Introduction to Psychology Overt behaviors are those which are directly

observable, such as talking, running, scratching

Module No. 1: Nature of Psychology or blinking
• Topics Covert behaviors are those which go on inside
• Definition and etymology the skin. They include such private events as
• History thinking and imagining. Some covert behaviors
• Perspectives of Psychology are only detectable by the person who is
• Areas of Specialization performing them

Etymology
PSYCHOLOGY Is Astrology scientific or non-scientific?
- Non-scientific kasi walang Empirical
evidence!!!
psyche logos
(soul/mind) (study)
TEAM SOCRATES!! (SOPLARE)

Psychology (INBORN & INNATE)

the scientific study of behavior & mental Socrates – mind was separate from the body,
processes that it continued to exist after death, and that
ideas were innate.
- Actions
- Thoughts Plato – who we are and what we know are
- Emotions innate (inborn).
- Perceptions
Rene Descartes – proposed the mind-body
- Reasoning processes
interaction and the value of innate ideas
- Memories
- Biological activities IDEAS ARE INBORN!!!!!!

BEHAVIOR
TEAM ARISTOTLE!! (ARIJO)
Overt Covert (EXPERIENCE)
Aristotle – soul is not separable from the body
and who we are and what we know are acquired
from experience.
John Locke – held the mind as “tabula rasa” or
blank slate
observable non-observable
- “tabula rasa” means all knowledge
comes from experience or perception.
What makes psychology a science? IDEAS GROW IN EXPERIENCE!!!!!
- Empirical method!!!
 1885
Charles Darwin – nature selects those traits that Herman Ebbinghaus publishes his seminal "Über
best enable the organism to survive and das Gedächtnis" ("On Memory") in which he
reproduce in a particular environment describes learning and memory experiments he
conducted on himself.
- Evolution
- Natural selection 1886
- Survival of the fittest
- We adapt!! Sigmund Freud begins offering therapy to
patients in Vienna, Austria.
Francis Galton – “intelligence is inherited”;
coined “nature and nurture” 1888

Nature & Nurture – they both interact James McKeen Cattell becomes the first
professor of psychology at the University of
Nature – heredity Pennsylvania. He would later publish "Mental
Tests and Measurements," marking the advent
Nurture – the environment of psychological assessment.
“Both nature and nurture are important” 1890
Dati kasi may dalawang branches na nagaaway
William James publishes "Principles of
sabihin natin na BRANCH A (nature) & BRANCH B (nurture) Psychology." Sir Francis Galton establishes
opposite kasi yung ideas nila and lalagi sila nag dedebate correlation techniques to better understand the
pero eventually huminto rin kasi na realized nila na both relationships between variables in intelligence
nature and nurture may influence sa isa’t isa
studies.

Wilhelm Wundt – established the first 1892

psychological laboratory at the University of G. Stanley Hall forms the American Psychological
Leipzig, Germany in 1879; Association (APA), enlisting 26 members in the
- Father of Experimental Psychology first meeting.

TIMELINE: The Development of Psychology 1896

1878 Lightner Witmer establishes the first psychology

clinic in America.
G. Stanley Hall becomes the first American to
earn a Ph.D. in psychology. 1898

1879 Edward Thorndike develops the Law of Effect.

Wilhelm Wundt founds the first experimental 1886

psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany, marking the Sigmund Freud, founder of psychoanalysis,
moment psychology becomes its own field of begins treating patients in Vienna, Austria.
study.
1900
1883
Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams.
G. Stanley Hall opens the first experimental
psychology lab in the U.S. at Johns Hopkins 1901
University. The British Psychological Society is formed.
 1903 1962
Ivan Pavlov trains a dog to salivate on hearing Albert Ellis publishes Reason and Emotion in
the sound of a bell. Pavlov's dog becomes the Psychotherapy, leading to the development of
first example of classical conditioning. rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT).
1907 1967
Carl Jung publishes The Psychology of Dementia Aaron Beck publishes a model of depression that
Praecox. Jung begins to break away from Freud's suggests thoughts play a significant role. He is
ideas to develop his own theories of analytical seen as the founder of cognitive behavioural
psychology. therapy (CBT).
1912 1982
Max Wertheimer publishes his research on the Carol Gilligan publishes the feminist tract In a
phi phenomenon, which contributed to the Different Voice.
development of the Gestalt school of
psychology. 1994

1920 Stephen Pinker's The Language Instinct is

published.
John Watson becomes a founder of the school of
behaviourism, believing that all thoughts, 1998
feelings and actions are developed through Martin Seligman chooses positive psychology as
conditioning. the theme for his speech to the American
Psychological Association, as its incoming
1932
president.
Jean Piaget publishes The Moral Judgment of the
Child. 2003

1938 Simon Baron-Cohen's 'The Essential Difference:

Men, Women and the Extreme Male Brain'
Electroconvulsive therapy is used for the first proposes that autism may be an "extreme form
time on a person. of maleness".
It becomes a popular method of treatment
throughout the 40s and 50s (and remains in use
today). Timeline of the development of Psychology in
the Philippines (Carson-Arenas, 2004)
1942
▪ It was taught in 17th century at the University
Carl Rogers publishes Counselling and of Santo Tomas and University of San Carlos
Psychotherapy, encouraging therapists to adopt
a client-centred approach. This method becomes ▪ In 1900’s, Psychology was under Philosophy
widely practised. ▪ In 1926, Department of Psychology was
established at the University of the Philippines
1943
under the School of Education
Abraham Maslow, one of the founders of
humanistic psychology, publishes his theory of - nagka psychology na sa pinas!!!
the hierarchy of needs.
▪ In 1948, UST offer BS, Master’s and Ph.D. 3. Behavioral Perspective
degrees in Psychology
- focuses on observable behavior
- nag stastart na magka psych sa mga
ibang schools - measurable
Behavior: An older adult performs poorly on a
researcher’s memory task.
PSYCHOLOGY in the Philippines
Why? Older adults spend little time in school
- Pioneer tayo (and such environment) where they are
reinforced for using their memory.
Foundations of psychology shared a common
goal: - To explain and understand behavior using
scientific methods. 4. Cognitive Perspective
- examines how people understand and think
- Seeking to achieve the same goal,
psychologists embraced a variety of about the world
broad perspectives. This leads to the five - everything that the mind has
major perspectives of psychology
Behavior: An older adult performs poorly on a
Five Major Perspectives of Psychology researcher’s memory task.
1. Neuroscience Perspective Why? Older adults fail to use efficient memory
- views behavior from the perspective of the strategies.
brain, the nervous system, and other biological
functions
5. Humanistic Perspective
Behavior: An older adult performs poorly on a
researcher’s memory task. - contends that people can control their
behavior and that they naturally try to reach
Why? Brain ages, connections between neuron their full potential.
break down
- focus in the meaning of life
- present is more important
2. Psychodynamic Perspective
- people can change (quickly)
- view that behavior is motivated by unconscious
inner forces over which a person has little - self actualizes
control Behavior: An older adult performs poorly on a
- things that they can’t control like for example: researcher’s memory task.
fear of their death, past, & etc Why? Older adults are more concerned about
- past finding meaning in their lives than doing well on
some memory test.
Behavior: An older adult performs poorly on a
researcher’s memory task. Psychology is like an umbrella

Why? Older adults have an unconscious fear of

death which is distracting and interferes with
memory.
 SUBFIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY Educational psychology – concerned with
teaching and learning processes, such as the
Clinical psychology – deals with the study, relationship between motivation and school
diagnosis and treatment of psychological performance
disorders
Industrial/organizational psychology – it is
Counseling psychology – focuses primarily on concerned with the psychology of the workplace
educational, social, and career adjustment
problems Forensic Psychology – focuses on legal issues,
such as determining the accuracy of witness
Sports Psychology – applies psychology to memories (court)
athletic activity and exercise
Health Psychology – explores the relationship
between psychological factors and physical Environmental Psychology – it deals with the
ailments or disease psychological aspects of ecology, that is, the
relationship between man & his environment.
Positive Psychology – study the subjective
Experimental psychology – studies the feelings of happiness, well-being, and good life
processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and
thinking about the world Personality Psychology – focuses on the
consistency in people’s behavior over time and
Developmental psychology – examines how the traits that differentiate one person from
people grow, develop, and change from the another
time of conception through death
Social psychology – study how people’s
thoughts, feelings and actions are affected by Behavioral neuroscience – studies the biological
others basis of behavior

Evolutionary Psychology – considers how (both brain & behavior)

behavior is influenced by our genetic Cognitive Psychology – focuses on the study of
inheritance from our ancestors higher mental processes
(process of your mind) e.g. reasoning, decision
Child Psychology– study the behavior of the making, imagining
child from its postnatal development up to early
adolescent period
Adolescent Psychology – study the behavior of
the adolescent starting from puberty period to
twenty-one years old
Senescent Psychology – study the behavior of
old people
Consumer Psychology – also called business
psychology; it is concerned with the motivation,
perception, learning and decision-making of
consumers
Module No. 2: Biological Basis of Behavior Soma - cell body of a neuron contains the
nucleus and other structures common to living
Lesson 1: Neuron and Neurotransmitters cells.
Neuron (nerve cell) - is a specialized nerve cell - Soma has a nucleus just so you know
that receives, processes, and transmits
information to other cells in the body. contains the nucleus and maintains the life
sustaining functions of the neuron.
- We have a lot of neurons when we’re in
the womb of our mother Axon - nerve fibre, portion of a nerve cell
- We naturally lose brain cells as we age (neuron) that carries nerve impulses away from
the cell body
Neurotransmitters - a chemical substance that is
released
There are around 100 billion neurons in your terminal buttons - bulb-like structures that pass
brain and they’re all connected to each other the information on to glands, muscles, or other
through their dendrites. neurons. (dito galling mga neurotransmitters)
(with circles)

Dendrites - designed to receive

communications/info from other cells Myelination
(tree-like structure) - THE PROCESS of
myelin sheaths
Between the dendrites of individual neurons
there is a small space called the synapse - occurs at the axon
of a neuron,
Synapse – a structure that permits a neuron (or
nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal - formation of a
to another neuron or to the target effector cell myelin sheath.
(small space that transmits information) - increases the efficiency of electrical
transmission
- transmit information faster and allows for
more complex brain processes.
- myelination is completed by the end of the 2nd
year of life
Neurons three basic structures -The amount of myelin in the body increases
throughout development
- cell body, axon and dendrites.
- from fetal development up until maturity, with
Info => dendrites => soma (cell body) => axon
the myelination in the prefrontal cortex (located
in the forehead) being the last to complete in
the 2nd or 3rd decade.
- The more myelin and myelination an individual
have, the quicker their response is to stimuli.
- because myelin sheaths increase the speed of
nerve impulses
Myelin sheaths (made of myelin) Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death)
- sleeves of fatty tissue that - the suicidal cell
protect your nerve cells. - if it sees that its useless it will commit
suicide
- part of your central nervous
system, which carries messages NEUROTRANSMITTERS
back and forth between your
brain and the rest of your body. - At the end of each neuron is a tiny gap called
a synapse
- myelin is produced by different types of
neuroglia: oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. - and in order to communicate with the next
cell, the signal needs to be able to cross this
Neuron – cell in the brain small space.
Neuroglia (supporting cell) – eats dead neurons - To cross those tiny gaps, they rely on chemical
& neuroglia was the reason why our brain is still messengers. These chemicals are known as
intact neurotransmitters. And their role in cell talk is
called neurotransmission
- cleaning (important function)
Neurotransmitters
- there’s neuroglia in the brain and other parts
in the body - important link between the nervous system
and behavior.
Neuroglia functions
- important for maintaining vital brain and body
1. surround and hold in place function
2. control environment
3. speed up impulses - chemicals release by the neuron
4. protect & clean up
- should always be balanced
2 types of Neuroglia
- imbalance of neurotransmitters will affect the
1.) Oligodendrocytes - myelinate axons in the behavior
central nervous system
e.g. drugs or any sickness
- It holds the myelin sheath in the brain & spinal
(a deficiency or an excess of a neurotransmitter
2.) Schwann cells - myelinate axons in the can produce severe behavior disorders.)
peripheral nervous system
Here are the most common types of
neurotransmitters and their effects:
Acetylcholine

Dopamine

Norepinephrine

Epinephrine

Serotonin
Oligodendrocytes ->> central nervous system
GABA
Schwann –>> peripheral nervous system Endorphins
 Neuro Transmitter Function Effect of Deficit Effect of Surplus
Kapag KULANG Kapag SOBRA

Acetylcholine SIMPLE MOVEMENTS Alzheimer’s disease Depression

Involved in voluntary memory problems
movement, learning, is related to movements
memory, and sleep Involuntary movement

Dopamine Involved in movement, Depression; Schizophrenia

attention, and learning Muscular rigidity - no control
and tremors found nanakot
in Parkinson’s mahirap gamutin
disease
Norepinephrine Noradrenaline!! Depression Schizophrenia
Fight or flight response - no control
(MEMORY) nanakot
enhances formation and retrieval of mahirap gamutin
memory, and focuses attention
Associated with eating, and learning
Gives info when hungry
Alertness

Epinephrine Adrenaline Rush!! Depression

Fight or flight response
(MUSCLE)
increasing blood flow to muscles
Involved in energy, and
glucose metabolism
Alertness

Serotonin - common Plays a role in mood, sleep, Depression

appetite, and impulsive and Obsessive- compulsive
aggressive behavior disorder (OCD)
- Repetitive behavior
Inuulit ulit mo yung actions
and thoughts mo…

Kung hindi mo ni repeat

action or thoughts mo then
feel mo mamatay ka and
tngina ang sakit non…
No cure ikaw mismo
gagamot sa sarili mo…
GABA Inhibits excitation and epilepsy, seizures or mood not enough brain activity
(Gamma-Amino Butyric Anxiety disorders
Acid) Sleep and eating
Slow down the activity of neurons Anxiety and anxiety disorders
disorders;

involuntary motor
actions, including tremors
and Seizures
Endorphins Involved in pain relief and Body experiences pain Body may not give
positive emotions adequate warning
about pain
emotional
Feel no pain
Lesson 2: The Nervous System - regulates the central nervous system (CNS) and
is pivotal in maintaining consciousness and
Nervous system
regulating the sleep cycle
- a complex network of nerves and cells that
Three components of the brainstem
carry messages to and from the brain and spinal
cord to various parts of the body. a. Medulla - The medulla contains the
cardiac, respiratory, vomiting, and
- major controlling, regulatory, and
vasomotor centers regulating heart rate,
communicating system in the body.
breathing, and blood pressure
- center of all mental activity including thought,
learning, and memory. b. Midbrain - is associated with vision,
hearing, motor control, sleep and wake
Endocrine system & Nervous system cycles, alertness, and temperature
- responsible for regulating and maintaining regulation
homeostasis
c. Pons - It contains tracts that carry
nervous system has two components: signals from the cerebrum to the
- the central nervous system and the medulla and to the cerebellum. It also
peripheral nervous system has tracts that carry sensory signals to
the thalamus
central nervous system is composed of the brain
and spinal cord.
2. The Cerebrum - bulk of the brain and is
The Central Nervous System supported on the brain stem
A. Brain - contains the cerebral cortex of the two cerebral
hemispheres
consists of four principal parts:
- left and right hemispheres
(1) the brain stem
a. left hemisphere - controlling the right side of
(2) the cerebrum
the body. (LOGIC)
(3) the cerebellum
b. right hemisphere - coordinates the left side of
(4) the diencephalon. the body (CREATIVITY)

1. The Brain Stem - small and extremely The hemispheres are further divided into four
important part of the brain lobes:

- nerve connections of the motor and sensory

systems from the main part of the brain that
communicate with the peripheral nervous
system pass through the brain stem.

