GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Physical Geography of India and the World
Salient Features of India’s and World’s
Physical Geography
The Geological Time Scale [GTS]
 Geological Time Scale :
• The Geological Time Scale (GTS) divides and chronicles earth’s evolutionary history into various periods
from the beginning to the present based on definite events that marked a major change in earth’s physical,
chemical and biological features.

SuperEon ==> Eon ==> Era ==> Period ==> Epoch

Pre-Cambrian Super Eon is divided into the following three eons :

• Hadean Eon

• Archean Eon

• Proterozoic Eon
Phanerozoic Eon
• The boundary between the Proterozoic and the Phanerozoic eons was set when the first fossils of animals
such as trilobites appeared.

• Life remained mostly small and microscopic until about 580 million years ago, when complex multicellular
life arose, developed over time, and culminated in the Cambrian Explosion about 541 million years ago.

This sudden diversification of life forms produced most of the major life forms known today.

• Plant life on land appeared in the early Phanerozoic eon.

• Complex life, including vertebrates, begin to dominate the Earth’s ocean.

• Pangaea forms and later dissolves into Laurasia and Gondwana.

• Gradually, life expands to land and all familiar forms of plants, insects, animals and fungi begin appearing.

• Birds, the descendants of dinosaurs, and more recently mammals emerge.

• Modern animals—including humans—evolve at the most recent phases of this eon (2 million years ago).

The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three Eras:

• The Palaeozoic, an era of arthropods, amphibians, fishes, and the first life on land;
• The Mesozoic, which spanned the rise, reign of reptiles, climactic extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs, the
evolution of mammals and birds; and
• The Cenozoic, which saw the rise of mammals.

The Phanerozoic is divided into three eras: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, which are further
subdivided into 12 periods.
Paleozoic Era :
There are six periods in the Paleozoic Era:

• Cambrian [541-485 MYA] :Rapid expansion in evolution in an event known as the Cambrian Explosion
• Ordovician [485-480 MYA] : Glaciation caused a snowball Earth, leading to the Ordovician-Silurian
extinction (First Mass Extinction).
• Silurian [440-415 MYA] : Mass evolution of Fish
• Devonian [415-360 MYA] : Age of the Fish - Near the end of the Devonian, 70% of all species became
extinct in an event known as the Late Devonian extinction, which is the second mass extinction known to
have happened.
• Carboniferous [360-300 MYA] : First reptiles evolved in the swamps.
• Permian [300-250 MYA] : All continents came together to form the super-continent Pangaea, surrounded
by one ocean called Panthalassa.95% of all life on Earth ended in an event simply known as “the Great
Dying“, the world’s third mass extinction event and the largest in its history.
Ordovician–Silurian extinction (First Mass Extinction)

• This is considered as the second deadliest in the history of Earth.

• This event greatly affected marine communities.
• As the southern supercontinent, Gondwana drifted over the South Pole, ice caps formed on it.
• A combination of lowering of sea level and glacially driven cooling were likely driving agents.
• A fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide preceded the late Ordovician glaciation event.
• The dip is correlated with a burst of volcanic activity that deposited new silicate rocks, which draw CO2 out
of the air as they erode.

Late Devonian extinction (Second Mass Extinction)

• The Late Devonian extinction occurred about 376–360 million years ago.
• The extinction seems to have only affected marine life.
• The causes of these extinctions are unclear.
• Leading hypotheses include changes in sea level and ocean anoxia (lack of oxygen), possibly triggered by
global cooling or oceanic volcanism.
Permian–Triassic extinction event (Third Mass Extinction)

• The Permian–Triassic (P-T) extinction event is also known as ‘The Great Dying’.
• It occurred about 252 Ma (million years) ago, forming the boundary between the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic
eras.
• It is the Earth’s most severe known extinction event, with up to 96% of all marine species and 70% of
terrestrial vertebrate species becoming extinct.
• It is the only known mass extinction of insects.
• Suggested causes include large meteor impact events, massive volcanism such as that of the Siberian Traps,
runaway greenhouse effect triggered by the sudden release of methane from the sea floor due to methane-
producing microbes known as methanogens.
• Possible contributing gradual changes include sea-level change, increasing anoxia, increasing aridity, and a
shift in ocean circulation driven by climate change.
Mesozoic Era :
• Spans from 250 million to 66 million years ago.
• Also known as “The Age of the Dinosaurs“, the Mesozoic features the rise of reptiles.

