UNIT 2

Introduction of Nervous System:

The nervous system is your body’s command center. It’s made up of your brain, spinal cord
and nerves. Your nervous system works by sending messages, or electrical signals, between
your brain and all the other parts of your body.

These signals tell you to breathe, move, speak and see, for example. Your nervous system
keeps track of what’s going on inside and outside of your body and decides how to respond
to any situation you’re in.

Your nervous system regulates complicated processes like thoughts and memory. It also
plays an essential role in the things your body does without thinking, like blushing, sweating
and blinking.

Function of Nervous System:

Your nervous system’s main function is to send messages from various parts of your body to
your brain, and from your brain back out to your body to tell your body what to do.
These messages regulate your:

Thoughts, memory, learning and feelings.

Movements (balance and coordination).
Senses (how your brain interprets what you see, hear, taste, touch and feel).
Wound healing.
Sleep.
Heartbeat and breathing patterns.
Response to stressful situations, including sweat production.
Digestion.
Body processes, such as puberty and aging.

Working of Nervous System:

 Your nervous system uses nerve cells called neurons to send signals, or messages, all
over your body. These electrical signals travel among your brain, skin, organs, glands
and muscles.

 The messages help you move your limbs and feel sensations, like pain. Your eyes,
ears, tongue, nose and the nerves all over your body take in information about your
environment. Then, nerves carry that data to and from your brain.

There are different types of neurons. Each type of neuron has a different job:

 Motor neurons take signals from your brain and spinal cord to your muscles. They
help you move. They also assist with breathing, swallowing and speaking.
  Sensory neurons take information from your senses (what you see, touch, taste, etc.)
to your brain.
 Interneurons communicate between motor and sensory neurons.

 These neurons regulate your movement in response to sensory information (like

moving away from a hot surface) and play a role in how you learn, think and
remember.

Parts of the nervous system:

The nervous system has two main parts:

Central nervous system (CNS): Your brain and spinal cord make up your CNS. Your brain
reads signals from your nerves to regulate how you think, move and feel.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS): Your PNS is made up of a network of nerves. The
nerves branch out from your spinal cord. This system relays information from your brain
and spinal cord to your organs, arms, legs, fingers and toes.

There are two parts to your peripheral nervous system:

The somatic nervous system guides your voluntary movements.

The autonomic nervous system regulates the activities you do without thinking about them
(involuntary movements).

The Nervous System Looks Like:

Nerve cells (neurons) are the basis of your nervous system. There are 100 billion neurons in
your brain. These cells connect throughout your entire body.

 Imagine your nervous system as a tree.

 Your central nervous system is the trunk of the tree that contains your brain and spinal
cord.
 The tree branches are your peripheral nervous system (nerves).
 The branches extend from the truck (brain and spinal cord) to reach all parts of your
body.

What is Unconsciousness?

Unconsciousness is the state in which a person is unable to respond to stimuli and appears
to be asleep. They may be unconscious for a few seconds — as in fainting — or for longer
periods of time.

People who become unconscious don’t respond to loud sounds or shaking. They may even
stop breathing or their pulse may become faint.

This calls for immediate emergency attention. The sooner the person receives emergency
first aid, the better their outlook will be.
 What are indicators that a person may become unconscious?
Symptoms that may indicate that unconsciousness is about to occur include:

sudden inability to respond

slurred speech
a rapid heart rate
confusion
dizziness or Able to walk with some assistance

How do you Administer First Aid:

If you see a person who has become unconscious, first check whether they’re breathing.

If they’re not breathing:

If they’re not breathing, have someone call 911 or your local emergency services
immediately and prepare to begin CPR.

If they’re breathing:

If they’re breathing, take steps to get them into the recovery position. This helps them
maintain a clear airway and decreases the risk of choking.

Need to follow the instructions listed below:

 Kneel on the floor next to them.

 Take the arm that’s closest to you and position it so that it’s perpendicular to their
body, forming a right angle. The hand should be facing upward.
 Take their other hand and position it so that the back of the hand is pressed
against the cheek that’s closest to you. Hold this position through the next few
steps.
 With your free hand, bend their knee that’s farthest from you. Their foot should
be resting flat against the floor.
 Help them get onto their side by pulling on the bent knee. After you roll them
over, ensure that their top arm is still helping to support their head.
 Tilt their head back and lift their chin. This helps open their airway.
 Check their airway to make sure there’s no obstruction.
 Keep an eye on their condition, and remain with them until emergency personnel
arrives.
 If they’re bleeding heavily
 If there’s major bleeding occurring, find the source of the injury and place direct
pressure on the bleeding area until the bleeding’s slowed and expert help has
arrived.
Faculty Name- Mrs. Neha Dixit Department of Management Studies
 CPR

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a lifesaving technique that's useful in many

emergencies, such as a heart attack or near drowning, in which someone's breathing or
heartbeat has stopped.

