CHAPER TWO

DESIGN OF DC MACHINE
What is a DC Machine? `
A DC machine is an electromechanical energy alteration device.
The working principle of a DC machine is when electric current flows
through a coil within a magnetic field, and then the magnetic force
generates a torque which rotates the dc motor. The DC machines are
classified into two types such as DC generator as well as DC motor. The
main function of the DC generator is to convert mechanical power to DC
electrical power, whereas a DC motor converts DC power to mechanical
power. The AC motor is frequently used in the industrial applications for
altering electrical energy to mechanical energy. However, a DC motor is
applicable where the good speed regulation & ample range of speeds are
necessary like in electric-transaction systems.
Applications of DC Machines
In the present-day world, the electrical energy is generated in bulk in the
form of an alternating current. Hence, the use of DC machines, i.e., DC
generators and motors are very limited. They are mainly used in supplying
excitation of small and medium range alternators. The
Industrial Applications of DC are in Electrolytic Processes, Welding
processes and Variable speed motor drives.

OUTPUT EQUATION
Pa = power developed by armature in kW
P = rating of machine in kW
E = generated emf , volts; V = terminal voltage, volts
p = number of poles; Ia = armature current , A
Iz = current in each conductor, A
a = number of parallel path; Z = number of armature conductor
N = speed in rpm; n= speed in rps
D= armature diameter, m ; L = core length, m
Ф = flux per pole, weber ; τp = pole pitch
Pa = power developed by armature in kW
= E x Ia x 10-3
And E = p Ф Zn/a
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Thus Pa = (p Ф Z n)/a x Ia x 10-3 = (pФ) (IaZ/a) n x 10-3
= (pФ) (Iz Z) n x 10-3 since Ia/a = Iz
Now pФ = total magnetic loading
And Bav = (pФ)/(π D L) or pФ = Bav x π D L
q = specific electric loading = (Iz x Z)/ π D
or Iz Z = q π D
From above equations
Pa = (Bav π DL) (q π D) n x 10-3
= ( π2 Bav q 10-3) D2 Ln
= co D2 Ln where co = π2 Bav q 10-3 = output coefficient
Also
D2 L = (1/ co ) (P/η) Pa = P/η η= efficiency of machine 3
Estimation of Pa:
In case of generator
Pa = input power – rotational losses
= (output power/efficiency) – rotational losses
= P/η – rotational losses
Rotational losses = friction, windage and iron losses
In case of motor
Pa = output power + rotational losses
= P + rotational losses
In case of large machines very small difference between P and Pa.
So friction, windage and iron losses could be neglected.
Pa = P/η for generator 4

Pa = P for motor
In case of small machines friction, windage and iron losses can
not be neglected.
Assume friction, windage and iron losses = 1/3 (total losses)
Total losses = input power – output power
= P/η – P = P(1- η)/ η
Hence friction, windage and iron losses = P(1- η)/ 3η
For small motors
Pa = P +(friction, windage and iron losses)
Pa = P + P(1- η)/ 3η = P(1+2η)/ 3η

For small generators

Pa = P/η - (friction, windage and iron losses)
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= P(2+η)/ 3η
Factors affecting size of rotating machines
Output equation of DC machine reflects that the product D2L
will decrease with the increase of speed and/or output coefficient