There are three periods in the Mesozoic:

• Triassic

• Jurassic

• Cretaceous
Triassic–Jurassic extinction event (Fourth Mass Extinction)
• It marks the boundary between the Triassic and Jurassic periods, 201 million years ago.
• This event happened in less than 10,000 years and occurred just before Pangaea started to break apart.
• On land, all archosaurs except a few and many of the large amphibians became extinct.
• This event vacated terrestrial ecological niches, allowing the dinosaurs to assume the dominant role.
• Gradual climate change, sea-level fluctuations, oceanic acidification reached a tipping point.
• Massive volcanic eruptions might have caused intense global warming (release of carbon dioxide or
sulphur dioxide) or intense global warming (release of aerosols).

Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (Fifth Extinction)

• The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) or Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) extinction, was a sudden mass extinction on
Earth approximately 66 million years ago.
• At the end of the Cretaceous, the Deccan Traps and other volcanic eruptions were poisoning the
atmosphere.
• As this was continued, it is thought that a large meteor smashed into Earth, creating the Chicxulub Crater
(Yucatan Peninsula Mexico) creating the event known as the K-T Extinction.
Cenozoic Era :
• The Cenozoic featured the rise of mammals as the dominant class of animals.

There are three periods of the Cenozoic:

• Paleogene

• Neogene

• Quaternary
Quaternary Period

• Spans from 2.58 million years ago to the present day.

• It features modern animals and dramatic changes in the climate.

• It is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene.

Pleistocene Epoch : 2.58 million to 11,700 years Ago

• Africa experienced a trend of desiccation which resulted in the creation of the Sahara, Namib, and Kalahari
deserts.
• Many animals evolved including mammoths, dire wolves, and most famously Homo sapiens.
• As the Pleistocene drew to a close, a major extinction wiped out much of the world’s megafauna, including
some of the hominid species, such as Neanderthals.
Holocene Epoch [The Age of Man] : 11,700 years ago and lasts until to the present day

• The Holocene began the recorded history and “the history of the world” lies within the boundaries of the
Holocene epoch.

• Human activity is blamed for a mass extinction that began roughly 10,000 years ago, though the species
becoming extinct have only been recorded since the Industrial Revolution.

• This is sometimes referred to as the “Sixth Extinction”.

• More than 322 species have become extinct due to human activity since the Industrial Revolution.

The Holocene Epoch can be divided into 3 ages :

• Greenlandian Age [9700-8200 years ago]
• Northgrippian Age [8200-4200 years ago]
• Meghalayan Age [4200 years ago-Present]
The Solar System
The Solar System [Physical Geography]
The Universe :

• The Universe is all existing matter & space.

• It is incomprehensively large (beyond mental grasp).

• It consists of both physical (subatomic particles like electrons, protons to galactic super-
clusters) and non-physical (light, gravitation, space etc.) components.

• The universe, at present, is said to possess about 100 billion galaxies, each comprising
an average of 100 billion stars.

• In comparison, Milky Way Galaxy is believed to possess 100 billion to 400 billion stars.
(1,000,000 = 1 Million = 10 Lakhs; 1,000,000,000 = 1 Billion = 100 Crore;
1,000,000,000,000 = 1 Trillion
The Big Bang Theory [Evolution of the Universe] :

The Big Bang Theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe’s birth. It states that 13.8
billion years ago, all of space was contained in a single point of very high-density and high-
temperature state from which the universe has been expanding in all directions ever since.

Big Crunch (The Death of The Universe)

At some point, the universe would reach a maximum size & begin collapsing. The universe would
become denser & hotter again, ending in a state like that in which it started — a single point of very
high density.