CPR stands for CardioPulmonary Resuscitation, an emergency procedure that is a

combination of chest compressions and artificial ventilation (breathing) used to save a
person’s life when a person’s heart stops beating or breathing ceases. When performed
right away, CPR can increase a person’s chances of survival after cardiac arrest.
The American Red Cross guidelines for performing CPR are as follows:

Before Giving CPR

1. Check the scene and the person
 Make sure the setting is safe
 Tap the person on the shoulder and shout, “Are you OK?” to make sure the person
actually needs help

2. Call 911 for assistance

 If it's clear help is needed, call 911 (or ask a bystander to call)
o Send someone to get an AED if one is available
o If there is no AED available or a there is no bystander to access it, stay
with the victim, call 911, and prepare to give assistance

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 3. Open the airway
 With the person lying on his or her back, tilt the head back slightly to lift the chin

4. Check for breathing

 Listen carefully for sounds of breathing, for no more than 10 seconds
(occasional gasping sounds are not the same as breathing)
 If there is no breathing, begin CPR

Red Cross CPR Steps

5. Begin chest compressions

 Position hands one on top of the other in the middle of the chest
 Push hard, push fast
o Use your body weight to help administer compressions at least 2
inches deep and delivered at a rate of at least 100 compressions per
minute

6. Deliver rescue breaths*

 With the person's head tilted back slightly and the chin lifted, pinch the nose
shut and place your mouth over the person's mouth to make a complete seal
 Blow into the person's mouth to make the chest rise
 Deliver two rescue breaths, then continue compressions
 Note: If the chest does not rise with the initial rescue breath, re-tilt the head
before delivering the second breath. If the chest doesn't rise with the second
breath, the person may be choking. After each subsequent set of 30 chest
compressions, and before attempting breaths, look for an object and, if seen,
remove it.
 *Note: Rescue breaths are recommended by the American Red Cross. The
American Heart Association recommends calling 911 and delivering chest
compressions only.

7. Continue CPR steps

 Continue with cycles of chest compressions and breathing until:
o The person exhibits signs of life, such as breathing
o An AED becomes available, once it is applied continue CPR if patient is
still unresponsive
o EMS or a trained medical responder arrives on scene and takes over

Hand Washing
Bacteria and viruses are easily spread when a sick person sneezes, coughs and talks within
close distance to you. You can also get sick when you touch germ-infected surfaces and
then touch your face. A simple 20-second hand washing remains one of the best ways to
keep yourself healthy and stop the spread of bacteria and viruses.

Why is washing my hands important?

Washing your hands is one of the easiest and most important things you can do to stay
healthy and stop the spread of bacteria and viruses such as colds and flu and perhaps
even coronavirus COVID-19.
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Steps of hand washing

Dressing and Bandaging

A dressing is a sterile pad or compress applied to a wound to promote healing and protect
the wound from further harm. A dressing is designed to be in direct contact with the
wound, as distinguished from a bandage, which is most often used to hold a dressing in
place. Many modern dressings are self-adhesive.

The terms ‘dressing’ and ‘bandage’ are often used synonymously. In fact, the term
‘dressing’ refers more correctly to the primary layer in contact with the wound. A bandage
is a piece of material used either to covering wounds, to keep dressings in place, to
applying pressure controlling bleeding, to support a medical device such as a splint, or on
its own to provide support to the body. It can also be used to restrict a part of the body.

Dressing Dressings are used to cover wounds, prevent contamination and control bleeding.
In providing first aid we commonly used self-adhesive dressings or gauze dressings :

• Adhesive dressings are used mainly for small wounds. They come in many
different sizes, including specific types for placement on fingertips.

• Gauze dressings are thick, cotton pads used to cover larger wounds. They are held
in place with tape or by wrapping with a gauze strip (bandage).

Dressings must be sterile and absorbent to deter the growth of bacteria, and should be left
in place until the wound heals, unless it needs to be regularly cleaned.

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Bandage
The three major types of bandages are: roller bandages, tubular bandages and triangular
bandages. They are necessary for :
• covering wounds,
• applying pressure controlling bleeding, or
• supporting a strain or sprain.

There is a specific bandage made for each of these tasks.

Roller bandages are long strips of material. Basically there are two types of roller
bandages :
• An elastic roller bandage is used to apply support to a strain or sprain and is wrapped
around the joint or limb many times. It should be applied firmly, but not tightly enough
to reduce circulation.
• Cotton or linen roller bandages are used to cover gauze dressings. They come in many
different widths and are held in place with tape, clips or pins.

They can also be used for wound compression if necessary, as they are typically sterile.

Tubular bandages are used on fingers and toes because those areas are difficult to
bandage with gauze. They can also be used to keep dressings in place on parts of the
body with lots of movement, such as the elbow or knee.

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Triangular bandages are made of cotton or disposable paper. They have a variety of uses:
• When opened up, they make slings to support, elevate or immobilize upper limbs.
This may be necessary with a broken bone or a strain, or to protect a limb after an
operation.
• Folded narrowly, a triangular bandage becomes a cold compress that can help reduce
swelling. They are used also for applying pressure to a wound to control bleeding.