- plays an important role in the regulation of

cardiac and respiratory function
 • Frontal lobes Prosopagnosia - face blindness,
- located in the front-most region of the cognitive disorder of face perception in
cerebral cortex which the ability to recognize familiar
- They are vital for motor control, faces, including one's own face (self-
thinking, and reasoning recognition), is impaired, while other
aspects of visual processing (e.g., object
• Parietal lobes discrimination) and intellectual
- positioned above the temporal lobes functioning (e.g., decision-making)
near the brain's center and they process remain intact.
sensory information
The most common causes of this
• Temporal lobes damage are stroke, traumatic brain
- positioned behind the frontal lobes. injury, or certain neurodegenerative
- They are important for language and diseases.
speech production as well as memory
and emotion processing MEANING NG PROSPAGNOSIA (Greek)
prosopon -> "face"
• Occipital lobes agnosia -> "non-knowledge"
- sit at the posterior region of the
cerebral cortex and are the main centers
for visual processing

DAMAGES IN TEMPORAL LOBE

Hemianopsia/Hemianopia – is a loss of vision or

blindness (anopsia) in half the visual field,
usually on one side of the vertical midline Simultanagnosia/Simultagnosia - is a rare
neurological disorder characterized by the
The most common causes of this damage are inability of an individual to perceive more than
stroke, brain tumor, and trauma a single object at a time.
(damage sa TEMPORAL LOBE) (STROKE) The most common causes of this damage are
from bilateral lesions to the junction between
the parietal and occipital lobes.
Phineas P. Gage Cerebral cortex

- American railroad construction - the outer layer of grey matter of the cerebrum
foreman
- surface of the cerebral cortex folds to create
- large iron rod destroyed much of his
gyri (ridges) and sulci (furrows) which allows it
brain's left frontal lobe
to expand in surface area without taking up
- had a tremendous influence on early
much greater volume
neurology
- most famous person to have survived - Gyri (outer fold)
severe damage to the brain - Sulci (inner fold)
- first patient from whom we learned
something about the relation between
personality and the function of the front
parts of the brain.

Changes after the accident

injuries both the left & right prefrontal cortices,

which would result in problems with emotional
processing and rational decision-making Cerebrum contains several subcortical
- Always Irritated structures
- personality changes Basal ganglia - important for the control of
- thinking & decision making movement and forming habits
- Motor act in the brain wasn’t affected
- cannot make plans & can’t organize e.g. biting nails
thoughts properly Olfactory bulb - a neural structure of the
vertebrate forebrain involved in olfaction,
the sense of smell

- regeneration neuron
- the only chosen one who can
regenerate
(neuron has a 100-life year span and
olfactory is an exception)

Hippocampus - part of the limbic system, and

plays important roles in the consolidation of
information from short-term memory to long-
term memory, and in spatial memory that
enables navigation -> (memory about the area)
Born: July 9, 1823

Died: May 21, 1860

Cause of death: Status epilepticus

Amygdala - perform a primary role in the B. Spinal Cord
processing of memory, decision-making and
- the brain’s link to the peripheral nervous
emotional responses (including fear, anxiety,
system
and aggression)
- It receives information from the skin and
(damaged amygdala -> lack of emotion)
muscles and transmits it to the brain

The Peripheral Nervous System

3. The Cerebellum - small portion of the brain
Peripheral Nervous System - is responsible in
- ten percent of the total weight carrying the messages to and from the various
muscles and glands of the body
- essential for making fine adjustments to
motor actions - (nerves sa buong katawan)

- It coordinates voluntary movements such as

posture, balance, coordination, and speech,
resulting in smooth and balanced muscular
activity.

- Important for learning motor behaviors.

(Cerebellar dysfunction primarily results in

problems with motor control) Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System

1. Autonomic Nervous System – it regulates

involuntary processes of the body such as heart
4. The Diencephalon - the forebrain stem rate, breathing, secretion, blood pressure,
- It includes the thalamus and hypothalamus digestion and others

Thalamus - small structure in the center of the • Sympathetic – it prepares the body’s
brain defense mechanism during a
threatening event (ADRENALINE!!)
- sensory and motor signals to the cerebral • Parasympathetic – returns the body to
cortex a calmer state.
- regulation of consciousness, sleep, and
alertness

Hypothalamus - smaller part of the

diencephalon (size of an almond)

- function is to link the nervous system to the

endocrine system via the pituitary gland

- hypothalamus affects the endocrine system

and governs emotional behavior such as anger
and sexual activity 2. Somatic Nervous System – consists of nerves
and muscles that contract and allows one to
- if damaged it will affect all hormones
move voluntarily
 BRAIN CONDITIONS * Concussion – A brain injury that causes a
temporary disturbance in brain function
- neuron loss is an effect of aging on the nervous
system. - Traumatic head injuries cause most
concussions
- by the age of 30, the brain begins to lose
thousands of neurons each day - lose consciousness since it distracted the
function of the brain (no blood)
- causing a decreased capacity to send nerve
impulses to and from the brain and slowing * Brain tumor – Any abnormal tissue growth
information processing inside the brain. Whether malignant (cancer) or
benign, brain tumors usually cause problems by
- In addition, voluntary motor movements slow
the pressure they exert on the normal brain
down, reflex time increases, and conduction
velocity decreases. * Glioblastoma – An aggressive, malignant brain
tumor (cancer)
- Nervous system injuries affect more than
90,000 people every year, - Brain glioblastomas progress rapidly and are
very difficult to cure
- 10,000 people are spinal cord injuries.
* Hydrocephalus – An abnormally increased
amount of cerebrospinal (brain) fluid inside the
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - has an skull
intrinsic ability for repair and regeneration
- big brain (literally not a pun)
Central Nervous System (CNS) - is for the most
- too much fluid
part incapable of self-repair and regeneration
- Usually this is because the fluid is not
circulating properly
BRAIN CONDITIONS
* Meningitis – Inflammation of the lining around
* Headache – There are many types of the brain or spinal cord, usually from bacteria or
headaches; some can be serious but most are infection
not and are generally treated with
- Stiff neck, neck pain, headache, fever, and
analgesics/painkillers
sleepiness are common symptoms
* Stroke (brain infarction) – Blood flow and
* Encephalitis – Inflammation of the brain
oxygen are suddenly interrupted to an area of
tissue, usually from infection with a virus
brain tissue, which then dies
- e.g. Japanese mosquito
- A blood clot, or bleeding in the brain, are the
cause of most strokes - Fever, headache, and confusion are common
symptoms
- common cause of death
* Traumatic brain injury – Permanent brain
- damages the neurons
damage from a traumatic head injury
* Cerebral hemorrhage – Any bleeding inside
- Obvious mental impairment, or more subtle
the brain
personality and mood changes can occur
There are two meanings of traumatic EEG – a test used to evaluate the electrical
activity in the brain
- in terms of medical, it’s a damage in the body
* Dementia – A decline in cognitive function
- in terms of psychology, it’s about an
resulting from death or malfunction of nerve
experience in life
cells in the brain
* Parkinson's disease – Nerves in a central area
- common for old people
of the brain degenerate slowly, causing
problems with movement and coordination - Conditions in which nerves in the brain
degenerate, as well as alcohol abuse and
- neurons are decreasing
strokes, can cause dementia
- A tremor of the hands is a common early sign
* Alzheimer’s disease – For unclear reasons,
* Huntington's disease – An inherited nerve nerves in certain brain areas degenerate,
disorder that affects the brain causing progressive dementia

- 50 % inheritable - low cognitive

- Dementia and difficulty controlling - most common form of dementia

movements (chorea) are its symptoms
-problem in movement
Okay story time about sa Huntington's…
-detect 40’s & above
- Eastern part of Europe and Huntington’s
* Brain abscess – A pocket of infection in the
disease wasn’t considered as an illness and for
brain, usually by bacteria
some reason, it’s hereditary (genes) and it has 50
% inheritable so people back in the day believed - Antibiotics and surgical drainage of the area
that the people that have the disease are are often necessary
witches…
Lesson 3: Endocrine System
- So, people with the disease got killed and some
Endocrine system
of them escaped to the US but of course, life is
such a bitch, and the people that lived in the US - is a series of glands that produce and secrete
hanged them… hormones that are instrumental in regulating
mood, growth and development, tissue function,
eto pala yung salem witch trials hahahaha
metabolism, sexual function and reproductive
tnginang mga taong yan grabe
processes
kung binabasa mo toh proud ako sayo kasi ang
- chemicals produced by the endocrine system
sipag mo haha
are necessary in the integration of actions and
* Epilepsy – The tendency to have seizures responses in the body to maintain homeostasis
or internal balance
- tremors inborn or experience
- glands in men and women differ
- Head injuries and strokes may cause epilepsy,
but usually no cause is identified - hormones also help explain some of the
observed behavioral differences between men
- bright colors can cause epilepsy
and women
Endocrine Glands 4. Gonads

- gland is an organ that makes and puts out - In females, the ovaries produce hormones
hormones that do a specific job in your body estrogen and progesterone that regulate
sexual development, ovulation, and growth
- Endocrine glands release the substances they
of sex organs
make into your bloodstream
- In males, the testes produce hormone
testosterone that regulate sexual
development, production of sperm, and
growth of sex organs

Lack of sex hormones during puberty results

in lack of secondary sexual characteristics
(facial and bodily hair, muscles in males,
breast in females)

5. Pancreas - this organ regulates the level

of sugar in the bloodstream by secreting
1. Pituitary Gland - also known as the “master insulin
gland”.
- Lack of insulin results in some form of
• Anterior – regulates growth through diabetes, too much causes hypoglycemia or
secretion of growth hormones low blood sugar
- Too little growth hormones produce
dwarfism, too much causes gigantism or
giantism Module No. 3: Life Span Development
• Posterior – regulates water and salt
balance Lesson 1: Growth and Development

2. Thyroid Gland – regulates metabolism Developmental Psychology - is the branch of

through secretion of hormone thyroxin Psychology that studies the patterns of growth
and change that occur throughout life
3. Adrenal Gland - small glands located on
top of each kidney Developmental change is usually divided into
two categories: quantitative and qualitative
• Adrenal cortex (outside part)
- secretes hormones that regulate sugar 2 Categories of Developmental Psychology
and salt Quantitative change - is a change in number or
- balance and help the body resist stress amount, such as in age, height, weight and hair
• Adrenal medulla (inside part) growth
- secretes two hormones that arouse the
body to deal with stress and Qualitative change - is a change in kind,
emergencies: epinephrine (adrenalin) structure, or organization, such as improvement
and norepinephrine (noradrenalin) in speech, attitude and intelligence
Although the terms growth and development are Domains of Human Development
used synonymously, they have different
1. Physical development – growth of body and
meanings biologically
brain and change or stability in sensory
Growth - incremental changes in physical capacities
characteristics such as height, weight, size, etc.
2. Motor development – acquisition of skills
Development - qualitative changes to growth in involving movement such as grasping, crawling,
an orderly and meaningful fashion which results and walking
in maturity
3. Cognitive development – change or stability
Growth and Development contribute to each in mental abilities, such as learning, attention,
other - e.g. most babies, by the time they grow memory, language, thinking, reasoning and
up to be 8 months old, can weigh around 8 to 10 creativity
kilograms and can sit up
4. Psychosocial development – change and
German psychologist Paul Baltes stability in emotion, personality, and social
relationships
- leading expert on lifespan development and
aging, 5. Language development – from crying to
cooing, babbling, syllable-word and word
- developed one of the approaches to studying
formation.
development called the lifespan perspective (LP)
Aspects of language
Life Perspective

LP is based on several key principles:

1. Development occurs across one’s entire life,

or is lifelong
2. Development is multidimensional, meaning it
involves the dynamic interaction of factors like
physical, emotional, and psychosocial
development
3. Development is multidirectional and results
in gains and losses throughout life
4. Development is plastic, meaning that
characteristics are malleable or changeable phonology - creating the sounds of speech
5. Development is influenced by contextual and
syntax – how sentences are put (grammar)
socio-cultural influences
semantics - what words mean
6. Development is multidisciplinary
pragmatics - communicating in social situations
both verbally & non-verbally

Children develop these abilities at different

LP IN SHORT rates
1. Lifelong
2. Multidimensional
3. Multidirectional
4. Plastic
5. Multidisciplinary
6. Contextual
6. Moral development -formation of moral 4. Socioeconomic status – combination of
values economic and social factors describing an
individual or family, including income, education
Influence of Nature and Nurture and occupation
Dati kasi may dalawang branches na nagaaway 5. The Historical Context – pertains to the time
sabihin natin na BRANCH A (nature) & BRANCH B (nurture) in which people grow up
opposite kasi yung ideas nila and lalagi sila nag dedebate e.g. different era/ages
pero eventually huminto rin kasi na realized nila na both
nature and nurture may influence sa isa’t isa
Normative & Non-normative Influences
Story time… * Non-normative - life events are those that
occur unexpectedly, or a typical event that
In the past, debates over the relative
happens at an unusual time of life
contributions of nature versus nurture often
took a very one-sided approach, with one side - may be comprised of both negative and positive
arguing that nature played the most important events, such as death of a beloved person or
role and the other side suggesting that it was winning in a lottery
nurture that was the most significant. - (OUT OF NORM) (rare experiences)
Nature - refers to all of the genes and hereditary * Normative - life events are those that occurs
factors that influence who we are from our in a similar way for most people in a group
physical appearance to our personality
characteristics - (NORM) (experienced by many)