Gravitational Waves :

Albert Einstein predicted the existence of gravitational waves in 1916 in his general theory of
relativity.
Gravitational waves are ‘ripples’ in the fabric of spacetime caused by some of the most violent
and energetic processes in the Universe
Doppler-Shift or Redshift and Blueshift :

Redshift and Blueshift describe how light changes as objects in space (such as stars or galaxies)
move closer or farther away from us. American astronomer Edwin Hubble was the first to describe the
redshift phenomenon (galactic redshift) and tie it to an expanding universe (galaxies are drifting
apart).

Hubble’s Law: The farther away galaxies are, the faster they are moving away from Earth ― also
known as accelerating the expansion of the universe.

Cosmic Microwave Background (CMD) :

With a traditional optical telescope, the space between stars and galaxies is completely dark.
However, a sensitive radio telescope shows a faint background glow. This glow is strongest in the
microwave region of the radio spectrum, and hence it is called a Cosmic Microwave
Background (CMB).

CMD, also known as Relic Radiation (thermal radiation left over from the “Big Bang”), is
fundamental to observational cosmology because it is the oldest light in the Universe and can be
found in all directions. Its discovery is considered a landmark proof for the concept of “accelerating
expansion of the universe” and the Big Bang Theory.
Star Formation (Stellar Evolution or Life Cycle of A Star)
Constellation
• The stars forming a group that has a recognisable shape is called a constellation.

• A few famous constellations are Great Bear (the Big Dipper or Saptarshi or Ursa
Major), Orion (hunter), Cassiopeia & Leo Major.

• Ursa Major moves around the Pole Star. In fact, all the stars appear to revolve around the
Pole Star.

• The northern constellations like Ursa Major may also not be visible from some points in
the southern hemisphere.

• Orion can be seen during winter in the late evenings. The Star Sirius, the brightest star in
the sky, is located close to Orion.
• To locate Sirius, imagine a straight line passing through the three middle stars of Orion. Look along
this line towards the east. This line will lead you to Sirius.

• Cassiopeia is another prominent constellation in the northern sky. It is visible during winter in the
early part of the night. It looks like a distorted letter W/M.
 Galaxies: Spiral Galaxies & Elliptical Galaxies, Our Galaxy (The Milky Way)
Galaxy is a system of millions or billions of stars, together with gas and dust, held together by
gravitational attraction.

They are the major building blocks of the universe.

The smallest galaxies contain about 100,000 stars, while the largest contains up to 3000 billion stars.

Types of Galaxies :

• Regular [Spiral, Elliptical]

• Irregular
Regular Galaxies

Spiral Galaxies Elliptical Galaxies

•The Milky Way is an example of a disc-

shaped spiral galaxy which has a greater
concentration of stars near its centre. They
• Star distribution is non-uniform.
consist of populations of old stars in the
centre, and the youngest stars located in the
arms.

•Spiral galaxies are well supplied with the

• Most of their member stars are very old, and
interstellar gas in which new bright, young stars
there is no new star formation in them.
form.

•Smaller and less bright • The brightest galaxies in the universe.

 Our Galaxy (The Milky Way)

• It is shaped like a flat disc with a central bulge. Its diameter is between 1,50,000 and 2,00,000 light-
years. In the nucleus, the thickness reaches 10,000 light years, whereas in the disc it is 500-2,000
light-years thick.

• The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100-400 billion stars.

• The inner stars travel faster than those further out.

• A supermassive black hole called Sagittarius A* is at the centre. The Solar System is located in the
Orion Arm, 26,000 light years from the centre (about one-third from the centre) of the Milky Way.

• The Sun completes one lap of the galaxy about every 220 million years. It revolves around the centre of
the Milky Way with a speed of 285 km per second.

• Andromeda is the closest big galaxy to the Milky Way — being 2 million light years away.
The Formation of the Solar System: Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model)
Earlier Theories :
• German philosopher Immanuel Kant’s Nebular Hypothesis (Theory) of Laplace (1796) tried to
explain the formation of the solar system. But it had many drawbacks as the theory was based on
scientifically erroneous assumptions. But one assumption it got right was that the solar system
was born from a giant interstellar cloud called nebula (a vast, swirling cloud of gas and dust).