BASIC BANDAGING FORMS

Each bandaging technique consists of various basic forms of bandaging. The following five
basic forms of bandaging can be used to apply most types of bandages:
1. circular bandaging
2. spiral bandaging
3. figure-of-eight bandaging
4. recurrent bandaging
5. reverse spiral bandage

Circular bandaging is used to hold dressings on body parts such as arms, legs, chest or
abdomen or for starting others bandaging techniques.

For circular bandage we used strips of cloth or gauze roller bandage or triangular bandage
folded down to form strip of bandage (cravat).

In the circular bandaging technique the layers of bandage are applied over the top of each
other:
• With the roll on the inner aspect, unroll the bandage either toward you or
laterally, holding the
loose end until it is secured by the first circle of the bandage.
• Two or three turns may be needed to cover an area adequately. Hold the bandage in
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place with

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tape or a clip.
Almost all bandaging techniques start and end with a few circular bandaging turns.

Spiral bandaging
Spiral bandages are usually used for cylindrical parts of the body. An elasticated
bandage can also be used to apply spiral bandaging to a tapered body part. Despite the
increasing diameter of the body part, the elasticity will allow the bandage to fit closely to
the skin.
With each spiral turn, part of the preceding turn is covered generally by 1/3 of the width
of the bandage.

Figure-of-eight bandage involves two turns, with the strips of bandage crossing each
other at the side where the joint flexes or extends. It is usually used to bind a flexing joint
or body part below and above the joint.

The figure-of-eight bandage can be applied using a roller bandage in two ways:

• Following a circular turn around the middle of the joint, the bandage should fan
out upwards and
downwards. The turns should cross at the side where the limb flexes.
• The figure-of-eight turns can also be applied from a starting point located below or
above the joint crease, working towards the joint itself. The cross-over points will be
located at either the flexing or extending side of the joint; the side where the turns do not
cross remains uncovered.

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Recurrent bandaging is used for blunt body parts consists partly of recurrent turns. The
bandage is applied repeatedly from one side across the top to the other side of the blunt
body part. To be able to fix the recurrent turns well, not only the wound, but the entire
length of the blunt body part should be covered.

Depending on the width of the bandage and the body part, successive turns either cover the
preceding turn fully or partially.
Recurrent bandages are fixed using circular or spiral turns.

Reverse spiral bandage is a spiral bandage where the bandage is folded back on itself by 180°
after each turn.
This V-shaped fold allows the bandage to fit to the tapered shape of the body part all the way
along.
This type of bandaging is required when using non-elasticated bandages. The development of
elasticated fixing bandages, which are applied to tapered body parts using the spiral
technique, means that the reverse spiral technique is far less commonly used nowadays.

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APPLICATION ROLLER BANDAGES
1. Select the appropriate bandage material for the injury.
– Use gauze or a flex roller for bleeding injuries of the forearm, upper arm, thigh,
and lower leg.

– Use a flexible roller bandage for bleeding injuries of the hand, wrist, elbow,
shoulder, knee, ankle, and foot.
– Use an elastic roller bandage for amputations, arterial bleeding and sprains.

It is best to use a bandage with some degree of stretch in the weave. This will make the
bandage easy to use and more likely to stay in place for many hours.

However, the correct application technique is essential to provide comfort and adequate
support for the affected part.

2. Select the appropriate width of bandage

The width of the bandage to use is determined by the size of the part to be covered.
guide, the following widths are recommended:

– Hand and fingers 50mm

– Lower arm, elbow, hand and foot 75mm
– Upper arm, knee and lower leg 100mm
– Large leg or trunk 150mm

3. Prepare the patient for bandaging.

– Position the body part to be bandaged function).
– Ensure that the body part that is to be bandaged is clean and dry.

4. Apply the anchor wrap.

– Lay the bandage end at an angle across the area to be bandaged. (See Figure A.)
– Bring the bandage under the area turn. (See Figure B.)
– Fold the uncovered triangle of the bandage end back over the second turn. (See Figure C.)
– Cover the triangle with a third turn, completing the anchor. (See Figure D)

5. Apply the bandage wrap to the injury

Use a circular wrap to end other bandage patterns, such as a pressure bandage, or to cover
small dressings (A)
– Use a spiral wrap for a large cylindrical area such as a forearm, upper arm, calf, thigh. The
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 spiral wrap is used to cover an area larger than a circular wrap can cover(B).
– Use a spiral reverse wrap to cover small to large conical areas, for example, from ankle
to knee (C)
– Use a figure eight wrap to support or limit joint movement ankle, or foot (D)
– Use a spical wrap (same as the figure eight wrap) to cover a much larger area such as
the hip or shoulder.
– Use a recurrent wrap for anchoring a dressing on fingers, the head, or on a stump (E)

6. Check the circulation after application of the bandage

– Check the pulse distal to the injury.
– Blanch the fingernail or toenail, if applicable.
– Inspect the skin below the bandaging for discoloration.
– Ask the patient if any numbness, coldness, bandaged part.
– Remove and reapply the bandage, if necessary.

7. Elevate the injured extremities

– to reduce swelling (edema) and
– control bleeding, if appropriate.