Nurture - refers to all the environmental • Age-graded

variables that impact who we are, both before - influences within the life course that are
and after birth, including our early childhood correlated with chronological age
experiences, how we were raised, our social
- e.g. marriage (25) and retirement (60) are two
relationships, and our surrounding culture
normative age- graded influences
“Both nature and nurture are important”
- These influences are the result of either
Nature – heredity biological or environmental determinants or an
interaction of the two
Nurture – the environment
• History-graded

- influences within the life course that are

Influences on Development
correlated with historical time and are
1. Heredity – the genetic endowment inherited experienced by the majority of a culture
from a person’s biological parents at conception
- e.g. wars and epidemics are considered
2. Environment – totality of nonhereditary, or history-graded events
experiential, influences on development;
includes family and culture - They are normative in that they are
experienced by the majority of the population
3. Maturation – unfolding of a natural sequence
during a given time
of physical and behavioral changes, including
readiness to mater new abilities
Lesson 2: Stages of Human Development Fallopian tube – where ovum/egg cell is release
(flowerlike)

Ovaries – 2 (left & right)

Cyst – removal of ovaries

Sexual Intercourse - to conceive a baby

2 types of procedures that doesn’t require

sexual intercourse
Conception - occurs when an egg from the
- In vitro fertilization
mother is fertilized by a sperm from the father.
- Test tube baby
conception process begins with ovulation

Ovulation - when an ovum, or egg that’s stored From the vagina, sperm enters to go to the
in one of the mother’s two ovaries, matures and fallopian tube.
is released into the fallopian tube.
Ovulation – halfway through menstrual cycle
Ovulation – halfway through menstrual cycle
Hormones
ovum or egg
- play a role in release of egg
- the largest cell in the human body - some helps in fertilizing the egg
- dot size - allows uterus to have thicken lining
- need microscope to view it where the zygote will be attached
- stored in ovaries

Ovulation occurs about halfway through the

1 or 2 days of the egg’s maturation
woman’s menstrual cycle and is aided by the
release of a complex combination of hormones. 500 million sperm may fertilize the egg
It also helps the egg to mature, the hormones Sperm from men’s ejaculation
also cause the lining of the uterus to grow thicker
and more suitable for implantation of a fertilized
egg

Menstruation – sign that a woman is ovulating

Egg cells – ovaries (store)

 Details of the race

Changes in the appearance of the sperm cell

its head becoming pointed so it would be able to

swim into the egg cell to fight the cilia.

4 or 5 days – life span of a sperm

4 days after intercourse - it can still fertilize the

egg

Sperm – some have two heads, two tails, no tail,

short tail (all on the run to meet the egg)

- Sperm’s condition depends on the male health

or lifestyle
Story time…
- Acidity of the vagina can kill the sperm that
1 or 2 days of the egg’s maturation the 500 was released in the vagina
million sperm will fertilize the egg. As the sperm
reach the egg in the fallopian tube, they release Zygote – merge of the sperm and egg
enzymes that attack the outer jellylike Each cell has 46 chromosomes – 23 from the
protective coating of the egg, each trying to be father and 23 from the mother
the first to enter.
Female XX sex cells & Male XY sex cells
As soon as one of the million of sperm enters the
egg’s coating, the gg immediately responds by 23 chromosomes from the male (XY)
both blocking out all other challengers and at the
23 chromosomes from the female (XX)
same time pulling in the single successful sperm.
= 46 chromosomes

23 chromosomes - are called sex chromosomes

X chromosome is bigger than Y

Karyotype - an individual's collection of Monozygotic (identical twins)
chromosomes
- Single fertilized ovum split into two
- Carrier of certain disease were check by
- came from a single zygote
lading all the chromosomes
- always of the same sex
DNA - where it’s located inside the
chromosomes (the genes or traits of a person) - have the same hereditary make-up
DNA - to check the biological parents - similar in physical appearance
What determines sex? - mono (1) = 1 egg is fertilized
- It is the father’s sperm that determines a - difference => environment
child’s sex
- During the fertilization, the sex is already Dizygotic Twins (fraternal twins)
determined

Monozygotic Twins (identical twins)

Egg cell -> X dominant

Sperm cell -> can either be X & Y dominant on

who will fertilize the egg

X dominant -> strong but slow

Prenatal (9 months = 40 weeks)
Y dominant -> weak but fast
Premature less than 36 weeks
What Causes Multiple Births?
- Dangerous to the child
1. Dizygotic twins (fraternal twins) - Undergo intubation
- Mother’s body releases two ova and both are - Imitate the environment of mother’s
fertilized (pills allows fast maturity of the egg) womb
- It is like chick’s heat is needed for the
- they bear no more resemblance to one another growth of the child
than other children of the same parent
Shortest stage of our life unlike other
- maybe of different sexes developmental stages but it is the
critical/sensitive stage we are dependent on our
- Di (two) = two egg are fertilized
mother
- 50% of the genes
Stage 1: Germinal Stage (Zygote) Ectopic Pregnancy - zygote can grow in the
fallopian tube
Zygote (0-2 weeks)
- Surgery or miscarriage will happen
→half of the 23 chromosomes from the egg and
- Dangerous
half of the 23 chromosomes from the sperm fuse
together, creating a zygote a fertilized ovum Uterus –> expandable

→The zygote continues to travel down the Fallopian –> not expandable
fallopian tube to the uterus
Zygote -> Fallopian Tube -> Uterus
→fewer than half of zygotes survive beyond this
Uterus - 4 inches away to the fallopian tube
earliest stage of life
- Two weeks journey
→If the zygote is still viable when it completes
the journey, it will attach itself to the wall of the Zygote viable -> uterus
uterus, but if it is not, it will be flushed out in the
woman’s menstrual flow. not viable -> flushed out in menstrual flow

→During this time, the cells in the zygote Cells in zygote -> 2 ->4 ->8 -> and so on
continue to divide

→Soon the cells begin to differentiate, each

taking on a separate function.

→The earliest differentiation is between the

cells on the inside of the zygote

→inside cells will begin to form the developing Cells in zygote after they multiply and multiply
human being (baby) the cells will differentiate and have other
functions
→outside cells will form the protective
environment that will provide support Inside cells – the baby

Outer cells – protective environment

0-2 weeks of the fertilization Germinal Stage - first stage of prenatal

- 23 + 23 chromosomes merge together Zygote -> Fallopian -> Uterus

- Single cell that multiply to many cells
(cell division)
23 + 23 chromosomes = zygote (fertilized ovum)

Fallopian tube – where the egg and sperm meet

and where fertilization of the egg.

The Merge Egg & Sperm – will travel for 2 weeks

in the uterus
Stage 2: Embryonic Stage 1.) Amniotic Sac
- Fluid filled reservoir which the embryo
Zygote -> Embryo (week 2- week 8= 2nd month)
will live until birth
→zygote attaches to the wall of the uterus, it is - acts as both a cushion against outside
known as the embryo pressure and as a temperature regulator

→During the embryonic stage, which lasts from 2.) Placenta

week 2 through week 8, the major internal and - allows the exchange of nutrients
external between the embryo and the mother
→organs are formed, each beginning at the - Filter harmful materials
microscopic level, with only a few cells - Exchange in nutrients

→the changes in the embryo’s appearance will 3.) Umbilical cord

continue rapidly from this point until birth - links the embryo directly to the placenta
→the inner layer of embryonic cells is busy and transfers all material to the fetus
forming the embryo itself - placenta and the umbilical cord protect
the fetus
→outer layer is forming the surrounding
protective environment that will help the
embryo survive the pregnancy Stage 3: Fetal Stage

Week 8 -> birth

Major internal & external - are beginning to →the developing individual enters the fetal
form but at microscopic level (few cells)-> heart, stage and is called a fetus
brain, spinal cord. →fetus begins to take on many of the
- even ultrasounds were made characteristics of a human being, including
moving, sleeping, as well as early forms of
- critical stage swallowing and breathing
Inner layer -> embryo →fetus begins to develop its senses, becoming
able to distinguish tastes and respond to sounds.
Outer layer -> (environment)
→fetus even develops some initial preferences

→A newborn prefers the mother’s voice than a

stranger, the languages heard in the womb over
other languages, and even the kinds of foods
that the mother ate during the pregnancy

→By the end of the 3rd month of pregnancy, the

sexual organs are visible

→Within the womb, the fetus continues to

develop before birth
→The fetus reaches the age of variability, the Premature -> incubator
point at which it can survive if born prematurely,
- imitates women’s body
at about 22 weeks
- lacks features such as sucking so they
→By week 24, a fetus has many of the cannot breastfeed
characteristics it will display as a new born - hairy since it is not fully developed
- weak lungs and heart
→Before birth, a fetus passes through several
- mental capacity is also affected
sensitive periods (also referred to as critical
periods). PH -> preterm births -> less usually they die

→Critical periods, which may occur before or USA -> preterm births -> mostly survive
after birth, are important because they indicate USA -> Advanced in terms of health care
the time that organisms are particularly
susceptible to damage that may affect them for Critical Period
the rest of their lives
- sensitive periods
- indicate the time they are susceptible to
danger
Fetus – 2nd month – 9 months
Brain critical period – starts at embryonic stage
- last stage and longest
- characteristics of human beings are
being formed/adopted (even features) Genetic Influences on the Fetus
- develop sense (taste & respond to
sound) - Some children are less fortunate to born with
serious birth defects (2 to 5 percent of cases)
Fetus – initial preferences
- A major cause of such defects is faulty genes or
chromosomes
3rd month of pregnancy
- abnormalities that may happen at prenatal
- fetus is able to curl and open its fingers, stage onwards
form fists, and wiggle its toes
Recessive traits -> manifest on the babies
- sexual organs are visible
Common Genetic & Chromosomal Difficulties

Womb – fetus grow inside Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Age of variability – age of a baby’s survival - unable to produce an enzyme that is required
for normal development
- 22 weeks (6 months or less)
- 21 weeks less and they wouldn’t survive - deficiency results in an accumulation of
poisons that eventually cause profound
Week 24 -> many characteristics will manifest
intellectual disabilities or mentally retarded

- If the disease is caught early, children are

placed on a special diet that allows them to
develop normally
Newborn Screening Taysachs affected people that has a problem in
the mutation of chromosomes
- all babies undergo this screening
- drawing blood to test for disorders like Nowadays, genetic screening is made to the
phenylketonuria Jews to know if they will have a baby or not
• if detected -> diet will be given
Irish child was diagnosed with Taysach.
• requires frequent blood testing

Phenylalanine (PHE) – in most food we eat like

rice, pasta, others were not breakdown Infantile Tay-sachs
phenylalanine
- dangerous because they will die after 3 to 4
→Food rich in Phenylalanine years

→Phenylalanine hydroxylase - unlike, adult (late manifested) who can do

something to solve it
→Tyrosine
- disease which becomes apparent around three
→ Neurotransmitters
to six months of age with the baby losing the
→High levels of Tyrosine ability to turn over, sit, or crawl

→mental retardation - this is then followed by seizures, hearing loss,

and inability to move, with death usually
occurring by the age of four.
Neurotransmitters → equal/balance - less commonly, the disease may occur in later
Causes: retardation, skin rashes, convulsions, childhood or adulthood (juvenile or late-onset)
musty body odor
- these forms tend to be less severe, but the
Tay-Sachs disease juvenile form typically results in death by age 15

- named after Warren Tay (ophthalmologist who

described cherry red spot on the retina which is If both parents are carrier, it might be passed down
a sign of Taysachs)
Recessive Gene combined will lead to Dominant trait
- a disorder most often found in Jews of Eastern to their children
European ancestry
Down Syndrome
- children born with this condition usually die by
age 3 or 4 - occurs when the zygote receives an extra
chromosome on the 21st pair at the moment of
- degeneration on the brain capacity starts in a
conception
young age
- Chromosomal problem (too much) instead of
- body’s inability to break down fat
having 2 chromosomes, people who have down
- learn a skill but soon disappear syndrome have 3 (3 = tri)

- hereditary - its occurrence is often related to the mother’s

age
- age over 35 & younger than 18 stand a higher - Lymphadenopathy of an inflammatory
risk (risk is higher at age 35 ↑and 18 ↓) type (the most common type) is
lymphadenitis, producing swollen or
- added 1 chromosome to the 42
enlarged lymph nodes.
- has to do with mother’s egg - a virus that spread through cough &
sneeze
- diagnosed even before birth

Prevent: Vaccination -> antibodies

Chromosomal Abnormality Scan (CAS) Chicken Pox -> vaccine
- 1 to 2 hours -> body of the mother is Vaccines - not 100% Immune but it will lessen
being scanned the effect of the viruses and bacteria
Prenatal Environmental Influences - it is dangerous → people who are
- Anything that could harm us will pregnant are affected and it leads to
manifest in our bodies miscarriage

Teratogens Syphilis -> STD - parents who have it

- Environmental agents such as a drug, Mother’s → Deformities (Physical)

chemical, virus, or other factor that - intellectual disabilities, physical deformities,
produce a birth defect maternal miscarriage
- Any negative thing that could affect
baby’s development Addictive drugs

Rubella (German Measles) - low birth weight, addiction of infant to drug,

with possible death after birth from withdrawal
- Pregnant mothers should avoid or be
wary because it causes blindless, Nicotine
deafness, heart abnormalities, stillbirth
- premature birth, low birth weight and length
- RNA virus in Togaviridae family of the
genus Rubivirus Alcohol
- Spreads when infected person coughs or
- anti depressant
sneezes
- Humans are only known reservoir of the - contains certain drugs
virus
- children are most prone - Intellectual disabilities, lower than average
- transmitted through air birth weight, small head, limb deformities
- caused by virus Radiation from X rays

- bad for pregnant ladies and can cause cancer

Lymphadenopathy - lymph nodes - every hospital has a warning sign
- a disease of the lymph nodes, in which - radiation -> destroy the parts of the body
they are abnormal in size or consistency
Inadequate diet Teratogens are most to manifest in some stage

- from the mother Embryonic Stage – the most critical in the stage

- not eating the right kind of food - a critical period of development

- pregnant woman feed herself & the baby - Genetic defects or harmful environmental
exposures during this stage are likely to have
- reduction in growth of brain, smaller than
devastating effects
average weight and length at birth
- Several extraembryonic structures form at the
Every product in the PH have MSG
same time as the embryo, helping the embryo to
grow and develop.