• In 1900, Chamberlain and Moulton considered that a wandering star approached the sun. As a
result, a cigar-shaped extension of material was separated from the solar surface. As the passing
star moved away, the material separated from the solar surface continued to revolve around the sun
and slowly condensed into planets. Sir James Jeans and later Sir Harold Jeffrey supported this
argument.

• In 1950, Otto Schmidt in Russia and Carl Weizascar in Germany somewhat revised the Nebular
Hypothesis. They considered that the sun was surrounded by solar nebula containing mostly
hydrogen and helium along with what may be termed as dust. The friction and collision of particles
led to the formation of a disk-shaped cloud and the planets were formed through the process of
accretion.
• The most popular argument is the Big Bang Theory (expanding universe hypothesis (Edwin
Hubble, in 1920, provided evidence that the universe is expanding)).

• It was followed up by the Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model) which dealt primarily with
the formation of the solar system.

• According to the Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model), the nebula started its collapse and
core formation some 5-5.6 billion years ago, and the Sun and the planets were formed about 4.6
billion years ago (the age of the earth is 4.543 billion years).
 Components of the Solar System, Planets and Their Major Moons
• Our solar system consists of the sun, eight planets, dwarf planets (Pluto, Ceres, Eris),
satellites & countless minor planets, asteroids, meteors, comets, etc.

• Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to develop a mathematically predictive heliocentric solar
system — an astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun.

• Most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earth’s orbit, known as the
ecliptic.

• The planets are very close to the ecliptic, whereas comets and Kuiper belt objects (like
Pluto) are frequently at greater angles to it.

• The orbits of the planets around the sun are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids,
and Kuiper belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits.
 The Sun’s Internal Structure and Atmosphere, Solar Wind
• Age: 4.6 billion years; Diameter: 1.39 million km

• Temperature: 6000 °C on the surface and 16 million °C in the core

• Density: 1.41 times that of water (density of water = 999.97 kg/m³; earth’s overall density is 5.5 times
that of water)

• The surface gravity of the Sun is 274 m/s2 (28 times the gravity of the Earth). Comparatively, the
surface gravity of the earth and moon are 9.8 m/s2 and 1.62 m/s2 respectively.

• Speed of rotation: 7179.73 km/hrs. Comparatively, earth’s rotational velocity is 1675Km/hrs.

• Period of rotation: 25 days 9 hrs.

• Rotation: counter clockwise (when viewed from a long way above Earth’s north pole).
• Mass: equivalent to 3,32,900 Earth masses.

• Composition: 98% of the sun is Hydrogen & Helium.

• Most of the solar system’s mass is in the Sun (~99.8%), with most of the remaining mass
contained in Jupiter and Saturn. Although the Sun dominates the system by mass, it accounts for
only about 2% of the angular momentum due to the differential rotation within the gaseous Sun.

The Sun’s Internal Structure and Atmosphere

The solar interior, from the inside out, is made up of the core, radiative zone and convective zone.

The solar atmosphere above that consists of the photosphere, chromosphere, and the corona
(solar wind is an outflow of gas from the corona).
 Planets of the Solar System: Inner Planets and Outer Planets

A celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit around a star is known as a planet. The planets of our
solar system are divisible in two groups:

• The planets of the inner circle (as they lie between the sun and the belt of asteroids) or the inner
planets or the ‘terrestrial planets’ (meaning earth-like as they are made up of rock and metals, and
have relatively high densities)

• The planets of the outer circle or outer planets or the ‘gas giant planets’ or the Jovian planets –
meaning Jupiter-like or more like the sun.

• The inner circle consists of four planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars) having smaller and
denser bodies.

• The outer circle comprises four planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) having a larger
size and less dense materials and a thick atmosphere, mostly of helium and hydrogen.
• All eight planets in the Solar System orbit (revolve) the Sun in the direction of the Sun’s rotation,
which is counter-clockwise when viewed from above the Sun’s north pole.

• Six of the eight planets also rotate about their axis in this same direction (counter-
clockwise).

• Venus and Uranus have a strange retrograde rotation (clockwise), i.e., opposite of the sun’s
rotation.

Formation of the Moon

It is now generally believed that the formation of the moon, as a satellite of the earth, is an outcome
of a ‘giant impact’ or what is described as ‘the big splat’.