How to apply bandages to specific part of body

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FIRST AID RELATED WITH RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Basics of Respiratory system

Your respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. This
system helps your body absorb oxygen from the air so your organs can work. It also cleans

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waste gases, such as carbon dioxide, from your blood. Common problems include allergies,
diseases or infections.

What is the respiratory system?

The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. It
includes your airways, lungs and blood vessels. The muscles that power your lungs are
also part of the respiratory system. These parts work together to move oxygen
throughout the body and clean out waste gases like carbon dioxide.

What are the parts of the respiratory system?

The respiratory system has many different parts that work together to help you breathe.
Each group of parts has many separate components.

Your airways deliver air to your lungs. Your airways are a complicated system that
includes your:

 Mouth and nose: Openings that pull air from outside your body into
your respiratory system.
 Sinuses: Hollow areas between the bones in your head that help regulate
the temperature and humidity of the air you inhale.
 Pharynx (throat): Tube that delivers air from your mouth and nose to the
trachea (windpipe).
 Trachea: Passage connecting your throat and lungs.
 Bronchial tubes: Tubes at the bottom of your windpipe that connect into
each lung.
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  Lungs: Two organs that remove oxygen from the air and pass it into your blood.

From your lungs, your bloodstream delivers oxygen to all your organs and other tissues.

Muscles and bones help move the air you inhale into and out of your lungs. Some of the
bones and muscles in the respiratory system include your:

 Diaphragm: Muscle that helps your lungs pull in air and push it out.
 Ribs: Bones that surround and protect your lungs and heart.

When you breathe out, your blood carries carbon dioxide and other waste out of the body.
Other components that work with the lungs and blood vessels include:

 Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide takes place.
 Bronchioles: Small branches of the bronchial tubes that lead to the alveoli.
 Capillaries: Blood vessels in the alveoli walls that move oxygen and carbon dioxide.
 Lung lobes: Sections of the lungs — three lobes in the right lung and two in the
left lung.
 Pleura: Thin sacs that surround each lung lobe and separate your lungs from
the chest wall.

Some of the other components of your respiratory system include:

 Cilia: Tiny hairs that move in a wave-like motion to filter dust and other
irritants out of your airways.
 Epiglottis: Tissue flap at the entrance to the trachea that closes when you
swallow to keep food and liquids out of your airway.
 Larynx (voice box): Hollow organ that allows you to talk and make sounds
when air moves in and out.

What conditions affect the respiratory system?

Many conditions can affect the organs and tissues that make up the respiratory system.
Some develop due to irritants you breathe in from the air, including viruses or bacteria
that cause infection. Others occur as a result of disease or getting older.

Conditions that can cause inflammation (swelling, irritation and pain) or otherwise affect the
respiratory system include:

 Allergies: Inhaling proteins, such as dust, mold, and pollen, can cause
respiratory allergies in some people. These proteins can cause inflammation in your
airways.
 Asthma: A chronic (long-term) disorder, asthma causes inflammation in
the airways that can make breathing difficult.
 Infection: Infections can lead to pneumonia (inflammation of the lungs)
or bronchitis (inflammation of the bronchial tubes). Common respiratory infections
include the flu (influenza) or a cold.

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  Disease: Respiratory disorders include lung cancer and chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD). These illnesses can harm the respiratory
system’s ability to deliver oxygen throughout the body and filter out waste
gases.
 Aging: Lung capacity decreases as you get older.
 Damage: Damage to the respiratory system can cause breathing problems.

Choking

Choking is the mechanical obstruction of the flow of air from the environment into the
lungs.
CAUSES:
• Introduction of foreign object into airway, which becomes stuck
• Respiratory diseases
• Compression of airway (e.g. Strangling)
SYMPTOMS:
• Unable to speak or cry out
• Face turns blue from lack of oxygen
• Victim grabbing at his/her throat
• Weak coughing, laboured breathing produces high-pitched noise
• Unconsciousness

TREATMENT:
• Encourage victim to cough
• Back slaps: Use of hard blows with heel of the hand on the upper back of the victim
• Abdominal thrusts: Standing behind the victim and using hands to exert pressure on
bottom of the diaphragm (May result in injuries like bruises or fracture of ribs)

Drowning

Drowning is a type of suffocation induced by the submersion or immersion of the mouth

and nose in a liquid. Most instances of fatal drowning occur alone or in situations where
others present are either unaware of the victim's situation or unable to offer assistance.
After successful resuscitation, drowning victims may experience breathing problems,
vomiting, confusion, or unconsciousness. Occasionally, victims may not begin experiencing
these symptoms for several hours after they are rescued. An incident of drowning can also
cause further complications for victims due to low body temperature, aspiration of vomit,
or acute respiratory distress syndrome (respiratory failure from lung inflammation).

Strangulation
During an incidence of strangulation, closing off the airway makes breathing
impossible, and a victim may lose consciousness due to the blocking of blood flow to and
from the brain. Strangulation may obstruct the carotid arteries in the neck, depriving the
brain of oxygen.