Product D2L reflects the volume of active parts of rotating

machine, hence decrease in its value ultimately reduces the size
and cost.
1.Speed
Volume of active part of rotating machine varies inversely
proportional to the speed.
For the same output a machine designed with greater speed
will have smaller size and hence lesser cost.
 When the speed is not specific criteria, highest practical
speed should be selected.
2.Output coefficient
𝑃𝑎
C𝑜 = 2 = 𝜋 2 𝐵𝑎𝑣 𝑞 × 10−3
𝐷 𝐿𝑛
Volume of active part of rotating machine varies inversely
proportional to the output coefficient.
Economic point of view, output coefficient should be high
as possible to reduce size and cost.
As output coefficient is product of specific magnetic loading
and specific electrical loading, its value depends on
selection of these loadings.
Higher value of specific magnetic loading and electrical
loading gives much higher value of output coefficient which
further helps to reduce volume of machine and
consecutively size and cost.
But beyond some extent higher value of specific magnetic
loading and electrical loading badly affect the performance
characteristics such as temperature rise, efficiency, power
factor, commutation etc.
Factors affecting selection of high specific magnetic
loading for DC machines
The total flux around the armature or stator periphery at the air gap is
called the total magnetic loading.
The average flux density over the air gap of rotating machine is called
specific magnetic loading.
Flux density in teeth: if a high value of flux density is assumed for air
gap, the flux density in armature teeth also becomes high. The
maximum value of flux density in the teeth at minimum section
should not exceed a value of 2.2 wb/m2 because at higher flux
density
i) increased iron losses and
ii) higher ampere turns requires for passing the flux through teeth
leading to increase copper losses and cost of copper.
Frequency: the frequency of flux reversal in the armature is given by
f=NP/120. Higher frequency will result increased iron losses in the
armature core and teeth. So there is a limitation in choosing higher
Bav for a machine having higher frequency.
Voltage: for high voltage machine space required for insulation is large.
Thus for a given diameter less space is available for iron leading to
narrower teeth. Therefore lower value of Bav has to be taken
otherwise teeth flux density increases beyond the acceptable limit.
Value of Bav varies from 0.4 to 0.8 wb/m2.
Factors affecting selection of high specific electric loading (q):
Temperature rise: A higher value of ‘q’ results in a high temperature
rise of windings. A high value of ‘q’ can be used for machine using
insulating material which withstand high temperature rise.
Speed of machine: for high speed machine, the ventilation is better and
greater losses could be dissipated. Thus, a higher value of ‘q’ can be
used for higher speed machine.
Voltage: machine with high voltage require large space for insulation,
therefore there is less space for conductors. For high voltage
machines use small value of ampere conductors per meter.
Size of machine: in large size machine there is more space for
accommodating copper. Therefore, high value of ‘q’ could be used.
Armature reaction: if using high value of ‘q’, armature mmf
becomes high. This means under loaded condition there will
be grater distortion of field form resulting in a large reduction
in the value of flux. To compensate this field ampere turns are
needed to be increased. Thus, overa ll cost of copper in the
machine will increase.
Commutation: a high value of ‘q’ means either ampere
conductors used are more or diameter is small. Reactance
voltage increases with high ampere conductors. With small
diameter, deeper slots are used. Deeper slots also give higher
reactance voltage. Higher reactance voltage results in bad
commutation. Thus, using higher ‘q’ affects the commutation
badly.
The value of ‘q’ varies from 15000 to 50000 ampere conductors
per meter.
Core length:
Factors affecting the length of core:
i) Cost: the manufacturing cost of a machine with large core
length, is less. This is because the proportion of inactive
copper to active copper is smaller for grater the length of
core. Therefore it is desirable to have large core length for
less cost.
ii) Ventilation: the ventilation of large core length is difficult
because the central portion of the core tends to attain a high
temperature rise. If long armature are necessary special
means for ventilation of core must be provided.
Limiting value of core length: the emf induced in a conductor
should exceed 7.5/TcNc in order that the maximum value at
load between adjacent segments limited to 30 V.
The voltage in a conductor at no load ez = Bav L Va
For a limiting case: Bav L Va = 7.5/ Tc Nc
Limiting value of core length L = 7.5/ ( Bav Va Tc Nc)
Bav = average gap density wb/m2
Va = peripheral speed, m/s
Tc = number of turns per
coil
Nc = number of coils between adjacent segment
Armature diameter:
The peripheral speed lies between 15 to 30 m/s. As the diameter of the
armature increases, the peripheral velocity of the armature v = πDN/60
m/s , centrifugal force and its effects increases. Therefore the machine
must be mechanically made robust to withstand the effect of centrifugal
force. This increases the cost of the machine. In general for normal
construction, peripheral velocity should not be greater than 30 m/s as
for as possible.
Limiting value of armature diameter:
Output P = E Ia x 10 -3 kW
E = emf per conductor x conductors per parallel path
= ez Z/a
P = ( ez Z/a) Ia x 10-3 = ez (Iz . Z/a ) x 10-3
= ez π D q x 10-3 D = (P x 10-3)/ (π q ez)
Selection of number of poles
Factors affecting the number of poles:
1. Frequency: As the number of poles increases, frequency of the
induced emf f = PN/120 increases, core loss in the armature
increases and therefore efficiency of the machine decreases.
2. Weight of the iron used for the yoke: Since the flux carried by
the yoke is approximately Ф/2 and the total flux ФT = PФ is a constant
for a given machine,

flux density in the yoke It is clear that Ay α 1/P

as By is also almost constant for a given iron. Thus, as the number
of poles increases, Ay and hence the weight of iron used for the
yoke reduces.
3. Weight of iron used for the armature core (from the core loss
point of view):