A body of the size of one to three times that of mars collided with the earth sometime shortly after the
earth was formed. It blasted a large part of the earth into space. This portion of blasted material then
continued to orbit the earth and eventually formed into the present moon about 4.44 billion years ago.
The Moon
The diameter of the moon is only one-quarter that of the earth and it is about 3,84,400 km
away.

The moon is tidally locked (the object’s orbital period matches its rotational period) to
the earth, meaning that the moon revolves around the earth in about 27 days which is the
same time it takes to complete one spin. As a result of tidal locking, only one side of the
moon is visible to us on the earth.

The moon is a significant stabiliser of Earth’s orbital axis. Without it, Earth’s tilt could vary as
much as 85° (at present the Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted at an angle of 23.5° relative to
the orbital plane).
Asteroids, Asteroid Belt, Kuiper Belt, Comets, Meteoroid, Meteor and Meteorite

• Asteroids are remnants of planetary formation that failed to coalesce because of the
gravitational interference of Jupiter.

• They circle the Sun in a zone lying between Mars and Jupiter. The circular chain of asteroids
is called the asteroid belt. It lies between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun.

• Asteroids (planetoids ― another term for an asteroid) are composed mainly of refractory
rocky and metallic minerals, with some ice. They range in size from hundreds of kilometres
across to microscopic.

Ceres
• Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid (946 km in diameter), a protoplanet, and a dwarf
planet.
• It has a mass large enough for its own gravity to pull it into a spherical shape.
• All asteroids, except Ceres, are classified as small Solar System bodies.
Kuiper Belt :

The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris like the asteroid belt but consists mainly of objects composed
primarily of ice. It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun.

Pluto (39 AU) is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt.
Charon is Pluto’s largest moon.

When discovered in 1930, Pluto was considered to be the ninth planet; this changed in 2006
with the adoption of a formal definition of a planet.

International Astronomical Union’s definition of a planet: A Planet is an object that:

• Orbits the sun;
• Has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium ― a nearly round shape;
• Is not a satellite (moon) of another object, and
• Has removed debris and small objects from the area around its orbit
IAU’s [International Astronomical Union]

Definition of Dwarf planet: Dwarf planet is an object that meets planetary criteria except that it has
not cleared debris from its orbital neighbourhood.

Pluto is a part of the Kuiper belt that contains millions of rocky and icy objects.

Also, there are numerous other objects in the Kuiper Belt which are of similar size to Pluto. E.g., Eris
(diameter: 2,326 km).

So, if Pluto is considered a plant, then many other objects like Eris will also have to be considered
planets.

Hence, Pluto (diameter: 2,377 km) (Kuiper belt) was voted by IAU as a dwarf planet just like Ceres
(asteroid belt) and Eris (diameter: 2,326 km) (Kuiper belt).
The International Astronomical Union (IAU)
International non-governmental organization with the objective of advancing astronomy in
all aspects, including promoting astronomical research, outreach, education, and
development through global cooperation.

Headquarters: Paris, France

President: Debra Elmegreen

Founded: 28 July 1919

General Secretary: Piero Benvenuti (Interim)

Membership: 85 national members; 12,734 individual members

 Comets:

• Comets are icy frozen gases (water, ammonia, methane and carbon dioxide) which hold together small
pieces of rocky and metallic minerals.

• They have highly elliptical orbits, unlike the planets which have near-circular orbits.

• Short-period comets, with an orbital period of a few hundred years, originate in the Kuiper Belt.
• Longer period comets, with orbits of thousands of years, come from the more distant Oort Cloud.
Meteoroid, Meteor and Meteorite:
• A meteoroid is any solid debris originating from asteroids, comets or other celestial objects and
floats through interplanetary space.

• A meteor, popularly termed a shooting star or falling star, is the streak of light that appears in
the sky when a meteoroid enters the atmosphere (mesosphere) at about 200 km at high speed and
burns up because of the friction.

• In some cases, the meteoroid does not burn up completely and makes its way to the Earth’s
surface. The surviving chunk is called a meteorite.