Swelling within throat

Pharyngitis, or sore throat, is discomfort, pain, or scratchiness in the throat. It often makes
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it painful to swallow.

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Causes

Pharyngitis is caused by swelling in the back of the throat (pharynx) between the tonsils
and the voice box (larynx).

Most sore throats are caused by colds, the flu, coxsackie virus or mono (mononucleosis).

Bacteria that can cause pharyngitis in some cases:

 Strep throat is caused by group A streptococcus.

 Less commonly, bacterial diseases such as gonorrhea and chlamydia can cause
sore throat.
Most cases of pharyngitis occur during the colder months. The illness often spreads among
family members and close contacts.

Symptoms
The main symptom is a sore throat.

Other symptoms may include:

 Fever
 Headache
 Joint pain and muscle aches
 Skin rashes
 Swollen lymph nodes (glands) in the neck

Exams and Tests

Your health care provider will perform a physical exam and look at your throat.

A rapid test or throat culture to test for strep throat may be done. Other laboratory tests
may be done, depending on the suspected cause.

FIRST AID RELATED WITH HEART, BLOOD AND CIRCULATION

Circulatory system
The circulatory system (cardiovascular system) pumps blood from the heart to the lungs
to get oxygen. The heart then sends oxygenated blood through arteries to the rest of the
body. The veins carry oxygen-poor blood back to the heart to start the circulation process
over. Your circulatory system is critical to healthy organs, muscles and tissues.

What is the circulatory system?

Your heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory system. The main function of the
circulatory system is to provide oxygen, nutrients and hormones to muscles, tissues and
organs throughout your body. Another part of the circulatory system is to remove waste
from cells and organs so your body can dispose of it.

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Your heart pumps blood to the body through a network of arteries and veins (blood
vessels). Your circulatory system can also be defined as your cardiovascular system. Cardio
means heart, and vascular refers to blood vessels.

What does the circulatory system do?

The circulatory system’s function is to move blood throughout the body. This blood
circulation keeps organs, muscles and tissues healthy and working to keep you alive.

The circulatory system also helps your body get rid of waste products. This waste includes:

 Carbon dioxide from respiration (breathing).

 Other chemical byproducts from your organs.
 Waste from things you eat and drink.

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 What are the circulatory system parts?

The parts of your circulatory system are your:

 Heart, a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout your body.

 Blood vessels, which include your arteries, veins and capillaries.
 Blood, made up of red and white blood cells, plasma and platelets.

What are the types of blood vessels?

There are three main types of blood vessels:

 Arteries: Arteries are thin, muscular tubes that carry oxygenated blood away
from the heart and to every part of your body. The aorta is the body’s largest
artery. It starts at the heart and travels up the chest (ascending aorta) and then
down into the stomach (descending aorta). The coronary arteries branch off the
aorta, which then branch into smaller arteries (arterioles) as they get farther from
your heart.
 Veins: These blood vessels return oxygen-depleted blood to the heart. Veins start
small (venules) and get larger as they approach your heart. Two central veins
deliver blood to your heart. The superior vena cava carries blood from the upper
body (head and arms) to the heart. The inferior vena cava brings blood up from
the lower body (stomach, pelvis and legs) to the heart. Veins in the legs have
valves to keep blood from flowing backward.
 Capillaries: These blood vessels connect very small arteries (arterioles) and
veins (venules). Capillaries have thin walls that allow oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nutrients and waste products to pass into and out of cells.

Chest Discomfort
Chest pain appears in many forms, ranging from a sharp stab to a dull ache. Sometimes chest
pain feels crushing or burning. In certain cases, the pain travels up the neck, into the jaw,
and then spreads to the back or down one or both arms.

Many different problems can cause chest pain. The most life-threatening causes involve the
heart or lungs. Because chest pain can indicate a serious problem, it's important to seek
immediate medical help.

Symptoms

Chest pain can cause many different sensations depending on what's triggering the symptom.
Often, the cause has nothing to do with the heart — though there's no easy way to tell
without seeing a health care provider.

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Heart-related chest pain

Although chest pain is often associated with heart disease, many people with heart disease
say they have a vague discomfort that isn't necessarily identified as pain. In general, chest
discomfort related to a heart attack or another heart problem may be described by or
associated with one or more of the following:

 Pressure, fullness, burning or tightness in your chest

 Crushing or searing pain that spreads to your back, neck, jaw, shoulders, and one
or both arms

 Pain that lasts more than a few minutes, gets worse with activity, goes away
and comes back, or varies in intensity

 Shortness of breath

 Cold sweats

 Dizziness or weakness

 Nausea or vomiting
Other types of chest pain

It can be difficult to distinguish heart-related chest pain from other types of chest pain.
However, chest pain that is less likely due to a heart problem is more often associated
with:

 A sour taste or a sensation of food reentering your mouth

 Trouble swallowing

 Pain that gets better or worse when you change your body position

 Pain that gets worse when you breathe deeply or cough

 Tenderness when you push on your chest

 Pain that persists for many hours

The classic symptoms of heartburn — a painful, burning sensation behind the breastbone
— can be caused by problems with the heart or the stomach.

