© Fss bio Dp’tment 2025

HEREDITY
All living things pass on their characteristics to their offspring. The study of this heredity of traits
from one generation to the other is known as Genetics.

Relationship between a gene and a chromosome

Within almost every somatic cell of the human body, there are tiny threads like structures known
as chromosomes. They are made up of a chemical compound known as DNA (Deoxyribonucleic
Acid).

Chromosomes are found inside the nucleus which appears to be a dense body before cell
division and when the cell starts dividing, chromosomes appear. A single chromosome contains
many genes. A gene is a section of DNA which codes for a particular protein which controls a
trait/a feature. The proteins can either be enzymes or structural proteins.

Members of a pair are called homologous chromosomes (homologous meaning they must have
the same length, carry the same kinds of genes and have the same shape). One of the
homologous chromosomes is from the father and the other from the mother.

Alleles
Forms or versions of the same gene are called alleles. They usually occur in pairs. Usually
letters are used to show alleles. E.g BB or bb or Tt etc. These pairs of alleles make up a
genotype of an organism (genetic composition of an organism).

The genotype made by alleles can either be;

• Homozygous dominant: a gene locus when it has two identical alleles for a particular
gene, either dominant (e.g., AA) or recessive (e.g., aa). Homozygous dominant means
Two dominant alleles present in a genotype. Homozygous recessive means two alleles
which are only expressed in the phenotype if a dominant allele is absent.
• Heterozygous: a gene locus when it has two different alleles for a particular gene (e.g.,
Aa).

Dominant
A dominant allele is one that expresses its trait even if only one copy is present. It masks the
effect of a recessive allele. A dominant allele is usually Homozygous and sometimes
heterozygous) For example, in humans, the allele for brown eyes is dominant over the allele for
blue eyes.

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Recessive
A recessive allele only expresses its trait if two copies are present (i.e., it must be homozygous).
If a dominant allele is present, the recessive trait is masked. For instance, blue eyes are a
recessive trait, so one needs two copies of the blue-eye allele to have blue eyes.
Co-Dominant
In co-dominance, both alleles in a gene pair are fully expressed, resulting in a phenotype that is
neither dominant nor recessive or a phenotype that shows both characteristic. An example is
the AB blood type in humans, where both A and B alleles are expressed equally.

Genotype
The genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an organism—specifically, the combination of
alleles it possesses. It's essentially the blueprint that determines various traits.

Phenotype
The phenotype is the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, as
determined by both genetic makeup and environmental influences. For example, eye colour,
height, and the presence of a specific enzyme are phenotypes

Monohybrid inheritance

Monohybrid inheritance is the study of just one characteristic passed onto the offspring at a
time.
A genetic or Punnet diagram can be used to predict genetic crosses.

(Leave a space of 10 lines for the genetic diagram to be provided in class)

MUTATION

Any alteration to DNA sequence in a cell in such a way as to change the genetic message
carried by that gene. Mutations are commonly caused by mutagens.

FACTORS THAT MAY CAUSE MUTATIONS

Internal Factors
1. Errors during DNA Replication: During cell division, the DNA must be copied.
Sometimes, errors occur, leading to incorrect DNA sequences. These errors can be
spontaneous and random.
2. Recombination Events: During meiosis, chromosomes can exchange segments,
leading to new combinations of genetic material. Errors in this process can result in
mutations.

External Factors
1. Radiation:
o Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation: Can misplace some DNA bases, leading to
mutations if not correctly repaired.
o Ionizing Radiation: X-rays and gamma rays can break DNA strands, causing
mutations.

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2. Chemical Mutagens:
o Chemicals that resemble DNA bases can be incorporated into DNA, leading to
errors during replication. They become genotoxic damaging the genetic
information in cells.
3. Biological factors:
o Viruses: Some viruses integrate their genetic material into the host genome,
causing mutations such as HIV, HPV etc can.
o Age: some mutations can occur due to old age as DNA repair takes longer.

Environmental Factors
• Pollution: Exposure to certain pollutants and industrial chemicals can increase
the risk of mutations.
• Lifestyle Factors: Diet (overcooked meat, refined sugar etc), smoking tobacco,
and exposure to harmful substances can also contribute to mutations as they
can lead to DNA modification.

