected through
systematic observation
PROBABILITY SAMPLING 3. Experiments - a type of quantitative data collection method which
In probability sampling, every element is the population has a relies on manipulation of a single independent variable while
known, non-zero probability of selection. The simple random maintaining control over a number of other, usually dependent,
sample, in which each member of the population has an equal variables.
probability sample.
WEEK 12: DATA ANALYSIS
Simple Random Sampling – Each population element has an
What is Data Analysis in Research?
equal chance of being chosen to participate in the research study.
- According to LeCompte and Schensul, research data analysis is
Systematic Sampling-A method that requires selecting samples
a process used by researchers for reducing data to a story and
based on a system of intervals in a numbered population.
interpreting it to derive insights
Stratified Sampling - A method of sampling that involves the
- The data analysis process helps in reducing a large chunk of data
division of a population into smaller subgroups known as strata.
into smaller fragments, which makes sense.
Cluster Sampling -A method of collecting data from a large
population by dividing it into smaller groups, or clusters.
Three essential things take place during the data analysis process — the
first data organization.
NON-PROBABILITY
1.Summarization and
In non-probability sampling, the probability of any particular member
2.categorization together contribute to becoming the second
of the population being chosen is unknown. The selection of
known method used for data reduction. It helps in finding
sampling units in non-probability sampling is quite arbitrary, as
patterns and themes in the data for easy identification and
researchers rely heavily on personal judgement.
linking.
3.data analysis – researchers do it in both top-down or bottom-up
Convenience Sampling -It is used when researchers choose any
fashion.
willing and available individuals as participants.
Marshall and Rossman- on the other hand, describe data
Snowballing- With this method researchers choose the first
analysis as a messy, ambiguous, and time-consuming, but a
participant to match the participant profile.
creative and fascinating process through which a mass of collected
data is being brought to order, structure and meaning.”
Quota Sampling -A technique that constructs sample subgroups
reflecting their proportional representation in the population.
Why Analyze Data in Research?
- Researchers rely heavily on data as they have a story to tell or
Purposive/Judgmental Sampling -It refers to intentionally selecting
problems to solve. It starts with a question, and data is nothing but
participants based on their characteristics, knowledge, experiences,
an answer to that question. But, what if there is no question to ask?
or some other criteria.
Well! It is possible to explore data even without a problem – we call
it.

- ‘Data Mining’ which often reveal some interesting patterns

within the data that are worth exploring.

FIELDWORK - An individual who is responsible for gathering data in TYPES OF DATA IN RESEARCH
the field.
Field interviewing service - A research supplier that specializes in Every kind of data has a rare quality of describing things after
gathering data. assigning a specific value to it.
In-house interviewer- A fieldworker who is employed by the
company conduction the research. Data can be in different forms; here are the primary data types.

INTERVIEWER CHEATING -The practice by fieldworkers of filling ✓Qualitative data: When the data presented has words and
in fake answers or falsifying interviews. descriptions, then we call it qualitative data