Bleeding

Bleeding is the loss of blood. It can be external, or outside the body, like when you get a cut
or wound. It can also be internal, or inside the body, like when you have an injury to an

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 internal organ. Some bleeding, such as gastrointestinal bleeding, coughing up blood,
or vaginal bleeding, can be a symptom of a disease.
Normally, when you are injured and start bleeding, a blood clot forms to stop the bleeding
quickly. Afterwards, the clot dissolves naturally. To be able to make a clot, your blood
needs blood proteins called clotting factors and a type of blood cell called platelets. Some
people have a problem with clotting, due to another medical condition or an inherited
disease.

There are two types of problems:

 Your blood may not form clots normally, known as a bleeding disorder. This happens
when your body does not make enough platelets or clotting factors, or they don't work
the way they should.
 Your blood may make too many clots, or the clots may not dissolve properly
Sometimes bleeding can cause other problems. A bruise is bleeding under the skin.
Some strokes are caused by bleeding in the brain. Severe bleeding may require first aid or
a trip to the emergency room.

FIRST AID RELATED WITH WOUND AND INJUEIES

What Is A Wound?
A wound is any type of damage or breakage on the surface of the skin. The wounds can be
due to accidents like burns, paper cuts, skin tears or surgical, any underlying disease, or
some other skin conditions that may develop in the wound, for example, eczema or
psoriasis.

Types of Wounds
Wounds can be classified in several ways depending on the healing time and the necessity
to consult with Wound Care Specialists depending on the severity of a particular
wound. People are likely to suffer from different types of wounds throughout life while
performing daily activities. Depending on the cause, site, and depth, a wound can lead from
simple to severe one. Here, we have explained different types of wounds. Let's have a look:

 Open or Closed - Wounds can be open or closed. Open wounds are the wounds with
exposed underlying tissue/ organs and open to the outside environment, for example,
penetrating wounds. On the other hand, closed wounds are the wounds that occur without
any exposure to the underlying tissue and organs.

 Acute or Chronic - A wound can be classified as acute or chronic depending on the

healing time. Acute wounds are those that heal without any complications in a predicted

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amount of time. While chronic wounds, on the other hand, are those that take a relatively long
time to heal with some complications.

Types of Chronic Wounds

1. Pressure Injuries - Also known as bedsores, pressure sores, or decubitus ulcers,

these wounds cause when there is a pressure and/or shearing force on the skin. The
people who are more prone to these chronic wounds are with limited mobility due to
any medical illness or unable to walk, move all or part of their body to a different
position.

2. Diabetic Ulcers - These ulcers generally occur on the feet and are a result of
changes to nerves and circulation in the body caused by diabetes. It includes
Neuropathic, Ischaemic, and Neuro-ischaemic.

 Clean or Contaminated - Wounds can also be classified on the basis if they are clean
or contaminated. Clean wounds are those that do not have any foreign material or debris
inside whereas contaminated wounds or infected wounds are those that might have some
dirt, bacteria, or other foreign markets. Pressure wounds can be used as an example of an
open or closed wound depending on its current stage.

 Internal or External - Wounds can also be internal or external. Internal wounds can
be due to impaired circulation, nervous system functions, neuropathy or medical illness, or
decreased supply of blood, oxygen, or other nutrients while the external wounds can be
due to an outside force or trauma caused by penetrating objects or non-penetrating
trauma.

Non-penetrating Wounds: These wounds are the result of blunt trauma or friction with other
surfaces. It includes:

 Abrasions

 Lacerations

 Bruises

 Concussions

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Penetrating Wounds: They are the result of trauma and break through the full thickness of
the skin. It includes:

 Stab wounds

 Cuts

 Surgical wounds etc.

Each type of wound has a different approach and method of treatment. Minor wounds can be
treated by a regular medical practitioner but if you see any signs of infection, you need to
call a Wound Care Specialist .

What is a head injury?

A head injury is any sort of injury to your brain, skull, or scalp. This can range from a mild
bump or bruise to a traumatic brain injury. Common head injuries include concussions,
skull fractures, and scalp wounds. The consequences and treatments vary greatly,
depending on what caused your head injury and how severe it is.

Head injuries may be either closed or open. A closed head injury is any injury that doesn’t
break your skull. An open (penetrating) head injury is one in which something breaks your
scalp and skull and enters your brain.

It can be hard to assess how serious a head injury is just by looking. Some minor head
injuries bleed a lot, while some major injuries don’t bleed at all. It’s important to treat all
head injuries seriously and get them assessed by a doctor.

What causes a head injury?

In general, head injuries can be divided into two categories based on what causes them. They
can either be head injuries due to blows to the head or head injuries due to shaking.

Head injuries caused by shaking are most common in infants and small children, but they can
occur any time you experience violent shaking.

Head injuries caused by a blow to the head are usually associated with:

 motor vehicle accidents

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  falls
 physical assaults
 sports-related accidents

In most cases, your skull will protect your brain from serious harm. However, injuries severe
enough to cause head injury can also be associated with injuries to the spine.