• The circular depression created on the earth’s surface after the meteorite’s impact is called a
meteorite crater. Meteorite impacts are common on all planets and moons in the solar system.

• The most conspicuous meteorite craters can be found on the surfaces of the Moon and Mercury
(because they are geologically inactive due to negligible atmosphere).

• Largest Meteor Crater: A meteor crater in Arizona (USA) is 1,300 m deep and is the largest
meteor crater in the world. It was formed over 10,000 years ago.
Meteorite Craters in India :

• Lonar Lake (a Ramsar Site) (1.8 km in diameter) in Buldhana District of Maharashtra

• Dhala Crater (14 km in diameter) in Shivpuri district, Madhya Pradesh

• Ramgarh Crater (3.5 km in diameter) is a potential meteorite crater in the Kota plateau in
Rajasthan.
 What’s the Closest Star to the Sun? Proxima Centauri or Alpha Centauri?
• Proxima Centauri (4.2 light-years away), a red dwarf, is the closest star to the sun.

• It is a part of Alpha Centauri (4.37 lya), a system of three stars —

-Alpha Centauri A

-Alpha Centauri B

-Proxima Centauri.

• Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B are a binary pair, orbiting a common centre of gravity.

• Alpha Centauri A is just a little more massive and brighter than the Sun, and Alpha Centauri B is slightly less
massive than the Sun.
Heliopause ― The boundary of The Solar System?
 Distant Artificial Objects Exploring the Solar System
• The major artificial objects that have achieved escape velocity that will allow them to leave the Solar
System.

• Voyagers continue communicating with the Deep Space Network to receive routine commands & return
data.

• The NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) is a worldwide network of U.S. spacecraft communication
facilities, located in the California, Madrid, and Canberra, that supports NASA’s interplanetary
spacecraft missions.
 Distance from the
Space probe Launch year Significant event Objective Current status
Sun in AU

Contact lost in
Pioneer 10 1972 Flew past Saturn in 1979 ~ 120 AU
Study the asteroid belt, the 2003
environment around Jupiter and
Saturn, solar wind and cosmic rays. Contact lost in
Pioneer 11 1973 Flew past Saturn in 1979 ~ 90 AU
1995

Passed the heliopause in December Explore all Jovian planets.Extended

2018 to enter interstellar space mission of both the Voyagers is to ~ 129 AU
Voyager 2 Aug 1977 Active
(second artificial object to leave the study the outer reaches of the Solar (as of Jan 2022)
solar system). System.

Passed the heliopause in 2012 to

enter interstellar space (first Explore Jupiter, Saturn, and Saturn’s ~ 155 AU (as of Jan
Voyager 1 Sep 1977 Active
artificial object to leave the solar largest moon, Titan. 2022)
system).

Flew past Pluto in 2015. It is currently To perform a study of Pluto, and more ~ 53 AU (as of Jan
New Horizons 2006 Active
travelling through Kuiper belt. other Kuiper belt objects. 2022)