Mother’s Age - younger than 18 or older than 35 Cleft Palate/Lip

- increases chance of down syndrome and
- Cannot produce proper sounds
prematurity
- 7th week to 10th week (experience teratogens)
- example of prematurity anencephaly – born
without skull - Cleft lip and cleft palate are thought to be
caused by a combination of genes and other
Mother’s Age – older than 35 at birth of child
factors, such as things the mother comes in
- increased incidence of Down syndrome contact with in her environment, or what the
mother eats or drinks, or certain medications she
AIDS uses during pregnancy
- most Folic Acid taken in a form of a vitamin
- sexual transmitted disease - If a woman has enough folic acid in her body
- acquired from the parents before she is pregnant, it can help prevent major
birth defects of her baby's brain and spine.
- lifetime treatment
- (3rd month) -> stop because the
- possible spread of AIDS virus to infant, facial development is done
deformities, growth failure

Accutane Calcium – later part of the pregnancy

- use to treat acne/pimple - If you don't get enough calcium in your diet,
- low form can be seen in facial products your body will take what your baby needs

- important not to put anything in the face Vitamins related to the formation of the babies

- Intellectual disabilities & physical deformities All nutrients are important, but these six plays a
key role in your baby's growth and development
Teratogen - any agent that causes an during pregnancy:
abnormality following fetal exposure during
pregnancy Folic acid. Iron. Calcium. Vitamin D. DHA.
Iodine.
- usually discovered after an increased
prevalence of a particular birth defect.
TERATOGENS AND THE TIMING OF THEIR EFFECTS ON PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT. The danger of structural defects caused by
teratogens is greatest early in embryonic development. The period of
organogenesis (red color) lasts for about six weeks. Later assaults by
teratogens (blue-green color) mainly occur in the fetal period and
instead of causing structural damage are more likely to stunt growth
or cause
 Stage 2: Infancy and Toddlerhood - caregiver transforms their roles

→The first year and a half to two years of life - Infants must be fed during 2 hours
are ones of dramatic growth and change - Same scheduled as the baby
- If the baby is sleeping then the mother
→ A newborn, with many involuntary reflexes
should too (you should have the same
and a keen sense of hearing but poor vision, is
body clock of the baby) kung puyat yung
transformed into a walking, talking toddler
baby then samahan mo, damay damay
within a relatively short period of time
lang
→ Caregivers similarly transform their roles
- Brain, physical and language development
from those who manage feeding and sleep
schedules to constantly moving guides and Temperament - usually has individual
safety inspectors for mobile, energetic children differences from one person to the other

→ Brain development happens at a remarkable Temperaments are evident during infancy and
rate, as does physical growth and language toddlerhood
development
- You can see the temperament of a baby while
→ Infants have their own temperaments and playing
approaches to play. Interactions with primary
➢ Infants have playing approaches
caregivers (and others) undergo changes
➢ Interactions w/ primary caregivers
influenced by possible separation anxiety and
➔ Undergo changes influenced by
the development of attachment styles
possible separation anxiety and the
→ Social and cultural issues center around development of attachment styles
breastfeeding or formula-feeding, sleeping in
Cognition/Cognitive Development
cribs or in the bed with parents, toilet training,
and whether or not to get vaccinations - strange anxiety -> a sign of cognitive dev’t

Social Aspect:
0 to 1 years old = Infancy - Cultural & social issues: vaccination,
breastfeeding formula, sleeping in cribs, bed
1 to 3 years old = Toddlerhood
with parents, toilet training
- The day we are born
➔ Social relationships are centered to
- Dramatic growth and change the infant’s family because mostly it
is limited
- Brain development (dramatic)
➔ Toilet training must be done in just a
- Be complex with their functions
short period of time
- involuntary reflexes are transformed
into a walking and talking
Sigmund Freud – crucial for personality
Reflexes → asses at birth and signs of normality

→ sign that we respond to stimulus

→ e.g. response to light is the reflex

a that did not vanish

→ some reflexes were suppressed

→infant reflexes → walking, crawling & etc

Infancy Early Childhood

- defined as the first year of life and is the period - Pre-school year
of most rapid growth after birth
- 3 to 6 years old
Toddler
- Busy learning language, gaining sense of self
- Toilet training and greater

- 12 to 36 months old - Determination to do something

- Usually at 2 years old - Conscience is formed

➔ Do not only come with age
- a time of great cognitive, emotional and social
- No sense of gender
development
➔ Playmates
- the word is derived from "to toddle", which - Independence
means to walk unsteadily, like a child of this age ➔ Play alone

- If the child is female, the mother must expose Infantile Amnesia

her how to do the personal necessities (pee, poo,
- the inability of adults to retrieve episodic
etc.)
memories before the age of 2 to 4 years
* Time when we receive numerous vaccinations
- IN SHORT, we can’t remember things that
happened in our early childhood

Stage 3: Early Childhood

→ also referred to as the preschool years, Stage 4: Middle Childhood

consisting of the years that follow toddlerhood
→ages of 6-11 comprise middle childhood and
and precede formal schooling, roughly from
much of what children experience at this age is
around ages 2 to 5 or 6
connected to their involvement in the early
→ As a preschooler, the child is busy learning grades of school
language (with amazing growth in vocabulary),
→the world becomes one of learning and
is gaining a sense of self and greater
testing new academic skills and assessing one’s
independence, and is beginning to learn the
abilities and accomplishments by making
workings of the physical world
comparisons between self and others
→ This knowledge does not come quickly,
→Schools participate in this process by
however, and preschoolers may initially have
comparing students and making these
interesting conceptions of size, time, space and
comparisons public through team sports, test
distance, such as demonstrating how long
scores, and other forms of recognition
something will take by holding out their two
index fingers several inches apart. →brain reaches its adult size around age seven,
but it continues to develop
→ A toddler’s fierce determination to do
something may give way to a four-year-old’s →Growth rates slow down and children are able
sense of guilt for doing something that brings to refine their motor skills at this point in life
the disapproval of others
→Children also begin to learn about social →time of cognitive change as the adolescent
relationships beyond the family through begins to think of new possibilities and to
interaction with friends and fellow students; consider abstract concepts such as love, fear,
same-sex friendships are particularly salient and freedom
during this period
→adolescents have a sense of invincibility that
Middle Childhood puts them at greater risk of dying from
accidents or contracting sexually transmitted
- 6 to 11 years old
infections that can have lifelong consequences
- Social construction
→Research on brain development helps us
- Characteristics are similar understand teen risk-taking and impulsive
behavior
- Experience is connected to their involvement in
the early grades of school →A major developmental task during
adolescence involves establishing one’s own
➔ School, gaining friends and learning identity
new things
→Teens typically struggle to become more
- 7 years old, adult size but develops independent from their parents
continuously
→ Peers become more important, as teens
- growth rate slows down strive for a sense of belonging and acceptance;
- GROWTH GAP mixed-sex peer groups become more common
➔ Not growing (Hindi tumatangkad) →New roles and responsibilities are explored,
- motor skills are developed which may involve dating, driving, taking on a
part-time job, and planning for future academics
Social Aspect:

- social relationship beyond through family

interaction with friends and fellow students Adolescence

- same sex friendships - 12 to 20 years old

- not the cutest - period of dramatic physical change marked by

an overall physical growth spurt and sexual
- body becomes define maturation -> puberty
* same face until you grow as an adult - establishment of identity is connected to our
* mostly you meet your first best friend in school course

Stage 5: Adolescence -> parents are not influential out more of peers

→period of dramatic physical change marked -> mixture of boys & girls
by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual - new roles and responsibilities are explored
maturation, known as puberty; timing may vary
by gender, cohort, and culture
Menarche – first girls’ menstruation Young Adulthood

Spermache – first ejaculation - 20 to 40 years old

- timing may vary by gender, cohort, and culture - physiological peak -> strongest state of the
body
- cognitive change
➔ But involvement in violent crimes
➔ Abstract concepts
and substance abuse
- love, fear, freedom
- prime of a person’s life
Sense of Invincibility - greater risks of dying from
accidents or contacting STD - all good things may occur

Personal Fable - Sense of Invincibility ➔ Marriage, graduation, and etc.

➔ They feel invulnerable - love and work are primary concerns

- taking longer to grow up

Stage 6: Young Adulthood
- longer to go out of parent’s house
→It is a time when we are at our physiological
- formal education, work/careers, get married
peak but are most at risk for involvement in
and have children
violent crimes and substance abuse

→time of focusing on the future and putting a

lot of energy into making choices that will help Jeffrey Arnett – new stage
one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of
others From 18 to 25 years old

→ Love and work are the primary concerns at ➔ It is called Emergence Adulthood or
this stage of life Emerging Adulthood
- exploration of identity and
→In recent decades, it has been noted that responsibilities are being taken
young adults are taking longer to “grow up.”
They are waiting longer to move out of their - Cohort, culture, time in history, economy, and
parents’ homes, finish their formal education, socio-economic status may be key factors
take on work/careers, get married, and have ➔ Youth takes on adult roles
children

→One psychologist, Jeffrey Arnett, has Stage 7: Middle Adulthood

proposed that there is a new stage of
development after adolescence and before →a period in which physiological aging that
early adulthood, called “emerging adulthood,” began earlier becomes more noticeable and a
from 18 to 25 (or even 29) when individuals are period at which many people are at their peak
still exploring their identities and don’t quite feel of productivity in love and work
like adults yet. →a period of gaining expertise in certain fields
→Cohort, culture, time in history, the economy, and being able to understand problems and find
and socioeconomic status may be key factors in solutions with greater efficiency than before
when youth take on adult roles
→time of becoming more realistic about activities; the oldest old are often frail and in
possibilities in life; of recognizing the difference need of long-term care
between what is possible and what is likely
→However, many factors are involved and a
→Referred to as the sandwich generation, better way to appreciate the diversity of older
middle-aged adults maybe in the middle of adults is to go beyond chronological age and
taking care of their children and also taking care examine whether a person is experiencing
of their aging parents optimal aging

→While caring about others and the future, →(those who are in very good health for their
middle- aged adults may also be questioning age and continues to have an active, stimulating
their own mortality, goals, and commitments, life), normal aging (in which the changes are
though not necessarily experiencing a “mid-life similar to most of those of the same age), or
crisis.” impaired aging (referring to someone who has
more physical challenge and disease than others
of the same age)
Middle Adulthood
→Generally, late adulthood is characterized by
- 40 to 65 years old search for legacy, life’s meaning, importance of
the family, coping with losses and impeding
- expertise in fields death becomes an issue
- many people are in their peak of productivity

- physiological aging that began earlier and Late Adulthood

becomes more noticeable
- 65 and above years old
- more realistic and recognize difference
between what is possible and what is likely - loss of cognitive aspect

“Sandwich Generation” – taking care both of Young old - 65 to 74 years old

their parents and their own children
Old old - 75 to 84 years old
- questioning mortality, goals and commitments
Oldest old - 85 and above years old
➔ Not mid-life crisis
Japan – most of them have a long life
Stage 8: Late Adulthood

→covers a wide age range with a lot of

Filipinos – old old (77 years old)
variation, so it is helpful to divide it into
categories such as the “young old” (65-74 years ➔ Due to common illness
old), “old old” (75-84 years old), and “oldest old”
Oldest old – dementia (common)
(85+ years old)

→The young old are similar to middle-aged

adults; possibly still working, married, relatively
healthy, and active. The old old have some
health problems and challenges with daily living
 Kinds of Aging

1.) Optimal Aging – good health and have an

active and stimulating life

2.) Normal Aging – changes are similar to most

of those of same ages

3.) Impaired Aging – physical challenge &

disease than others of the same age

- Characterized by search for legacy, meaning,

importance of family, losses cope up, impending
death becomes an issue

- more wisdom than any stage of life

 Module No. 5: Perception b.) Top-down processing

Seeing something is not the same thing as - people have stored information
making sense of what you see.
- something to do with memory
It is through perception that we are able to
- Memory -> from the brain
interpret and understand some things around us.
- Memory Top -> Reaction Down
sensory receptors are constantly collecting
information from the environment, it is - how we interpret those sensations is influenced
ultimately how we interpret that information by our available knowledge, our experiences,
that affects how we interact with the world. and our thoughts.

Perception

- mostly at work for the vision

- it also works on other senses

- enable is to interpret thing

- involves both bottom-up and top-down

processing.

➔ Allow us to label, locate, address it

- refers to the way sensory information is

organized, interpreted, and consciously
experienced.

➔ To not overwhelmed the brain

The moment you see an object then you react,
sensory will go to the brain then you will name
Perception two processing the object (BOTTOM-UP)

a.) Bottom-up processing The moment we remember someone because

talks about the brain of an object (TOP-DOWN)

Down going up
perception is psychological
Talks about senses

e.g. upon walking into a kitchen and smelling the

- refers to the fact that perceptions are built scent of baking cinnamon rolls, the sensation is
from sensory input. the scent receptors detecting the odor of
cinnamon, but the perception may be “Mmm,
- outside to the brain
this smells like the bread Grandma used to bake
e.g. someone pinches you when the family gathered for holidays.”
Sensory adaptation brain creates a perception that is more than
simply the sum of available sensory inputs, and
- perceptions are built from sensations, not all
it does so in predictable ways.
sensations result in perception.
Gestalt psychologists translated these
predictable ways into principles by which we
Gestalt Principles of Perception organize sensory information.

Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt As a result, Gestalt psychology has been
Koffka (early part of the 20th century) extremely influential in the area of sensation
and perception
- thought that perception involved more than
simply combining sensory stimuli.

- This belief led to a new movement within the Gestalt principles

field of psychology known as Gestalt
psychology.

Gestalt - literally means form or pattern

- one of the schools in PSYCHOLOGY

A. Figure-ground relationship
- its use reflects the idea that the whole is
- According to this principle, we tend to segment
different from the sum of its parts.
our visual world into figure and ground
- Proposed by Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler
- cannot see two things at the same time
and Kurt
➔ One has to emerge as a background or
- When we see things, we look at it as a whole
figure to have a concentrated object
➔ 1+2=3 -> 3 is more important
Visual Field – what a person can see (The figure)
➔ Broken VS Vase -> it’s more important
➔ WHOLE > SUM OF ITS PART Figure - the object or person that is the focus of
the visual field
FRAGMENTED PARTS ARE SEEN AS WHOLE
Ground - we cannot see unless we tilt our head
the background
Kung mahal mo yung tao hindi mo titignan sum
e.g. Vase – figure 2 faces – background
of its parts niya titignan mo siya as a whole
B. Proximity D. Continuity

- This principle asserts that things that are close - This law suggests that we are more likely to
to one another tend to be grouped together perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines
rather than jagged, broken lines
- Brain simplifies what we see to interpret what
it sees - we look at is as continuous

- close items are perceived to be grouped - they seem smooth flowing

➔ WHOLE > PARTS (We are more likely to perceive this as two
overlapping lines, rather than four lines meeting in
(The Gestalt principle of proximity suggests that the center.)
you see (a) one block of dots on the left side and (b)
three columns on the right side.)