What are the major types of head injuries?

Hematoma

A hematoma is a collection, or clotting, of blood outside the blood vessels. It can be very
serious if a hematoma occurs in the brain. The clotting can lead to pressure building up
inside your skull. This can cause you to lose consciousness or result in permanent
brain damage.

Hemorrhage

A hemorrhage is uncontrolled bleeding. There can be bleeding in the space around your
brain, called subarachnoid hemorrhage, or bleeding within your brain tissue,
called intracerebral hemorrhage.

Subarachnoid hemorrhages often cause headaches and vomiting. The severity of

intracerebral hemorrhages depends on how much bleeding there is, but over time any
amount of blood can cause pressure buildup.

What are chest injuries?

Chest injuries are injuries to the chest wall (the bones, skin, fat and muscles protecting
your lungs, including your ribs and sternum) or any of the organs inside the chest.

Chest injuries include:

 bruising or abrasions (cuts and grazes) to the chest area

 broken bones (for example, a rib fracture)
 damage to the lungs or heart

Chest injuries can be minor, such as bruising, or serious problems that need urgent medical
attention.

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One of the most common chest injuries is fractured ribs. These are caused by a strong
blunt force, such as a fall from a height or a motor vehicle crash. In older people who
have osteoporosis, only a slight force, such as a minor fall, can fracture a rib.

A fractured rib is rarely serious. However, the force that caused the fracture can
occasionally cause other problems, such as a bruised or collapsed lung, so it’s important to
seek medical attention if you think you may have a fractured rib.

When should I call an ambulance?

Chest injuries that interfere with breathing or circulation can be serious or life threatening.

If the injury is severe, there may be internal bleeding. This might be obvious (e.g. coughing
up blood), or not so obvious (e.g. pale and clammy skin, nausea, extreme thirst).

Go to an emergency department or call an ambulance on triple zero (000) if you:

 have difficulty breathing

 feel drowsy or confused
 cough up any yellow/green or red-stained sputum
 have skin that is clammy and pale
 have chest pain
 pass any blood in your urine and or stools
 have extreme thirst

What should I do while waiting for the ambulance?

First aid for a chest injury will depend on the type of injury:

 if any part of your chest is bleeding, cover the area with a clean cloth or
bandage, and apply consistent pressure to stop the bleeding
 for a penetrating wound, if an object remains in the chest, it should not be removed
 position the injured person with the injured side down
 CPR may be necessary

What are the symptoms of chest injuries?

Signs of chest injury can vary, depending on the type of injury. The most common signs
and symptoms are:

 pain in the chest that gets worse when laughing, coughing or sneezing
 tenderness
 bruising
 swelling

Symptoms of a fractured rib are:

 extreme pain when breathing in

 tenderness to the chest or back over the ribs
 a ‘crunchy’ feeling under the skin
 severe shortness of breath
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What causes chest injuries?
Chest injuries may be caused by:

 a blunt injury, such as from sport, or from a punch or kick, or from a fall
 a penetrating wound, such as from a gun or a knife
 a crushing injury, such as from a road accident

What causes chest injuries?

Chest injuries may be caused by:

 a blunt injury, such as from sport, or from a punch or kick, or from a fall
 a penetrating wound, such as from a gun or a knife
 a crushing injury, such as from a road accident

How are chest injuries diagnosed?

A chest injury is diagnosed with a physical examination and sometimes investigations such as
a chest x-ray. A blood test may also be done. A CT scan may also be needed to check for
injury to the heart.

For a rib fracture, sometimes doctors can feel the broken ribs when they gently press the
affected area. Sometimes rib fractures don’t show on a chest x-ray. If you appear well and
the doctor doesn’t suspect complications, you may not need an x-ray. Your doctor may
order a chest x-ray to look for any serious problems related to the fractured rib, such as a
bruised or collapsed lung.

How are chest injuries treated?

Treatment of the chest injury will depend on the cause of the injury and how serious it is. The
medical team will support breathing and circulation if necessary. You may be given oxygen
and intravenous fluids or blood transfusions. If you have a severe chest injury, you will be
admitted to the hospital.

A fractured rib will heal on its own, but it takes time. If you have a fractured rib, you may be
asked to breathe deeply regularly to keep the air sacs in the lung open and
prevent pneumonia, a type of chest infection.

If you are in pain, take pain killers. Pain relief is important so you will feel more comfortable
to cough and take deep breaths.

If your injury is minor, try to keep moving around and doing what you normally do. But avoid
lifting, bending and any strenuous exercise until your pain and other symptoms have gone.

What are the complications ofchest injuries?

The main complication from rib fracture or chest injury is a chest infection. Other

less common complications of chest injuries include:

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  haemothorax: blood in the space surrounding the lung
 pneumothorax: air in the space surrounding the lung
 surgical emphysema: air trapped under the skin can cause a swollen area on
the chest wall
 abdominal injuries: liver or spleen damage can cause pain in your stomach or back

ABDOMINAL INJURIES
Injuries to the abdominal region require prompt medical aid. If the liver, spleen or
pancreas is damaged, profuse internal bleeding can occur. Injury to the bowel can cause
the contents to spill into the abdominal cavity causing infection. Shock is also a
complication of these types of injuries.