SIGNIFICANCE OF GENETIC DISORDERS CAUSED BY MUTATIONS

a. Albinism: is an inherited condition in which the body produces little or no melanin,
the pigment that gives colour to the skin and hair. Albinism is caused by a mutation in
one or more genes that control melanin production.
It's an autosomal recessive disorder, meaning you inherit two mutated genes, one from
each parent. It caused by recessive alleles to the skin condition.
An individual with albinism has a pale skin which makes them very sensitive to sunlight
which burns the skin, they are also sensitive to light. He/she needs to wear protective
clothing to prevent skin cancer and put on glasses and shades.

b. Downs Syndrome: is caused by the presence of an extra chromosome in the

somatic/body cells. The extra chromosome results from nondisjunction/non-separation
of chromosome set number 21 during gamete formation in meiosis cell division.
For human beings, 47 chromosomes will result instead of 46. The presence of the extra
chromosome causes unusual characteristics in the baby. These usually include
lowered life expectancy, unorderly body development and mental retardation.

Genetic Variation

This is the genetic difference in characteristics between individuals of the same species.
There are two main types of variation: Continuous and Discontinuous.

1. Continuous variation
This is the form of variation which there are small differences amongst individuals of the
same species and many intermediate forms.
-These differences can be measured.
-This form of variation is because of many genes/polygenes of small effect and
contributed by the environment in some cases.
-Examples of continuous variation include height and intelligence quotients (IQ) in humans,
weight.

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2. Discontinuous variation
- This form/type of variation shows clear/sharp differences amongst individuals of a
species.
- It does not show any intermediate forms.
- This can be due a few or single gene with little effect from the environment.

Summary

How variation and competition can lead to differential survival

NATURAL SELECTION

Natural selection is the process by which favorable heritable traits become more common in
successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms, and unfavorable heritable
traits become less common, due to differential reproduction of genotypes.

Importance of natural selection as a possible mechanism of evolution

✓ It ensures survival of certain population with good heritable characters
✓ It is also important in producing resistant individuals, for example sickle cell anaemia is
found in African regions which are malaria infested region. The carries of the sickle cell
trait gives some protection against malaria even though those that have the disease die.
✓ Natural selection can give rise to new species, for example the polymorphism in the
peppered moth. Species can be formed by reproductive and geographical isolation.

How Natural selection occurs (as it leads to a new species)

1. A change or challenging situation arises which required adaptation otherwise the species
face extinction.
2. There is variation due to mutation in traits while some organisms lack these new traits.
3. The new members withstand the new challenge while the ones that did not vary become
vulnerable to the change

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4. There is heredity, the new traits are passed to the new generation by reproduction which
increases in number while the vulnerable one get eliminated thus giving rise to a new and
more adapted species.

Artificial selection
Natural selection is not the only agent of selection.
Artificial selection, also known as selective breeding, is a process where humans selectively
breed plants and animals for desirable traits. This technique has been widely used in the
agricultural industry and offers several benefits:

1. Improved Crop Yields

• Higher Productivity: By selecting plants with higher yields, farmers can produce more
food in a piece of land, enhancing overall productivity.
• Resistance to Diseases and Pests: Breeding plants that are resistant to diseases and
pests reduces crop losses and the need for chemical pesticides.

2. Enhanced Nutritional Value

• Nutrient-Rich Varieties: Selective breeding can enhance the nutritional content of
crops, such as increasing the vitamin or mineral content, which can help address
nutritional deficiencies.

3. Better Adaptation to Environmental Conditions

• Drought and Flood Tolerance: Developing crop varieties that can withstand extreme
weather conditions ensures food security in the face of climate change.
• Soil Adaptation: Breeding plants that can thrive in poor soil conditions can expand the
areas available for agriculture.

4. Improved Livestock
• Higher Meat, Milk, and Egg Production: Selective breeding of livestock for traits like
faster growth rates, larger size, and higher milk or egg production increases food supply.
• Disease Resistance: Breeding animals that are resistant to common diseases can
reduce mortality rates and improve overall herd health.

5. Economic Benefits
• Increased Profitability: Higher yields and improved quality of agricultural products
lead to increased profitability for farmers.
• Reduced Costs: By breeding plants and animals that require fewer resources (e.g., less
water, feed, or fertilizer), costs are reduced, benefiting both farmers and consumers.

6. Quality and Variety

• Superior Taste and Texture: Selective breeding can enhance the taste, texture, and
appearance of fruits, vegetables, and animal products, making them more appealing to
consumers.
• Diverse Varieties: Developing a variety of crop and livestock breeds ensures genetic
diversity, which is crucial for resilience against diseases and changing environmental
conditions.

7. Sustainable Agriculture
• Reduced Chemical Usage: With disease-resistant and pest-resistant varieties, the
need for chemical inputs like pesticides and herbicides is reduced, promoting more
sustainable farming practices.

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• Environmental Conservation: Selective breeding can lead to crops and livestock that
are better adapted to local environments, reducing the impact on natural ecosystems.