Study Jupiter’s
Entered a polar orbit of Jupiter in
Juno 2011 composition, gravitational Active —
2016
field, magnetic field, etc.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Geomorphology
[Landforms]
• Fluvial Landforms : Erosional and Depositional [Important for APSC CCE 2025]
• Glacial Landforms : Erosional and Depositional
• Marine Landforms : Erosional and Depositional
• Arid Landforms: Erosional and Depositional
• Karst Landforms : Erosional and Depositional
• Lake | Classification of Lakes (types of lakes)
• Important Lakes on Earth & Facts About Lakes
• Plateau Formation & Types of Plateaus | Major Plateaus of The World
• Direct & Indirect Sources for Understanding the Earth’s Interior
• Seismic waves, Shadow Zone of P-waves and S-waves
• Earth’s Layers: Crust, Mantle & Core, Seismic Discontinuities
• Earth’s Magnetic Field, Dynamo theory, Magnetosphere
• Geomagnetic Reversal, Magnetic Declination & Inclination (Dip)
• Endogenic Geomorphic Movements: Epeirogenic & Orogenic
• Exogenic Geomorphic Movements: Denudation & Weathering
• Continental Drift Theory: Evidences and Drawbacks, Tectonics
• Paleomagnetism, See Floor Spreading, Convectional Currents
• Plate Tectonics vs. Continental Drift and See Floor Spreading
• Tectonic Plates & their interactions, Indian Plate Movement
• Ocean-Ocean Convergence and Volcanic Island Arc Formation
• Continent-Ocean Convergence, Formation of Fold Mountains
• Continent-Continent Convergence, Formation of the Himalayas
• Divergent Boundary, The Great Rift Valley (African Rift Valley)
• Classification of Mountains on the Basis of Location, Origin
• Fold & Fault in Geology, Fold Mountains and Block Mountains
• Major Mountain Ranges of the World, Highest Mountain Peaks
• Volcanism: Andesitic & Basaltic Lava, Distribution of Volcanoes
• Volcanic Landforms: Extrusive & Intrusive Volcanic Landforms
• Volcanism: Explosive, Strombolian, Vulcanian, Plinian, Pelean
• Hotspot Volcanism, Mantle Plumes, Flood Basalt, Supervolcanoe
• Rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary & Metamorphic Rocks, Rock Cycle
• Earthquakes: Causes & Distribution, Shallow & Deep Quakes
• Richter Magnitude Scale & Earthquakes of Varying Strengths
• Tsunami: Mechanism & Properties, 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
• Soil Erosion: Wind and Water Erosion, Rill and Gully erosion
• Fluvial Erosional Landforms: Meander, Oxbow Lake, Peneplain
• Drainage Patterns: Concordant, Discordant, Dendritic, Trellis
FLUVIAL LANDFORMS
Fluvial Landforms
• Fluvial Landforms are landforms created by the erosional or depositional activity of rivers.

• The landforms created as a result of degradational action (erosion) or aggradational

work (deposition) of running water are called fluvial landforms.

• The fluvial processes may be divided into three physical phases –

-Erosion

-Transportation

-Deposition
Fluvial Erosional Landforms
Fluvial Erosional Landforms are landforms created by the erosional activity of rivers.

Various aspects of fluvial erosive action include:

• Hydration: The force of running water wearing down rocks.

• Corrosion: Chemical action that leads to weathering.
• Attrition: River load particles striking, colliding against each other and breaking down in the
process.
• Corrasion or Abrasion: Solid river load striking against rocks and wearing them down.
• Downcutting (vertical erosion): The erosion of the base of a stream (downcutting leads to valley
deepening).
• Lateral erosion: The erosion of the walls of a stream (leads to valley widening).
• Headward erosion: Erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which causes the origin to move
back away from the direction of the stream flow, and so causes the stream channel to lengthen.
• Braiding: The main water channel splitting into multiple, narrower channel. A braided river, or
braided channel, consists of a network of river channels separated by small, and often temporary,
islands called braid bars. Braided streams occur in rivers with low slope and/or large sediment
load.
Fluvial Erosional Landforms

• River Valley Formation

• Waterfalls
• Potholes
• Terraces
• Gulleys/Rills
• Meanders
• Oxbow Lake
• Peneplane (Or peneplain)
 River Valley Formation
• The extended depression on the ground through which a stream flows is called a river valley.
• At different stages of the erosional cycle, the valley acquires different profiles.
• At a young stage, the valley is deep, narrow with steep wall-like sides and a convex slope.
• The erosional action here is characterized by predominantly vertical downcutting nature.
• The profile of valley here is typically ‘V’ shaped.
• A deep and narrow ‘V’ shaped valley is also referred to as gorge and may result due to downcutting
erosion or because of the recession of a waterfall (the position of the waterfall receding due to
erosive action).
• An extended form of the gorge is called a canyon. Eg-The Grand Canyon of the Colorado River in
Arizona (USA) runs for 483 km and has a depth of 2.88 km.
• A tributary valley lies above the main valley and is separated from it by a steep slope down which
the stream may flow as a waterfall or a series of rapids.
• As the cycle attains maturity, the lateral erosion (erosion of the walls of a stream) becomes
prominent and the valley floor flattens out (attains a ‘V’ to ‘U’ shape).
• The valley profile now becomes typically ‘U’ shaped with a broad base and a concave slope.
Youth
• Young rivers close to their source tend to be fast-flowing, high-energy environments with rapid
headward erosion, despite the hardness of the rock over which they may flow.
• Steep-sided “V-shaped’ valleys, waterfalls, and rapids are characteristic features.
• E.g. Rivers flowing in the Himalayas.