E. Closure

- states that we organize our perceptions into

complete objects rather than as a series of parts

C. Similarity
- we see it as a whole

- according to this principle, things that are - interpret the object as a whole
alike tend to be grouped together. (We tend to perceive a complete circle and rectangle
rather than a series of segments.)
- group based on their similarities

e.g. when watching a football game, we tend to

group individuals based on the colors of their
uniforms.

e.g. when watching an offensive drive, we can

get a sense of the two teams simply by grouping
along this dimension
(When looking at this array of dots, we likely F. Pragnanz
perceive alternating rows of colors. We are grouping
these dots according to the principle of similarity.) - simplify everything that comes to our senses
 F. Pragnanz

- pragnanz is a German term meaning "good Binocular Cues - (3D)

figure."
- which means that they rely on the use of both
- referred to as the law of good figure or the eyes (required two eyes/both eyes)
law of simplicity (simple)
- enable us a sense of depth perception, or
e.g. Olympic rings stereopsis.

➔ Interpret it as it is - One example of a binocular depth cue is

binocular disparity
Olympic Rings -> are not circles

Because overlapping occurs

FLASHCARD
Binocular Disparity
LINKS THAT MIGHT HELP
REVIEWERS
QUIZZES - the slightly different view of the world that
https://quizlet.co
m/127263818/ch
pt-8-gestalt-
each of our eyes receives.
https://quizizz.com/join/quiz/5d3553f88754ac001ac54a0d/start
theory-flash-
cards/
https://quizizz.com/join/quiz/5c7fcb51bdb43c001ae85bbb/start?from=admin - refers to the difference in image location of an
https://quizlet.co
m/120703874/ge https://quizizz.com/join/quiz/5e93f2ac91754f001b5cf3a9/start?from=admin object seen by the left and right eyes, resulting
stalt-theory-flash-
cards/ from the eyes' horizontal separation (parallax).
ANSWERS OF THE QUIZZES

https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5e93f2ac91754f001b5cf3a9/gestalt-principles To experience this

https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5c7fcb51bdb43c001ae85bbb/gestalt
1. Slightly different view, do this simple exercise:
https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5d3553f88754ac001ac54a0d/gestalt-principles- extend your arm fully and extend one of your
of-perception
fingers and focus on that finger.

2. Now, close your left eye without moving your

Depth Perception head, then open your left eye and close your
right eye without moving your head.
Depth Perception
3. You will notice that your finger seems to shift
- Our ability to perceive spatial relationships in as you alternate between the two eyes because
three-dimensional (3-D) space of the slightly different view each eye has of your
- With depth perception, we can describe things finger
as being in front, behind, above, below, or to the
side of other things.
Monocular Cues/Cues - (2D)
➔ Our world is three-dimensional
- so, it makes sense that our mental - require only one eye
representation of the world has three
- Photograph/Paintings
dimensional properties.
- refer to the ways that each of your eyes takes
- We use a variety of cues in a visual scene to
in visual information that's used to judge
establish our sense of depth.
- we have more monocular cues than binocular
Depth = how far away cues
an object is Interpretation of Depth
Perception -> interpret

= 3D Perception
 Example of Monocular Cues

D. Texture gradient
A. Relative size
- refers to the tendency of a textured surface to
- occurs when nearby or closer objects appear
appear more closely packed together in the
bigger in size and the objects that are farther
distance
look smaller in size, yet they may be of the same
size actually

- nearby objects appear bigger than far ones

- But they are in the same size

- Distance can affect the object size

E. Motion parallax

- a sort of moving equivalent of texture

gradient; objects close to us appear to rush by
quite fast while objects at greater distances
appear to be moving more slowly
B. Occlusion or overlap
- close -> fast
- the partial overlap of one visual object by
another; the overlapping object is seen as nearer - distant -> slow
than the object partially covered

- object on the front tends to become bigger Perceptual Constancy

Perceptual constancy

- differ in sensation, but perception is the same

- a phenomenon in which physical objects are

perceived as unvarying and consistent despite
changes in their appearance or in the physical
environment
C. Linear perspective - Perceptual constancies include
- parallel lines converge in an image ➔ size constancy
- refers to the fact that we perceive depth when ➔ color constancy
we see two parallel lines that seem to converge ➔ brightness constancy
in an image ➔ shape constancy
 The 4 Perceptual Constancies

D. Shape Constancy
A. Size Constancy - same shape even if it rotates or changed in its
- refers to our tendency to perceive the object as appearance
being the same size even though there are - refers to our tendency to perceive objects as
changes perceived by the retina due to distance the same shape although retinal images have
- As we go farther from the object, it becomes changed as the object rotates
smaller in our eyes but at the same time
recognize that it does not reduce in size.
Visual (or Optical) Illusions
- size is still the same although it looks small
Optical Illusions

- uses color, light and patterns to create images

that can be deceptive or misleading to our
brains.

- occurs because our brain is trying to interpret

what we see and make sense of the world
around us.

B. Color Constancy - simply trick our brains into seeing things which
may or may not be real.
- refers to our tendency to perceive objects as
retaining their color even though lightning - the information gathered by the eye is
condition have altered their appearance processed by the brain, creating a perception
that in reality, does not match the true image.
- colors retain even light condition was altered
e.g.

C. Brightness Constancy

- refers to our tendency to perceive objects as

just as bright even though the intensity of
lightning conditions has been changed

- shadowing
 Module No. 6: Consciousness and Its Altered Altered State of Consciousness
State
- person is not unconscious
Consciousness
- a temporary change in one's normal mental
- awareness of things and surroundings state without being considered unconscious.

- our awareness of internal and external stimuli - can be created intentionally, or they can
happen by accident or due to illness
- Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling
might also experience unconscious states of
- Pain
being via drug-induced anesthesia for medical
- Hunger
purposes. Often, we are not completely aware of
- Thirst
our surroundings, even when we are fully awake
- Sleepiness
- being aware of our thoughts and Sleep
emotions
Circadian Rhythm
- Awareness of external stimuli includes
- pattern where and when feel sleepy
- seeing the light from the sun
- a biological rhythm that takes place over a
- feeling the warmth of a room
period of about 24 hours
- hearing the voice of a friend
- Sleepiness -> Night
We experience different states of consciousness - Wakefulness -> Day
and different levels of awareness on a regular
basis. e.g. Our sleep-wake cycle, which is linked to our
environment’s natural light-dark cycle (most
We might even describe consciousness as a obvious example)
continuum that ranges from full awareness to a
deep sleep. - for most people, our circadian cycles are
aligned with the outside world.

e.g. most people sleep during the night and are

Sleep - a state marked by relatively low levels of awake during the day.
physical activity and reduced sensory
awareness that is distinct from periods of rest Ancient (Cave Man)
that occur during wakefulness. - Sun -> day where they work
- low blood pressure -> low temperature - Moon/Dark –> go inside the cave to rest

Wakefulness - is characterized by high levels of Humans sleep at night time

sensory awareness, thought, and behavior.
Not easy to stay awake at night
In between these extremes are states of
consciousness related to

- daydreaming,
- intoxication (alcohol or drug use)
- meditative states
- hypnotic states
- altered states of consciousness
- sleep deprivation
Certain part

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
e.g. Philippines and USA
triggers sleep and is damage when the
circadian Rhythm is disturbed e.g. Hong Kong and Philippines (an exception!!)
- The clock sets itself with light information received - Not experiencing jet lag when the
through projections from the retina. country has the same time
- serves as the brain’s clock mechanism. - Jet lag symptoms include
Our bodies repair itself during night time - Fatigue
- Sluggishness
Melatonin - One important regulator of sleep- - Irritability
wake cycles - Insomnia
- melatonin release is stimulated by darkness
and inhibited by light Rotating shift work - refers to a work schedule
Some people easily fall asleep in the dark that changes from early to late on a daily or
weekly basis

- Individuals who do rotating shift work are also

Pineal gland – releases melatonin likely to experience disruptions in circadian
- an endocrine structure located inside the brain cycles.
that releases melatonin e.g. Call Centers
- is thought to be involved in the regulation of
various biological rhythms and of the immune
system during sleep

Jet lag – when the country is different from your

day time

- situations in which a person’s circadian clock

gets out of synchrony with the external
environment

- a collection of symptoms that results from the

This figure illustrates some of the negative consequences of sleep
mismatch between our internal circadian cycles deprivation. While cognitive deficits may be the most obvious, many body
and our environment systems are negatively impacted by lack of sleep
 Sleep debt Why do we sleep?

- people who spend 1/3 of life sleeping Adaptive Function of Sleep

- When people have difficulty getting sleep due - night time rest time!! risky so our
to their work or the demands of day-to-day life ancestors are sleeping at night thus we
have the same pattern as them
- A person with a sleep debt does not get
(ADAPT!!)
sufficient sleep on a chronic basis.
Evolutionary Psychology argue that:
Children – more sleeping time
sleep is essential to restore resources that are
Infants 18 hours of sleep
expended during the day
important because their brain and body are still
developing e.g. Just as bears hibernate in the winter when
resources are scarce, perhaps people sleep at
night to reduce their energy expenditures.
Adults, Adolescents and etc.
sleep patterns evolved as an adaptive response
when experience it cannot be replaced
to predatory risks, which increase in darkness,
Days which a person lack sleep thus, we sleep in safe areas to reduce the chance
of harm

- consequences of sleep debt include

- decreased levels of alertness Cognitive Function of Sleep

- decreased mental efficiency - We need sleep
- associated with - To maintain focus (MIND!!)

- obesity Sleep deprivation results in disruptions in

- increased blood pressure, cognition and memory deficits, leading to
- increased levels of stress hormones impairments in our abilities to maintain
- reduced immune functioning attention, make decisions, and recall long-term
memories.

To pave the way for better sleep, follow these simple Moreover, these impairments become more
yet effective healthy sleep tips, including: severe as the amount of sleep deprivation
increases
- Stick to a sleep schedule, even on
weekends.
- Practice a relaxing bedtime ritual.
Stages of Sleep
- Exercise daily.
- Evaluate your bedroom to ensure ideal Sleep can be divided into two different general
temperature, sound and light. phases:
- Sleep on a comfortable mattress and
- REM sleep
pillows.
- non-REM (NREM) sleep
- Beware of hidden sleep stealers, like
alcohol and caffeine.
- Turn off electronics before bed.
A. Non-REM (NREM) sleep ▪ Stage 4 – (similar to stage 3)

- is subdivided into four stages distinguished - delta waves occur

from each other and from wakefulness by
- person is hard to wake
characteristic patterns of brain waves.
- blood pressure, respiration rate and body
- The first four stages of sleep
temperature drops

Stage 3 and stage 4 - deep sleep or slow-wave

sleep because these stages are characterized by
low frequency (up to 4 Hz), high amplitude delta
waves.

B. Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

▪ Stage 1 – where alpha and theta waves occur
- paradoxical sleep (term for REM sleep)
EEG->electroencephalogram-> closing both eyes
- period of sleep in which dreaming occurs
- slowing of the heart rate
- muscle relaxation - no movement of voluntary muscles occurs
- easy to wake up
- is characterized by darting movements of the
▪ Stage 2 – theta wave and sleep spindles occur eyes under closed eyelids.

- Theta waves still dominate the activity of the - brain waves during REM sleep appear very
brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of similar to brain waves during wakefulness.
activity known as sleep spindles
- paralysis of muscle systems in the body with
- the body goes into a state of deep relaxation the exception of those that make circulation
and respiration possible.
- the person cannot be easily awakened at this
stage - often referred to as paradoxical sleep because
of this combination of high brain activity and
▪ Stage 3 – delta waves occur
lack of muscle tone
- person is hard to wake

- low temperature when asleep

Sleep Problems and Disorders
- blood pressure, respiration rate and body
Many people experience disturbances in their
temperature drops
sleep at some point in their lives.
 Sleep Problems/Conditions and Disorders ▪ REM behavior disorder – occurs when the
muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep
▪ Snoring – occurs when air passage is blocked
phase does not occur.
by the tongue.
- Individuals who suffer from this disorder have
▪ Narcolepsy – the person cannot resist falling
high levels of physical activity during REM
asleep at inopportune times.
sleep, especially during disturbing dreams.
- These sleep episodes are often associated with
- People who suffer from this disorder can
cataplexy, which is a lack of muscle tone or
injure themselves or their sleeping partners
muscle weakness, and in some cases involves
when engaging in these behaviors.
complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles.
- Furthermore, these types of behaviors
- Narcoleptic episodes are often triggered by
ultimately disrupt sleep, although affected
states of heightened arousal or stress.
individuals have no memories that these
- The typical episode can last from a minute or behaviors have occurred
two to half an hour.

▪ Sleep talking – also called somniloquy

▪ Night terrors – are experience of intense
▪ Sleep walking – also called somnambulism anxiety from which a person awakens
screaming in terror.
- the sleeper engages in relatively complex
behaviors ranging from wandering about to - These mostly occur in NREM and are common
driving an automobile. in children.

- During periods of sleepwalking, sleepers often - Although individuals suffering from night
have their eyes open, but they are not terrors appear to be awake, they generally have
responsive to attempts to communicate with no memories of the events that occurred, and
them. attempts to console them are ineffective.

▪ Apnea – breathing difficulty and cessation of - Typically, individuals suffering from night
breathing while asleep. terrors will fall back asleep again within a
short time.
▪ Insomnia – a consistent difficulty in falling
or/and staying asleep.