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Length of air gap:
i) Armature reaction: to prevent excessive distortion of field form by
armature reaction the field mmf must be large as compare to armature
mmf. A machine designed with long air gap requires large field mmf.
Thus the distortion effect of armature reaction can be reduced by large
air gap length.
ii) Circulating current: if air gap length is small, a slight irregularity in
the air gap would result large circulating current.
iii) Noise: the operation of machine with large air gap length is
comparatively quite.
iv) Cooling: machine with large air gap length have better ventilation.
v) Pole face losses: if the length of air gap is made large, the difference in
air gap flux density due to slotting are small. Therefore pulsation loss
in the pole faces decreases.

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Estimation of air gap length:
Mmf required for air gap ATg = 800000 Bg Kg lg
And armature mmf per pole ATa = qτ/2
The value of gap mmf is normally between 0.5 to 0.7 of armature
mmf. The usual value is 0.55.
ATg = (0.5 to 0.7) ATa = (0.5 to 0.7) qτ/2
From above equations lg = (0.5 to 0.7) acτ/1600000KgBg
Gap contraction factor Kg may assumed as 1.15.
Usually the value of air gap length lies between 0.01 to 0.015 of
pole pitch.
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Number of armature conductors
The generated emf in the armature
E = V + Ia Rm for generator
E = V - Ia Rm for motor
where V = terminal voltage and
Rm = sum of voltage drop in the armature winding, inter-pole winding,
series winding and brush contact drop
i) For large 500 volt machine IaRm = 2 to 2.5% of terminal voltage
ii) For small 250 volt machine IaRm = 5 to 10% of terminal voltage
Total number of conductors in series Zc = E/mean emf per conductor
= E/ez
For a simplex lap winding Zc represent total number of armature
conductor per pole. (A=P)
For a simplax wave winding Zc represent half the total number of
conductor on the armature irrespective of number of poles. (A=2)
Number of armature slots:
The following factors are to be considered while selecting the
number of slots:
1. Flux pulsations:- flux pulsation means changes in the air gap
flux because of changes in the air gap reluctance between he
pole faces and irregular armature core surface. Flux pulsation
losses rise to eddy current losses and produce magnetic noise.
The flux pulsations are reduced with increased number of
slots.
2. Cooling:-for large number of slots, lesser number of
conductors per slot therefore, cooling is better.
3. Commutation:- for commutation point of view, large number
of slots and smaller number of conductors per slot are better.
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4. Tooth width:- for large number of slots the slot pitch reduces
and also the tooth width. With reduction in tooth width flux
density at the minimum section of tooth increases causing
increase in iron losses.
5. Cost:- cost of punching slots in stampings increases with the
number of slots to be punched.
Exercise
1. Determine the diameter and length of the armature core for a 55kW, 110V, 1000rpm,
and 4pole dc shunt generator. Assume: Specific magnetic loading 0.5T, Specific electric
loading 26000 ampere –conductor per meter and length of core about 1.1 times the pole
arc, allow 10A for field current and a voltage drop of 4V for the armature circuit.
Determine also the number of armature conductors

2. Determine the number of poles, armature diameter and core length for the preliminary
design of a 500kW, 400V, 600 rpm, dc shunt generator lap winding assuming an average
flux density in the air gap of 0.7 T and specific electric loading of 38400 ampere-
conductors per meter. Assume core length/ pole arc = 1.1 and the current per conductor
(Iz) = 200A. allow 10A for field current and a voltage drop of 10V for the armature
circuit.
3. For a preliminary design of a 50hp, 230V, 1400 rpm dc motor, calculate the armature
diameter and core length and peripheral speed. Assume specific magnetic loading 0.5T,
specific electric loading 25000 ampere- conductors per meter, efficiency 0.9. Assume core
length/ pole arc = 1.1