Causes:
 Car accidents
 Bike accidents
 Hard and heavy blows or falls
 Sport Swallowing foreign objects.
Signs and Symptoms may include:
 Pain
 Pale, cold clammy skin
 Bleeding from the anus or genitals if injured.
 Blood stained vomit or urine.
 Breathing noises
 Tenderness Bruising, and/or swelling
 Protruding Intestines

Appendicitis:
The appendix is a thin, worm shaped pouch about 9cm long, and is attached to the large
intestine. It has no function, but when it becomes inflamed, the condition is called
Appendicitis. Appendicitis is treated by surgery. The casualty will have pain in the
abdomen or lower right side, rigidity of abdominal muscles, swelling and high
temperature – febrile.

Treatment

Follow the Basic First ü Aid Plan to assess the casualty

 Loosen clothing.
 Lay casualty down.
 Elevate legs or bend knees or place in the fetal position.
 NIL BY MOUTH.
 Seek medical advice.

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 If the casualty is more comfortable they may lay in the lateral position with their
legs flexed.

FIRST AID RELATED WITH BONES, JOINTS MUSCLES RELATED INJURIES

First aid advice for injuries to bones and muscles including fractures, dislocated joints,
sprains and strains, spinal injuries and recovery from a spinal injury.

Whatare bones, muscles and joints?

Bones, muscles and joints make up the musculoskeletal system, along with cartilage, tendons,
ligaments and connective tissue. This system gives your body its structure and support
and lets you move around. The parts of the musculoskeletal system grow and change
throughout life. Injuries and various illnesses can damage bones, muscles and joints.

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Parts of the musculoskeletal system

 Skeleton — this is the framework of the body. The adult human skeleton is made
up of 206 bones. There are 5 main shapes of bones: long (such as the upper arm),
short (such as the hand), flat (such as the ribs), irregular (such as the vertebrae)
and sesamoid (such as the kneecap).
 Joints — an area where 2 or more bones come together.
 Cartilage — provides cushioning inside joints (such as in the knee joint),
or connects one bone to another (as in cartilaginous joints).
 Ligaments — tough bands of tissue that join bones to other bones to strengthen
joints. For example, the knee joint has 4 ligaments that help to stabilise it — the
2 collateral ligaments on the inner and outer sides of the knee and the 2 cruciate
ligaments inside the knee joint
 Muscles — there are around 600 muscles in the human body. They help the
body move.
 Tendons — these are made of strong fibrous connective tissue and they connect
muscles to bone. They appear as the long thin ends of the muscles. The Achilles
tendon is the largest tendon in the body — it joins the calf muscle to the heel
bone.

Whatdo bones do?

Bones give people shape. They hold the body upright, and also protect organs like
the heart and the liver. They store the minerals calcium and phosphorus, and also contain
bone marrow, where new blood cells are made.

Much of the skeleton is made up of non-living material (including the minerals calcium and
phosphorus), but nevertheless bones contain living tissue which is constantly remodelling,
replacing old tissue with new tissue. The centre of bones contains the bone marrow. This
produces new blood cells.
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The spine or vertebral column is the central support of your body, helping it walk, move
and twist. It has 33 bones called vertebrae, separated by discs. The spinal cord runs down
the centre of the spine, carrying all the nerve signals from the brain to the rest of the body
and also carrying sensory input from the body back to the brain. The

Whatdo muscles do?

There are different types of muscles, each with different functions, but they all work to
produce movement of the body or to stabilise the body. Skeletal muscles are also
responsible for generating heat in the body to maintain body temperature and help
regulate blood sugar levels.

Skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle (voluntary muscle or striated muscle) is muscle that you can consciously
control. Skeletal muscles run from one bone to another, usually passing at least one joint.
Each muscle is comprised of muscle tissue, blood vessels, nerves and tendons. Skeletal
muscles are usually attached to the bone by tendons.

When your brain tells a muscle to contract, it shortens, pulling one bone towards another
across a joint. Muscles work in pairs — when one shortens, a corresponding muscle
lengthens. For example, when you contract your bicep on the front of your upper arm,
your tricep on the back of your upper arm lengthens. Physical activity maintains or
increases the strength of skeletal muscles.

Skeletal muscle plays an important part in regulating blood sugar (glucose) levels, by
taking up glucose from the blood to use as fuel or to store for later.

Smooth muscle
Smooth muscle is found inside blood vessels and organs like the intestines. You can’t
consciously control smooth muscle. It contracts to move substances through the organ,
and so helps regulate your blood pressure, airways and digestion.

Cardiac muscle
The heart is made of special muscle called cardiac muscle. You can’t control it
consciously. It contracts to make your heart beat under the control of the heart’s inbuilt
pacemaker — the sinoatrial node.

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