▪ Hypersomnia – a condition of excessive ▪ Restless leg syndrome – A person with restless

amount of sleep. leg syndrome has uncomfortable sensations in
the legs during periods of inactivity or when
▪ Bruxism – teeth grinding during sleep. trying to fall asleep.
▪ Periodic Limb Movement Disorder – a This discomfort is relieved by deliberately
repeated involuntary movement of the legs moving the legs, which, not surprisingly,
and sometimes arms; occasional involuntary contributes to difficulty in falling or staying
kick, especially when starting to fall asleep; they asleep.
occur every 20 to 30 seconds for minutes or
hours.
▪ Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) – an A. Unconscious Wish Fulfillment Theory
infant stop breathing during sleep and dies.
Sigmund Freud (1900) - viewed dreams as a
Infants younger than 12 months appear to be at guide to the unconscious.
the highest risk for SIDS, and boys have a
- he proposed that dreams represent
greater risk than girls.
unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see
A number of risk factors have been associated fulfilled.
with SIDS including
* Latent Content of Dreams - refers to the
- hyperthermia symbolic meaning of a dream that lies behind
- premature birth the literal content of the dream.
- smoking within the home
- actual wishes are disguised

- The hidden meaning of dreams played an

Dreams
important role in Sigmund Freud's
Dreaming psychoanalytic theory

- images based of memories

- average person experiences 150,000 dreams * Manifest Content of Dreams - true subject
by the age of 70. and meaning of a dream, then, may have little
to do with its apparent story line
- an altered state of consciousness in which
picture stories are constructed based on - the actual literal subject matter of the dream
memories and current concerns, or on fantasies
and images LATENT CONTENT – real meanings (symbols & signs)
typically encompass everyday events such as MANIFEST CONTENT – what they are exactly (literally)
- going to the supermarket
- working at the office
- preparing a meal Sexual Aspect/Fantasy

Interpretation
WHY DO WE DREAM? Tall, Long – represents male sex organ
• To fulfill the desire Cave, Door – represents female sex organ

Scientists have considered for many years, and

they have developed three alternative Transform – something into acceptable
theories:
Desires freely manifest through usage of
- unconscious wish fulfillment theory symbolism
- dreams-for-survival theory
Dreaming of sex organs -> wake-up
- activation-synthesis theory
- so, it transforms into an object is
acceptable to the people
 B. Dreams-for-Survival Theory J. Allan Hobson (psychiatrist) - proposed
activation-synthesis theory
- dreams permit information that is critical for
our daily survival to be reconsidered and - the brain produces random electrical energy
reprocessed during sleep. during REM sleep, possibly as a result of
changes in the production of particular
- -seen as an inheritance from our animal
neurotransmitters.
ancestors, whose small brains were unable to
sift sufficient information during waking hours. - This electrical energy randomly stimulates
memories lodged in various portions of the
- provided a mechanism that permitted the
brain
processing of information 24 hours a day.
- Because we have a need to make sense of our
- represent concerns about our daily lives,
world even while asleep, the brain takes these
illustrating our:
chaotic memories and weaves them into a
- Ideas logical story line, filling in the gaps to produce
- desires a rational scenario
- indecisions
- uncertainties
Wish Theory Dreams are disguised

Survival Theory Dreams are not disguised

- Dreams are seen, then, as consistent with
everyday living, rather than being disguised Activation Synthesis Theory - ibang iba sa dalawang
wishes theory
- they represent key concerns growing out of
our daily experiences
Substance Use and Abuse
Dreams for Survival Theory - drugs they seem to be awake, but not aware of
- Stimulus are not all accommodated their mind

- Dreams permit info - person who has a substance use disorder often
uses more of the substance than they originally
- Concerns in a day intended to and continues to use that substance
more attention Dreams of daily concerns despite experiencing significant adverse
consequences.
Problems that causes anxiety are most likely to
appear in our dreams SUBSTANCE ABUSE/USE

individuals diagnosed with a substance use

disorder have the following characteristics:
C. Activation-Synthesis Theory ▪ Tolerance – the individual must take more
- functions of the component of the brain and more of the drug to achieve the same
effect.
- amplify memories that we have
- Take more
- Addicts spend more to have same
Illogical Dreams Weave together that feelings
transforms to scenarios
into our dreams
▪ Withdrawal – if discontinued, the person (Continuation of STIMULANT)

experiences unpleasant physical and - Dopamine activity is often associated with

psychological reactions. reward and craving; therefore, drugs that affect
e.g. salivate, tremors, discomfort dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse
liability.

Drugs in this category include

▪ Compulsive use – the individual tries to
control his or her drug use but fails. - Cocaine
- Nicotine
- Cannot control oneself - Caffeine
- Cathinones
- MDMA/ecstasy/molly
DRUG ABUSE/USE - Amphetamines including meth
➔ Meth = methamphetamine
A. Depressants

- also called downers

- use for anxiety and depression C. Hallucinogens

Has effect on the nervous system - leads to hallucination

- they inhibit the function of the central nervous - one of a class of drugs that results in profound
system. alterations in sensory and perceptual
experiences.
- These drugs share in common their ability to
serve as agonists of the gamma-Aminobutyric - In some cases, users experience vivid visual
acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system. hallucinations.

GABA - has a quieting effect on the brain, GABA - Also common for these types of drugs to cause
agonists also have a quieting effect; these types hallucinations of body sensations
of drugs are often prescribed to treat both
e.g. feeling as if you are a giant and a skewed
anxiety and insomnia
perception of the passage of time
e.g. alcohol, barbiturates and benzodiazepines

D. Opioids
B. Stimulants
- decrease pain and analgesics
- also called uppers
- have analgesic properties; that is, they
- energize the body decrease pain

- 80% activity, without tiring - Humans have an endogenous opioid

neurotransmitter system
- act as agonists of the dopamine
neurotransmitter system.

- drugs that tend to increase overall levels of

neural activity.
 (Continuation of OPOIDS) four parts that appear consistent in bringing
Endogenous Opioid Neurotransmitter System people into the state of suggestibility
associated with hypnosis. These components
- the body makes small quantities of include:
opioid compounds that bind to opioid
receptors reducing pain and producing 1. The participant is guided to focus on one
euphoria. thing, such as the hypnotist’s words or a ticking
- Thus, opioid drugs, which mimic this watch.
endogenous painkilling mechanism, 2. The participant is made comfortable and is
have an extremely high potential for directed to be relaxed and sleepy.
abuse
3. The participant is told to be open to the
category of drugs that includes process of hypnosis, trust the hypnotist and let
- Heroin go.
- Tablets 4. The participant is encouraged to use his or
- Codeine her imagination.
- Morphine
- Methadone These steps are conducive to being open to the
heightened suggestibility of hypnosis
-
IS BUDOL-BUDOL A FORM OF HYPNOTISM?
Morphines – not fully effective, only at first
- No
morphines -> opoids -> cancer patients
- They are not in relaxed state
- Minimal attention
Other States of Consciousness

A. HYPNOSIS B. MEDITATION
- use of pendulum - focusing on a single target
- hyper awareness - one best thing to do with our body
- attention to external factors - an individual can perform meditation alone
- buried emotions are being collected - the act of focusing on a single target (such as
- aware of your body and surroundings the breath or a repeated sound) to increase
awareness of the moment.
- a state of extreme self-focus and attention in
which minimal attention is given to external - there are a number of different techniques in
stimuli. use, the central feature of all meditation is
clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of
Also been used to draw out information relaxed awareness and focus.
believed to be buried deeply in someone’s
memory. (Sleep < Meditate)
e.g. In the therapeutic setting, a clinician may
use relaxation and suggestion in an attempt to
alter the thoughts and perceptions of a patient.
Meditation has been shown to

➔ increase focus
➔ reduce stress
➔ promote calmness

It can also help people recognize and accept

negative emotions especially when it is done in
combination with mindfulness practices that
keep people grounded in experiencing the
present.

Two common forms of meditation are

- Zen meditation
- Transcendental meditation

Zen meditation - focuses on breathing

Transcendental meditation - uses a mantra

Mantra - a special word or sound being chanted

repeatedly until the shift in consciousness is
 Module No. 7: Memory and Forgetting Encoding – is the process by which we place the
things that we experience into memory
Lesson 1: Memory
- Transforming info into schema
Memory - refers to the processes that are used
to - Once we receive sensory information from the
environment, our brains label or code it.
➔ acquire
➔ store - We organize the information with other similar
➔ retain information and connect new concepts to
➔ and later retrieve information existing concepts.

Memory defines us as individuals as they are - occurs through automatic processing and
effortful processing
➔ our experiences
➔ our relationships Schema – tidbits of info in the brain
➔ our successes
naming objects
➔ and our failures.

Simple things:
Storage – is the process of holding information
Riding a bicycle -> Complex memories
in memory to be processed or used.
Good Memory -> Important
- Holding of information
MEMORY
- Some memories we will hold for years, other
- is essential to all our lives. memories we hold only long enough to use the
information, such as looking up a phone number
- It allows us to do relatively simple things, such
and retaining it long enough to place the call.
as remembering where we put our keys or what
our favorite food is.

- also allow us to form complex memories, such Retrieval – The act of getting information out of
as how to ride a bicycle or to write a computer memory storage and back into conscious
program. awareness.

- Without a memory of the past, we cannot - Getting information back into consciousness
operate in the present or think about the future.
You must be able to retrieve information from
- We would not be able to remember what we memory in order to do everything from knowing
did yesterday, what we have done today or what how to brush your hair and teeth, to driving to
we plan to do tomorrow. work, to knowing how to perform your job once
you get there.
- Without memory, we could not learn anything.
Memory would be useless without the ability to
retrieve the memories that we have created.
Psychologists conceptualize memory in terms
Retrieval is not a simple process and many
of three processes:
factors can influence the ease with which we can
locate a memory

Encoding Storage Retrieval

Computer -> I-T-O (Information to Obtain) 1.) Sensory Memory (about two seconds)

- recall of a sensory experience, such as what we

just saw or heard.
Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP) – of memory
provides a general theoretical framework for - some compare sensory memory to a quick
understanding how contextual information snapshot of what you just experienced that
affects memory. quickly disappears.

- This principle states that only information that - we are constantly bombarded with sensory
has been stored can be retrieved, and how it was information.
stored influences how it is retrieved
- we cannot absorb all of it, or even most of it.
e.g.
- most of it has no impact on our lives.
no, ice cream
Sensory Memory:
Refrigerator - Ice cream - because no ice
cream was stored ➔ initial
➔ very brief
➔ momentary
Dejavu – part of retrieval process
➔ people we meet on the streets
encoding and storage process is ➔ senses, quickly absorbed and disappear
unconsciously done
Sensory information about

➔ sights
3 days – better store an information
➔ sounds
much faster retrieval ➔ smells
➔ textures

Longer Storage – Faster/Easier to retrieve - which we do not view as valuable information,

we discard.
vice-versa
- If we view something as valuable, the
information will move into our short-term
In order for a memory to go into STORAGE, it memory system
has to pass through three distinct stages:

2.) Short-term Memory (hold info 30 seconds)

➔ Sensory Memory ➔ accidents
➔ limited capacity
➔ Short-Term Memory ➔ working memory
➔ longer than sensory
➔ Long-Term Memory

- some came from sensory memory

not all

Those important information will

proceed to next stage.
 (Continuation of Short-term Memory) 3.) Long-term Memory
- is the temporary holding room for information - final storehouse indefinite
that come from sensory memory.
- very large capacity
- Research shows that an average normal person
has a maximum digit span of about 7 plus or no need to dispose
minus 2 - memories for declarative and non declarative
- It has limited capacity and can hold information - It has very large capacity and encompasses
for 30 seconds and can be extended using
memories that range from a few days to
memory techniques such as decades.
➔ chunking and maintenance rehearsal.
- Declarative memory and procedural (non-
declarative) memory are two major
Working Memory – working at present or atm classifications of long-term memory systems.

➔ Like a basket Two major classifications of long-term memory

➔ They are on our mind at a brief period systems:

e.g First Exam - recall – dumped ➔ Declarative memory

➔ Non-declarative/Procedural memory

Chunking and Maintenance Rehearsal

• Declarative Memory = (what)
- to prolong the information recall of factual information such as
e.g. yung mga cellphone numbers na pinag ➔ dates
grogroup natin para agad natin ma memorize ➔ words
➔ faces
CP # - 0916-222-5805 (Chunking) ➔ events
➔ concepts
Serial Position Curve – tells us the tendency to
recall words correctly plotted as a function of the Two types of Declarative memory:
position of the word in a list
a.) Episodic Memory
• Primacy Effect – first items
• Recency Effect – last items - recall of personal facts

- autobiographical in content
e.g. Once upon a time, primacy
- people differs from these memories
Happily, ever After, recency
- experiences, events that are personal
e.g. someone introduces you
- recall of information about events we have
“This is Magdalena, she is pretty intelligent but personally experienced
boastful.
e.g. Remembering the name of your parents
- Next day, the pretty one (primacy) uses episodic memory.
- She is boastful (recency)
 b.) Semantic Memory Improving Memory

- not about self Most of us suffer from memory failures of one

kind or another, and most of us would like to
- bookish information
improve our memories.
- for ideas and concepts
Here are some ways to help you remember
- facts and general knowledge better:

- this memory is somewhat like a mental almanac 1.) Imagery – associating image to the things you
of facts want to remember

- memory for general knowledge and facts about - associating a particular image with something
the world. you need to remember.

e.g. Remembering the rules in playing volleyball - Best known type is the method of loci.
uses semantic memory.
- Methods of loci (location)
associate memory to the location of your
• Non-declarative Memory (How) place to remember
a.) Procedural Memory
- location as signs
- how the body should do it
associate memory to the location of your place
- application of the process to remember
- for skills and habits w/o consciousness or e.g. House -> Wardrobe – buying new clothes –
implicitly thru performance rather than location as signs
recollection

- this type of memory is accessed without

consciousness or implicitly through performance 2.) Acronyms – phrases designed from the first
rather than recollection letter of words in order to remember other
words.
- refers to memory for skills and habits, such as
Enumeration – use acronyms to better recall
➔ how to ride a bike
➔ how to hit a baseball e.g. ROYGVIB – rainbow colors

e.g. name -> when people ask for it

you don’t need to relearn things 3.) Acrostics – reduction of information, forming
a real world (complex)
e.g. simple activities like wearing of
- the reduction of information as in acronyms,
clothes are procedural memory
but forming a real word.
Breathing -> not part of the memory but part of
e.g. ROYGVIB
our automatic processing
Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain
4.) Chunking – dividing the items to be Memory problems can range from minor
memorized into small and easily memorizable annoyances like forgetting where you left your
groups or chunks favorite book or forgetting buying one of the
major ingredients of your dish.
e.g. PBBABCCBN CNNBBC

PBB ABS
Forgetting

- Retention loss
5.) Elaborative Rehearsal - forming associations
or links between the new information with the - Refers to loss of information from long-term
stored information in the long-term memory memory

- use by adults - Refers to apparent loss of info already encoded

and stored in an individual’s long-term memory
- links between new and schemes in the brain
- It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which
old memories are unable to be recalled from
6.) Maintenance Rehearsal - the repetition of memory stage.
information that has entered short-term
- Retrieval is failed
memory
Forgetting – inability to recall
- shot-term
➔ Drastic and gradual
- repetition only
➔ Snap of a finger
- sense of hearing to store memory
Hermann Ebbinghaus