Curb-stoning - A form of interviewer cheating in which an ✓Quantitative data: Any data expressed in numbers of
interviewer makes up the responses instead of conducting an actual numerical figures are called quantitative data. This type of data can
interview. be distinguished into categories, grouped, measured, calculated, or
ranked.
DATA COLLECTION - It is the process of collecting and measuring - You can present such data in graphical format, charts, or apply
information on specific variables. It’s done with the purpose of statistical analysis methods to this data. The (Outcomes
answering questions or testing hypotheses. Measurement Systems) OMS questionnaires in surveys are a
significant source of collecting numeric data.
✓Categorical data: It is data presented in groups. However, an
item included in the categorical data cannot belong to more than one 1.Descriptive Statistics
group. - This method is used to describe the basic features of versatile
types of data in research.
Data Analysis in Qualitative Research
- It presents the data in such a meaningful way that pattern in the
Data analysis and qualitative data research work a little differently
from the numerical data as the quality data is made up of words, data starts making sense..
descriptions, images, objects, and sometimes symbols
. Measures of Frequency
Methods Used for Data Analysis in Qualitative Research  [Count, Percent, Frequency]
There are several techniques to analyze the data in qualitative  It is used to denote home often a particular event occurs.
research, but here are some commonly used methods,  Researchers use it when they want to showcase how
often a response is given.
✓Content Analysis: It is widely accepted and the most frequently Measures of Central Tendency
employed technique for data analysis in research methodology. It  [Mean, Median, Mode]
can be used to analyze the documented information from text,  The method is widely used to demonstrate distribution by
images. various points.
 Researchers use this method when they want to
✓Narrative Analysis: This method is used to analyze content showcase the most commonly or averagely indicated
gathered from various sources such as personal interviews, response.
field observation, and surveys. Measures of Dispersion or Variation
 [Range, Variance, Standard deviation]
✓Discourse Analysis: Similar to narrative analysis, discourse  Here the field equals high/low points.
analysis is used to analyze the interactions with people. Percentile ranks, Quartile ranks
- discourse analysis also focuses on the lifestyle and day-to-day  It relies on standardized scores helping researchers to
environment while deriving any.conclusion. identify the relationship between different scores.
 It is often used when researchers want to compare scores
✓Grounded Theory: When you want to explain why a particular with the average count.
phenomenon happened, then using grounded theory for analyzing
quality data is the best resort. Descriptive analysis is also called a ‘univariate analysis’ since it
is commonly used to analyze a single variable.
WEEK 13: DATA ANALYSIS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
2.Inferential Statistics - used to make predictions about a larger
✓Preparing Data for Analysis population after research and data analysis of the representing
- The first stage in research and data analysis is to make it for the population’s collected sample.
analysis so that the nominal data can be converted into something
Here are two significant areas of inferential statistics.
meaningful. Data preparation consists of the below phases.
Phase I: Data Validation 1.Estimating parameters: It takes statistics from the sample
- Data validation is done to understand if the collected data sample research data and demonstrates something about the population
is per the pre-set standards, or it is a biased data sample again parameter.
divided into four different stages
2.Hypothesis test: It’s about sampling research data to answer the
Fraud: To ensure an actual human being records each response to survey research questions.
the survey or the questionnaire
Here are some of the commonly used methods for data analysis
Screening: To make sure each participant or respondent is selected in research.
or chosen in compliance with the research criteria
•Correlation: When researchers are not conducting experimental
Procedure: To ensure ethical standards were maintained while research wherein the researchers are interested to understand the
collecting the data sample relationship between two or more variables, they opt for correlational
Completeness: To ensure that the respondent has answered all the research methods.
questions in an online survey. Else, the interviewer had asked all the
questions devised in the questionnaire. •Cross-tabulation: Also called contingency tables, cross-tabulation
is used to analyze the relationship between multiple variables.
Phase II: Data Editing
More often, an extensive research data sample comes loaded with •Regression analysis: For understanding the strong relationship
errors. Respondents sometimes fill in some fields incorrectly or between two variables, researchers do not look beyond the primary
sometimes skip them accidentally. Data editing is a process wherein and commonly used regression analysis method, which is also a
the researchers have to confirm that the provided data is free of type of predictive analysis used. In this method.
such errors.
Phase III: Data Coding •Frequency tables: The statistical procedure is used for testing the
Out of all three, this is the most critical phase of data preparation degree to which two or more vary or differ in an experiment. A
associated with grouping and assigning values to the survey considerable degree of variation means research findings were
responses significant. In many contexts, ANOVA testing and variance analysis
are similar.
✓Methods Used for Data Analysis in Quantitative Research •Analysis of variance: The statistical procedure is used for testing
- After the data is prepared for analysis, researchers are open to the degree to which two or more vary or differ in an experiment. A
considerable degree of variation means research findings were
using different research and data analysis methods to derive
significant. In many contexts, ANOVA testing and variance analysis
meaningful. are similar.
The method is again classified into two groups .  .
Organization - When writing your report, organization will set you Oral Presentation - A spoken summary of the major findings,
free. A good outline is: conclusions, and recommendations, given to clients or line
(1) overview of the problem, managers to provide them with the opportunity to clarify any
(2) your data and modeling approach, ambiguous issues by asking questions.
(3) the results of your data analysis (plots, numbers, etc),
(4) your substantive conclusions. Using gestures during presentations also can help convey the
( message and make presentations more interesting. Here are
1)Overview some tips on how to gesture:
Describe the problem. What substantive question are you trying to •Open up your arms to embrace your audience. Keep your arms
address? This needn’t be long, but it should be clear. between your waist and shoulders.