7.) Mnemonist – some who demonstrates - German psychologist

extraordinarily keen memory ability, usually
- The first attempts to study
based on using special techniques for memory
forgetting were made by German
enhancement
psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus
about a hundred years ago, using
himself as the only participant in his
Lesson 2: Forgetting study
Story time…
- hypothesized the forgetting curve
Human memory involves the ability to both
Forgetting curve hypothesizes - the decline of
preserve and recover information we have
memory retention in time. This curve shows how
learned or experienced.
information is lost over time when there is no
However, this is not a flawless process. attempt to retain it. A related concept is the
Sometimes we forget or misremember things. strength of memory that refers to the durability
that memory traces in the brain.
Sometimes things are not properly encoded in
memory in the first place.
 Theories of Forgetting 3.) Decay – loss of information though non-use

1.) Encoding Failure - This explanation assumes that memory traces,

the physical changes that take place in the brain
- Sometimes memory loss happens before the
when new material is learned, simply fade away
actual memory process begins, which is
over time
encoding failure.
- assumes that memory traces
- We can’t remember something if we never
stored it in our memory in the first place. physical changes

e.g. trying to find a book on your e-reader that Stop recall - pathway (synapses) of neurons will
you never actually purchased and downloaded. stop connecting, affecting memory

2.) Interference 4.) Cue-dependent forgetting

- Sometimes information is stored in our - insufficient retrieval cues

memory, but for some reason it is inaccessible.
- external (environment) and feelings (internal)
- Inaccessible information
- forgetting that occurs when there are
- hindrances in recalling the memory insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information
that is in memory

Two types of Interference:

5.) Amnesia
* Positive/Proactive Interference - old
information hinders new knowledge - the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the
result of disease, physical trauma, or
➔ Primacy (remember old)
psychological trauma
➔ Proactive interference occurs when old
information hinders the recall of newly - physical, psychological trauma and disease
learned information.
- loss of long-term memory

- psychological trauma
* Retroactive Interference - information that is
recently hinders the recall of older information no damage in the brain but mental illness
➔ Recency (remember new) Two common types of amnesia:
➔ Retroactive interference happens when
information learned more recently ➔ Retrogade – forget the past
hinders the recall of older information ➔ Anterograde – forget the present/new
person

Interference is stronger when material is similar

Retrograde amnesia - is loss of memory for 7.) Mood-Congruent memory - sad/angry
events that occurred prior to the trauma.
- people in depressed mood tended to recall a
- People with retrograde amnesia cannot disproportionate number of sad and depressing
remember some or even all of their past. events

e.g. People with retrograde amnesia have - non-depressed people tended to recall more of
difficulty remembering episodic memories their happier experiences.

Anterograde amnesia - is commonly caused by

brain trauma, such as a blow to the head.
8.) Repression
- with anterograde amnesia, you cannot
- forgetting of painful or traumatic information’s
remember new information, although you can
remember information and events that - selective amnesia
happened prior to your injury.
e.g. Rape – traumatic event
Hippocampus is usually
affected. repression – coping mechanism

- This suggests that damage you don’t intend but your mind wants you to
to the brain has resulted in forget it
the inability to transfer
information from short-term
to long-term memory; that is, 9.) Eidetic Memory
the inability to consolidate - photographic memory
memories.
- ability to recall images, sounds, or objects in
- Many people with this form of amnesia are memory w/ extreme precision
unable to form new episodic or semantic
memories, but are still able to form new Stephen Wiltshire – capable of drawing the
procedural memories entire skyline of a city after a helicopter ride

6.) State-dependent forgetting 10.) Flashbulb Memory

- learning takes place under the influence of - event so powerful that the person remembers
certain classes of drugs us subsequently the event as VIVIDLY as if it were indelibly
reproduced at better rates when participants preserved on film.
have been administered the same drugs,
compared to a drug-free state.

e.g. A person under the influence of alcohol

Amnesia – anyone due to many reasons

Alzheimer’s – motor skills are affected

 Module No. 8: Intelligence Assessing Intelligence

Intelligence French psychologist

You are given a map of an entertainment
Alfred Binet (1857– 1911)
park. You walk from the lemonade stand
to the computer games arcade. Your
friend walks from the shooting gallery to
the roller coaster. Which of these are you
BOTH most likely to pass? (a) the merry-
go-round, (b) the music hall, (c) the pizza
stand, or (d) the dog show.

French psychologist
Theodore Simon (1872–
1961)
- colleague of Alfred Binet

* In the early 1900’s Alfred and Theodore began

Answer = (c) the pizza stand working on behalf of the French government to
develop a measure that would differentiate
Intelligence - is defined as the capacity to
students who were expected to be better
➔ think rationally, learners from students who were expected to be
➔ understand the world, slower learners.
➔ and use resources effectively when faced
* The goal was to help teachers better educate
with challenges.
these two groups of students.
- It enables humans to remember descriptions of
* Binet and Simon developed what most
things and use those descriptions in future
psychologists today regard as the first
behaviors.
intelligence test, which consisted of a wide
variety of questions that included the ability to

It gives humans the cognitive abilities to ➔ name objects

➔ define words
➔ learn, ➔ draw pictures
➔ form concepts, ➔ complete sentences
➔ understand, and reason, ➔ compare items,
➔ including the capacities to recognize ➔ construct sentences
patterns, innovate, plan, solve problems,
➔ and employ language to communicate.

- Intelligence enables humans to experience and - Using an intelligence test, one’s intelligence
think quotient may be obtain.
Inadopt yung test For modern IQ tests, the median raw score of
the norming sample is defined as IQ 100 and
Standard Mental Test
scores each standard deviation (SD) up or down
Stanford – Binet Test (US adopted test) are defined as 15 IQ points greater or less.

Intelligence test obtain Intelligent Quotient (IQ) The table below shows the different levels of
Intelligence and their corresponding IQ range.
LEVEL IQ RANGE
Intelligence quotient or IQ - is a score derived Feeble minded 0 – 70
from a set of standardized tests developed to Borderline 70 – 80
measure a person's cognitive abilities Dull 80 – 90
("intelligence") in relation to their age group. Normal 90 – 110
Superior 110 – 120
- Standardize test in realization of their
Very superior 120 – 130
age group
Near genius 130 – 140
Genius 140 – up
- Not compared to other age group but
the same IQ in the same age-group. - Formula use is the same
- Each intelligence test is different
- To determine the IQ, it is compared to
those who has the same age as you.
OLSAT TEST – may own way of getting the IQ
Originally, the ratio of the mental age to the Way -> Computation
chronological age was used to compute the
intelligence quotient, or IQ.

The formula was: bell-shaped curve - is a common feature of

nature and psychology.
IQ = Mental age ÷ Physical age × 100
- Distribution of IQ (basis)

- The normal distribution is the most

Mental Age – brain capacity of a person important probability distribution in
statistics because many continuous data
8 yrs. old = mental age 8 yrs. old
in nature and psychology displays this
8 yrs. old = mental age 5 yrs. old bell-shaped curve when compiled and
graphed.
8 yrs. old = mental age 12 yrs. old (accelerated)

Mental Age – brain capacity of the brain.

- Normal: 90 – 110

Physical Age – age when you took the test

There are many factors that may affect • Health – disease can affect someone who is
intelligence including: unhealthy
- Has a limited chance
➔ Heredity
➔ Environment * Hand in Hand to work together.
➔ Race
Standardized Test
➔ Culture
➔ Training
➔ Educational background
➔ Socio-economic status Researches on Intelligence
➔ Efforts of the will - Intelligence has been associated with
➔ Health educational, occupational, economic, and social
outcomes.

• Heredity – inborn, inherited from parents.

Positively Correlated (proportionate)
• Environment – can hamper/influence the
effect of heredity ➢ Tumataas ang IQ, tumataas ang longevity

Negatively Correlated (disproportionate)

• Race
- African -> basic survival ➢ No one goes up, one goes down
- Asian -> intelligent than Americans ➢ Mas matalino, less involved in crimes

• Culture – depends in their culture and norms

- Mas uunahin I-solve ang poverty ✓ Higher IQ Is needed in demanding occupations

✓ Manual Job doesn’t need much IQ

• Training – use of memory techniques
- Mnemonist enhance to keep that level.
- Mnemonist need training
Analytical Intelligence – good at academics
• Educational Background – educational Flynn Effect
attainment
- Intelligence can decay - Increase in IQ compared to the people
- Illnesses/diseases or Accidents can lead - 3 IQ points every 10 years
to deflation of our intelligence

• Socio-economic Status – can provide a place Some research studies conducted on

conductive to development. intelligence were compiled by Stangor (2011)
and are as follows:
• Efforts of the will – influence and motivation
to study > Scores on intelligence tests predict academic
and military performance, as well as success in a
wide variety of jobs
> Intelligence is positively correlated with > Children from households in poverty have
health-related outcomes, including longevity lower IQs than do children from households
with more resources, even when other factors,
- At least some of this latter relationship may be
such as education, race, and parenting, are
due to more intelligent are better able to predict
controlled.
and avoid accidents and to understand and
follow instructions from doctors or on drug
labels.
> Children’s IQs tend to drop significantly during
summer vacations, a finding that suggests that a
longer school year, as is used in Europe and East
> Among U.S. presidents, the ability to
Asia, is beneficial.
effectively lead was well predicted by ratings of
the president’s intelligence.

> Studies that have measured brain volume

using neuroimaging techniques find that larger
> Intelligence is also negatively correlated with
brain size is correlated with intelligence, and
criminal behaviors as the average IQ of
intelligence has also been found to be correlated
delinquent adolescents is about 7 points lower
with the number of neurons in the brain and with
than that of other adolescents.
the thickness of the cortex.

> The advantages of having a higher IQ increase

> People who are more intelligent frequently
as life settings become more complex.
show less brain activity (suggesting that they
- The correlation between IQ and job need to use less capacity) than those with lower
performance is higher in more mentally intelligence when they work on a task.
demanding occupations, such as physician or
lawyer, than in less mentally demanding
occupations, like clerk or newspaper delivery > The speed with which people can perform
person. simple tasks, such as determining which of two
lines is longer or pressing, as quickly as possible,
- Although some specific personality traits,
one of eight buttons that is lighter, is predictive
talents, and physical abilities are important for
of intelligence.
success in some jobs, intelligence predicts
performance across all types of jobs.

> Women tend to do better than men on some

verbal tasks, including
> The intelligence of very young children (less
than 3 years old) does not predict adult ➔ Spelling
intelligence, but by age 7 it does, and IQ scores ➔ Writing
remain very stable in adulthood. ➔ Pronouncing words

> On average, men do better than women on

tasks requiring spatial ability, such as the mental
rotation tasks.
 > Males tend to do better than females on both The normal distribution of intelligence shows
that on IQ tests, as well as on most other
➔ geography and geometry tasks.
measures, the majority of people cluster around
the average.
> Historically, males have earned higher scores
As can be seen in figure below, the average IQ
on the math part of the Scholastic Assessment
score is 100, and fewer scores are very high or
Test. Three decades ago, boys with scores of 700
very low.
or above outnumbered girls by more than 10 to
1. About 2% of people score above an IQ of 130,
which is often considered the threshold for
giftedness.
> However, more females are now being
Because the standard deviation of an IQ test is
exposed to higher level math courses, and
15 points, this IQ score would be two standard
recent research indicates that the ratio of males
deviations above the mean and infrequently
to females earning scores above 700 are now 3
found in the population.
to 1 or 4 to 1.
About the same percentage score below an IQ
of 70, which is two standard deviations below
> Creativity is not highly correlated with the mean
analytical intelligence and exceptionally creative
scientists, artists, mathematicians, and
engineers do not score higher on intelligence
tests than do their less creative peers.

Flynn effect refers to the observation that

scores on intelligence tests worldwide have
increased substantially over the past decades.

Although the increase varies somewhat from

country to country, the average increase is
about 3 IQ points every 10 years. A. Extremely Low Intelligence

One end of the distribution of intelligence scores

is defined by people with very low IQ.
Extremes on Intelligence
An Intellectual Disability or Intellectual
Normal distribution - bell curve Developmental Disorder is a term characterized
- results of studies assessing the measurement by significant limitations in both intellectual
of intelligence show that IQ is distributed in the functioning and in adaptive behavior, which
population in the form of a bell curve, which is covers many everyday social and practical skills,
the pattern of scores usually observed in a and originates before the age of 18.
variable that clusters around its average.

- In a normal distribution, the bulk of the scores Mental Retardation – people with low level of
fall toward the middle, with many fewer scores IQ.
falling at the extremes.
DSM - Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders
▪ Severe intellectual disability
Lower IQ – before age of IQ
- supervision is needed for their safety
Inborn, accident, infection
- hindi mo sila pwedeng hayaan sa labas

- with IQ scores ranging from 20 to 35; manifests

Classification
major delays in development, and individuals
3 – IDIOT, IMBECILE, MORON often have the ability to understand speech but
otherwise have limited communication skills
- Overuse
- Stereotyping - despite being able to learn simple daily routines
- degrading term and to engage in simple self-care, they need
supervision in social settings and often need
family care to live in a supervised setting such as
Classifications of Intellectual Disabilities a group home.

▪ Mild intellectual disability ▪ Profound intellectual disability

- can only reach Grade 6 - they do not about life

- slow in conceptual but can learn practical - down syndrome

learning
- people w/ disabilities
- with IQ scores ranging from 50 to 69; slower in
with IQ scores of below 20; often have congenital
all areas of conceptual development and social
syndromes; these individuals cannot live
and daily living skills
independently, and they require close
- these individuals can learn practical life skills, supervision and help with self-care activities;
which allows them to function in ordinary life they have very limited ability to communicate
with minimal levels of support. and often have physical limitations.

Summary

▪ Moderate intellectual disability

- moderate support

- basics are known

- SPED class (Special Education)

- with IQ scores ranging from 36 to 49; can take

care of themselves, travel to familiar places in
their community, and learn basic skills related to
safety and health; their self-care requires
moderate support.
Causes of Intellectual Developmental Disorder
Causes of intellectual developmental disorder ➔ malnutrition
includes: ➔ lack of parental care
➔ early pregnancy
➔ Genetic factors
➔ crowded and polluted environment
➔ Brain damage
➔ delayed prenatal care
➔ Socio-cultural factors
➔ Prenatal factors Delayed Prenatal Care – late check up

▪ Genetic factors – congenital

▪ Prenatal factors
➔ Cretinism
➔ prematurity
➔ Hydrocephaly
➔ radiation
➔ Down Syndrome
➔ psychoactive drugs
➔ Ingalactosemnia
➔ alcohol and caffeine taken by the mother
➔ overdose of medicines
▪ Brain damage – due to illness of the mother ➔ mother’s frequent stress

illness of the mother such as

➔ Rubella Societal attitudes toward individuals with

➔ STD intellectual disabilities have changed over the
➔ Anoxia past decades.
➔ birth difficulties of the mother
We no longer use terms such as
➔ illness of a child like meningitis
➔ encephalitis ➔ “idiot”
➔ high fever ➔ “moron”
➔ toxic substance before and after birth ➔ “imbecile”
➔ cerebral palsy ➔ “retarded”
Meningitis and hydrocephaly to describe these people, although these were
the official psychological terms used to describe
Virus and bacteria
degrees of what was referred to as mental
Self-medicate
retardation in the past.
Brain damage – mother’s pregnancy

Rubella – german measles

Anoxia – lack of oxygen

Normal delivery (happens)

occurs when the infant undergoes a total lack of

oxygen. If the brain is deprived of oxygen for
even a brief period of time, the infant's brain is
not getting enough oxygen to function smoothly
and will begin to malfunction.

▪ Socio-cultural factors
 B. Extremely High Intelligence Some children are particularly good at

Story time… ➔ math or science

➔ some at automobile repair or carpentry
Having extremely high IQ is clearly less of a
➔ some at music or art
problem than having extremely low IQ.
➔ some at sports or leadership and so on.
Accounting to 2 to 4% of the population, the
There is a lively debate among scholars about
intellectually gifted have IQ scores greater than
whether it is appropriate or beneficial to label
130. - It is often assumed that school children
some children as gifted and talented in school
who are labeled as gifted may have adjustment
and to provide them with accelerated special
problems that make it more difficult for them to
classes and other programs that are not available
create social relationships.
to everyone.

Although doing so may help the gifted kids, it

also may isolate them from their peers and
make such provisions unavailable to those who
are not classified as gifted.

Theories of Intelligence

Different researchers have proposed a variety of

Terman Oden theories to explain the nature of intelligence.
To study gifted children, in 1921 Terman and Here are some of the major theories of
Oden (1959) selected about 1,500 high school intelligence:
students who scored in the top 1% on IQ tests,
meaning they had IQs of about 135 or higher.
Major theories of intelligence:

A. Multiple Intelligence Model by Howard

Terman tracked them for more than seven Gardner
decades, and found that these students were not
unhealthy or poorly adjusted, but rather were - One of the more recent
above average in physical health and were taller ideas to emerge is
and heavier than individuals in the general Howard Gardner's theory
population. of multiple intelligences.

The students also had above average social - Gardner proposed that
relationships. the traditional idea of
intelligence, based on IQ
For example, they were less likely to divorce testing, did not fully and
than the average person. accurately depict a
As you might expect based on our discussion of person's abilities.
intelligence, children who are gifted have higher - His theory proposed eight different
scores on general intelligence, but there are also intelligences based on skills and abilities that are
different types of giftedness. valued in different cultures
 3. Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be
self-aware and in tune with

1. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to ➔ inner feelings

control your body movements and to handle ➔ values
objects skillfully ➔ beliefs
➔ thinking processes
- body movement
- introspection, self-reflect
- dancers, athletes

2. Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to

4. Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability
detect and respond appropriately to the moods,
to analyze situations or problems logically, to
motivations, and desires of others
identify solutions, to conduct scientific research,
- ability to understand and interact effectively and to solve logical/mathematical operations
with others. easily.

- ability to connect and talk to others The ability to

- empathetic ➔ think conceptually and abstractly

➔ and the capacity to discern logically or
It involves
numerical patterns’
➔ effective verbal communication
➔ effective nonverbal communication
5. Musical intelligence: The ability to produce
7. Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-
and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre
developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the
sounds, meanings, and rhythms of words

- capacity to think in images

➔ Words
➔ Grammar
➔ Accent and etc.

6. Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to

recognize and categorize animals, plants, and
other objects in nature

- Naturalistic intelligence is deemed to be a 8. Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to

person's interest in and relationship with the think in images and pictures, to visualize
"natural" world of animals, plants, and the accurately and abstractly
natural work around them.

- zoology
B. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence by Robert
- botanist Sternberg
Characterisrics Robert Sternberg proposed three
aspects of intelligence namely:
➔ Physically/emotionally adverse to
pollution. ➔ 1. Componential Intelligence
➔ interest in learning about nature. ➔ 2. Experimental Intelligence
➔ enthusiasm when in contact with nature. ➔ 3. Contextual Intelligence
➔ Powers of observation in nature.
➔ Awareness of changes in weather.
1. Componential intelligence: refers to the - Research demonstrates that older adults have
ability assessed by intelligence tests more crystallized intelligence, as reflected in
semantic knowledge, vocabulary, and language.
➔ Verbal
➔ Mathematical
➔ Reasoning
As a result, older adults generally outperform
➔ Logic
younger people on

➔ measures of history
2. Experiential intelligence: this form of
➔ geography
intelligence focuses on the capacity to be
➔ and even on crossword puzzles
➔ intellectually flexible and innovative.
where this information is useful.

3. Contextual intelligence: refers to the ability of

- This superior knowledge, combined with a
a person to adapt in an environment or change it
slower and more complete processing style and
accordingly to best suit the personal needs; also
sophisticated understanding of the workings of
defined as street-smart
the world, gives those older an advantage,
despite greater fluid intelligence in those
younger.
C. Crystalized and Fluid Intelligence by
Raymond Cattell - The differential changes in crystallized versus
fluid intelligence also explains why those older
Fluid intelligence is the ability to
do not necessarily show poorer performance on
think logically, reason abstractly,
tasks that require experience, although they
and solve novel problems,
show poorer memory overall.
relatively independent of past
specific knowledge. - A young chess player may think more quickly,
but a more experienced chess player has more
knowledge to draw on
Crystallized intelligence, on the other hand, is
the accumulation of information, skills, and
strategies that people have learned through Emotional Intelligence
experience and that they can apply in problem-
Some psychologists broaden the concept of
solving situations.
intelligence even further beyond the
Crystalized Intelligence -> experiences intellectual realm

Adults -> Advice ➔ to include emotions.

Fluid Intelligence - younger

Emotional Intelligence
- Crystallized intelligence increases with age
whereas fluid intelligence tends to decrease with ➔ Sets of skills
age. ➔ Related to emotions
Emotional intelligence (EI) - is the set of skills 1. Self-awareness – knowing what one is feeling
that underlie the accurate assessment, at any given time and understanding the impact
evaluation, expression, and regulation of those moods have on others
emotions.
- being aware of who you are and what you’re
-It underlies the ability to get along well with doing.
others.
2. Self-regulation – controlling or redirecting
- It provides us with an understanding of what one's emotions, and anticipating consequences
other people are feeling and experiencing and before acting on impulse
permits us to respond appropriately to others’
- regulate – control emotions
needs.

Emotional intelligence is the basis of

3. Motivation – utilizing emotional factors to
➔ empathy for others
achieve goals, enjoy the learning process and
➔ self-awareness and social skills.
persevere in the face of obstacles

- know worth
Abilities in emotional intelligence may help
explain why people with only modest scores on e.g. they wake up every morning, being able to
traditional intelligence tests can be quite accomplish things
successful, despite their lack of traditional
intelligence.

High emotional intelligence may enable an 4. Empathy – having the ability to see things
individual to tune into others’ feelings, from the point of view of others.
permitting a high degree of responsiveness to
others.
Sympathy - feelings of pity and sorrow for
someone else's misfortune.

Empathy - the ability to understand and share

Five key elements to Elements to Emotional the feelings of another.
Intelligence

According to Daniel Goleman, an 5. Social skills – managing relationships, inspiring

American psychologist who helped others and inducing desired responses from
to popularize emotional them
intelligence, there are five key
elements to EI:

➔1. Self-awareness Additional Question about testing your

➔2. Self-regulation intelligence!!
➔3. Motivation
➔4. Empathy
➔5. Social skills
 Module No. 9: Learning Before Condition

Learning - A long-lasting change in behavior Dog – naturally salivate when they see food
based on experience, or adaptation to the
environment Unconditioned response: Salivate

Kinds of Learning Unconditioned Stimulus: Food (presented in environment)

➔ Classical Conditioning UCS => UCR

➔ Operant Conditioning
➔ Social Learning
➔ Latent Learning Before Conditioning
Bell – Neutral stimulus
Kinds of Learning
Neutral stimulus – do not elicit reaction
A.) Classical Conditioning - Learning based on
- naturally - a bell ringing does not have response
association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily
elicit a response with another stimulus that does Do not salivate
elicit the response.

- environment can affect our learning During Conditioning

- associating stimuli and anticipate events Bell + Food Response: Salivation
- A theory propose by Ivan Pavlov (NS) (UCS) (UCR)
- focuses on terms stimulus-response Initially, dog salivate for the food

Stimulus - outside
After Conditioning
Response – reaction
Bell Salivation

(CS) (CR)
• Experiments:
Ivan Pavlov dog to salivate in the sound of the bell
1. Ivan Pavlov – dogs salivate at the sound of a
On repeat to strengthen
bell

Ivan Pavlov - was a Russian physiologist best

known in psychology for his discovery of classical
conditioning. During his studies on the digestive
systems of dogs, Pavlov noted that the animals
salivated naturally upon the presentation of
food.
2. John B. Watson – “Little Albert” Neutral stimulus (NS) – a stimulus that before
conditioning, does not naturally bring about
response.

- does not naturally bring response

- agent that initially has no effect

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - stimulus such as

food or pain that elicits a response without
having been learned.

- naturally occurring
- agent that leads to a response without
training.
- Little Albert
Unconditioned response (UCR) – the unlearned
mahilig sa mga bagay na furry and white
response that occurs naturally in response to the
objects.
unconditioned stimulus.
sound of the hammer UCR (he fears the noise)
- automatic response to an
- every time the rat would go near him; a unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
hammer will make a sound.
Conditioned stimulus (CS) – stimulus that
- he taught little albert to fear what he used to produces no particular response at first, but after
love conditioning it elicits the conditioned response.

anything with fur sound of the hammer - a former neutral stimulus (NS) that
comes to elicit a given response after
pairing with an unconditioned stimulus
Learning - does not need to be positive but it can (UCS).
also be negative such as phobia. Conditioned response (CR) – learned response to
the previously neutral stimulus.

John B. Watson - famous for having founded - a learned response to a conditioned

classical behaviourism, an approach to stimulus (CS).
psychology that treated behaviour (both animal
and human) as the conditioned response of an
organism to environmental stimuli and inner EXAMPLES
biological processes and that rejected as
• The first time you hear the song from an ice
unscientific all supposed psychological
cream truck it means nothing to you.
phenomena that were not objectively
However, the thought of ice cream makes
measurable or observable
you crave it and now, when you hear the
song from the ice cream truck, it makes your
mouth water.

Song – means nothing to you – Neutral stimulus/Conditioned stimulus (NS/CS)

Ice cream – Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Starve/hungry – Unconditioned response (UCR)

hungry but with the association to a song - Conditioned response (CR)

 •Toyota has launched a new sports car for 2018. Reinforcement – consequence of behavior that
To boost sales, the company decided to go for an increases the likelihood that the behavior will
advertisement in which they pair a scantily be repeated.
dressed, very fit, very attractive model (the
- reward/punishment
gender of your choice) with their new sports car.
When you see the new sports car out on the
street, you feel excited and you want to buy one
after seeing their advertisement. * Positive Reinforcement – giving a reward such
as food or praises
New sports car – Neutral stimulus/Conditioned stimulus (NS/CS)
* Negative Reinforcement – taking away that
Attractive Model – Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) the individual does not like (aversive event)
Excitement - Attractive Model – Unconditioned response (UCR)

Excitement after the advertisement - Conditioned response (CR)

Two types of Reinforcers

1. Primary reinforcer
• Joan recently received a phone call with the
- satisfies some biological needs
very sad news that her father had died. Now
every time the phone rings, Joan feels fearful 2. Secondary Reinforcer
and sad.
- examples are money, gift cheques, cellphone.
Phone call - Neutral stimulus/Conditioned stimulus (NS/CS)

Sad news - Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Punishment - consequence of behavior that
Sad because of the phone call - Conditioned response (CR) decreases the likelihood of repetition
Sad because of the news - Unconditioned response (UCR) - ibigay ang ayaw – PALO/SPANK

- tanggalin yung gusto

Principles of Classical Conditioning
Negative Punishment
1.) Stimulus Generalization – the tendency to reinforcement
respond to a stimulus that is similar to but Encourages a repetition of Suppresses a behavior
different from a conditioned stimulus. behavior by: by:
➔ removing an ➔ Bringing on an
2.) Stimulus Discrimination – happens when two aversive event aversive event
stimuli are distinct from each other. ➔ Withdrawing a
positive event

B.) Operant Conditioning - Learning based on B. F. Skinner - was an American psychologist

reinforcement or punishment. best-known for his influence on behaviorism.
• Experiment: Skinner referred to his own philosophy as 'radical
behaviorism' and suggested that the concept of
1. (B. F.) Burrhus Frederic Skinner - Skinner box free will was simply an illusion. All human action,
he instead believed, was the direct result of
conditioning.
C.) Social Learning - Behaviors are learned by
observing and imitating models.

The process of imitating other people is called

➔ modeling or observational learning.

• Experiment

1. Albert Bandura – Bo-bo doll

That pretty much explains why
spanking/shouting at your children
is really stupid.

Not only are you teaching them

really inappropriate behaviour for
any sort of social interaction. You've
also deprived them of learning So, hug your children and
appropriate ways to resolve be kind to strangers :))
conflicts.

Bobo doll experiment - groundbreaking study on

aggression led by psychologist Albert Bandura
that demonstrated that children are able to learn
through the observation of adult behaviour.

- The experiment was executed via a team D.) Latent Learning - When we learn new
of researchers who physically and concept in life but we do not immediately
verbally abused an inflatable doll in front express knowledge of it.
of preschool-age children, which led the
children to later mimic the behaviour of - Latent means hidden
the adults by attacking the doll in the
same fashion.
• Experiment:

Albert Bandura - Canadian-born American 1. (E.C.) Edward Chase Tolman – experiment

psychologist and originator of social cognitive with rats (maze)
theory who is probably best known for his
modeling study on aggression, referred to as the
“Bobo doll” experiment, which demonstrated
that children can learn behaviours through the
observation of adults.
- Experiment with rats (maze)

Three groups of rats (no reward,

delayed reward, reward) in experiment.

sometimes learning is not immediately evident

We make mental representations (mental maps)

of our real-world experience and use when
necessary.

- Rats needed a reason to display what

they have learned.

Edward Chase Tolman – is best-known for

cognitive behaviorism, his research on cognitive
maps, the theory of latent learning and the
concept of an intervening variable.

- Tolman was born on April 14, 1886, and

died on November 19, 1959.