(2)Data and model •Drop your arms to your sides when not using them.
What data did you use to address the question, and how did you do
it? When describing your approach, be specific •Avoid quick and jerky gestures, which make you appear nervous.
Hold gestures longer that you would in normal conversation.
(3)Results
In your results section, include any figures and tables necessary to •Vary gestures. Switch from hand to hand and at other times use
make your case. both hands or no hands.
.
(4)Conclusion •Don’t overuse gestures.
What did you learn from the analysis? What is the answer
DEVELOPING CONCLUSIONS
✓Insights from the Communications Model Conclusion
Communication Process is the process by which one person or The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your
source sends a message to an audience or receiver and then research should matter to them after they have finished reading the
receives feedback about the message. Several elements influence paper.
successful communication.
Importance of a Good Conclusion
•The communicator—the source or sender of the message (the A well-written conclusion provides you with important opportunities
writer of the report) to demonstrate to the reader your understanding of the research
problem. These include:
•The message—the set of meanings being sent to or received by ✓Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your
the audience (the findings of the research project) paper. Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your
reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression.
•The medium—the way in which the message is delivered to the
audience (the oral or written report itself ) ✓Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger
significance of your study. The conclusion is an opportunity to
succinctly answer [or in some cases, to re-emphasize] the "So
•The audience—the receiver or destination of the message (the What?" question by placing the study within the context of how your
manager who will make a decision based—we hope—on the report research advances past research about the topic.
findings)
•Feedback—a communication, also involving a message and ✓Identifying how a gap in the literature has been addressed .
channel, that flows in the reverse direction (from the audience to the The conclusion can be where you describe how a previously
original communicator) and that may be used to modify subsequent identified gap in the literature [described in your literature review
communications (the manager’s response to the report) section] has been filled by your research.
✓The Report in Context
A research report is an oral presentation and/or written statement ✓Demonstrating the importance of your ideas. Don't be shy.
whose purpose is to communicate research results, strategic The conclusion offers you the opportunity to elaborate on the impact
recommendations, and/or other conclusions to management or other and significance of your findings.
specific audiences.
✓Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about
WEEK 14: USE OF EFFECTIVE GRAPHICS the research problem. This does not refer to introducing new
Graphic Aids -Used properly, graphic aids can clarify complex information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and
points or emphasize a message. creative approaches for framing or contextualizing the research
problem based on the results of your study.
Tables- most useful for presenting numerical information,
especially when several pieces of information have been gathered General Rules
about each item discussed. When writing the conclusion to your paper, follow these general
Charts -translate numerical information into visual form so that rules:
relationships may be easily grasped. The accuracy of the numbers is ✓State your conclusions in clear, simple language.
reduced to gain this advantage. d are not overly complicated or tough to use in some way.
Pie Charts - One of the most useful kinds of charts is the pie
chart, which shows the composition of some total quantity at a
particular time.
Line Graphs - useful for showing the relationship of one
variable to another. The dependent variable generally is shown on
the vertical axis, and the independent variable on the horizontal axis. QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
The most common independent variable for such charts is time, - a research method where you collect and analyze data from a
but it is by no means the only one. (On the right is a Stratum Chart) group of people.
Bar Chart - A bar chart shows changes in the value of a - a specific tool or instrument for collecting the data. A survey &
dependent variable (plotted on the vertical axis) at discrete a questionnaire are types of research instrument.
intervals of the independent variable (on the horizontal axis).
- A subset, or some part, of a larger population.
-Any complete group of entities that share some common set of
characteristics.
- An individual member of the population.
- An investigation of all the individual elements that make up the
population.

In probability sampling, every element is the population has a

known, non-zero probability of selection.

– Each population element has an equal chance of being chosen to

participate in the research study.
-A method that requires selecting samples based on a system of
intervals in a numbered population.
- A method of sampling that involves the division of a population into
smaller subgroups known as strata.
-A method of collecting data from a large population by dividing it
into smaller groups, or clusters.
In non-probability sampling, the probability of any particular member
of the population being chosen is unknown.

-It is used when researchers choose any willing and available

individuals as participants.
With this method researchers choose the first participant to match
the participant profile.
-A technique that constructs sample subgroups reflecting their
proportional representation in the population.

-It refers to intentionally selecting participants based on their

characteristics, knowledge, experiences, or some other criteria.