Maturity
• Mature rivers are lower-energy systems.
• Erosion takes place on the outside of bends, creating looping meanders in the soft alluvium of
the river plain.
• Deposition occurs on the inside of bends and on the river bed.
• E.g. Rivers flowing in the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plain.

Old Age
• At a river’s mouth, sediment is deposited as the velocity of the river slows.
• As the river becomes shallower more deposition occurs, forming temporary islands (Majuli, a
river island in the Brahmaputra River, Assam is currently the world’s largest river island)
and braiding (e.g. braided channels of Brahmaputra river flood plain in Assam) the main channel
into multiple, narrower channels.

• As the sediment is laid down, the actual mouth of the river moves away from the source into the
sea or lake, forming a delta.

• E.g. Ganga-Brahmaputra delta.

Waterfalls

• A waterfall is simply the fall of an enormous volume of water from a great height.

• They are mostly seen in the youth stage of the river.

• Relative resistance of rocks, the relative difference in topographic reliefs, fall in the sea level and
related rejuvenation, earth movements etc. are responsible for the formation of waterfalls.
Potholes

• The small cylindrical depressions in the rocky beds of the river valleys are called potholes.

• Potholing or pothole-drilling is the mechanism through which the fragments of rocks when
caught in the water eddies or swirling water start dancing circularly and grind and drill the rock
beds.

• They thus form small holes which are gradually enlarged by the repetition of the said
mechanism.
Terraces

• Stepped benches along the river course in a flood plain are called terraces.
• Terraces represent the level of former valley floors and remnants of former (older) floodplains.
 Gulleys/Rills
• Gulley is a water-worn channel, which is particularly common in semi-arid areas.
• It is formed when water from overland-flows down a slope, especially following heavy rainfall,
is concentrated into rills, which merge and enlarge into a gulley.
• The ravines of Chambal Valley in Central India and the Chos of Hoshiarpur in Punjab
are examples of gulleys.
 Meanders
• A meander is defined as a pronounced curve or loop in the course of a river channel.
• The outer bend of the loop in a meander is characterized by intensive erosion and vertical cliffs
and is called the cliff-slope side. This side has a concave slope.
• The inner side of the loop is characterized by deposition, a gentle convex slope, and is
called the slip-off side.
• The meanders may be wavy, horse-shoe type or oxbow type.
 Oxbow Lake
• Sometimes, because of intensive erosion action, the outer curve of a meander gets
accentuated to such an extent that the inner ends of the loop come close enough to get
disconnected from the main channel and exist as independent water bodies called as oxbow
lakes.

• These water bodies are converted into swamps in due course of time.

• In the Indo-Gangetic plains, southwards shifting of Ganga has left many oxbow lakes to
the north of the present course of the Ganga.
 Peneplane (Or Peneplain)
• This refers to an undulating featureless plain punctuated with low-lying residual hills of
resistant rocks. It is considered to be an end product of an erosional cycle.

• Fluvial erosion, in the course of geologic time, reduces the land almost to base level (sea
level), leaving so little gradient that essentially no more erosion could occur.
Fluvial Depositional Landforms

• Alluvial Fans and Cones

• Natural Levees
• Delta : Arcuate or Fan-shaped Delta, Bird’s Foot Delta, Estuaries and Cuspate Delta
 Alluvial Fans and Cones
• When a stream leaves the mountains and comes down to the plains, its velocity decreases due to
a lower gradient.
• As a result, it sheds a lot of material, which it had been carrying from the mountains, at the
foothills.
• This deposited material acquires a conical shape and appears as a series of continuous fans.
These are called alluvial fans.
• Such fans appear throughout the Himalayan foothills in the north Indian plains.
 Natural Levees
• These are narrow ridges of low height on both sides of a river, formed due to deposition action of
the stream, appearing as natural embankments.

• These act as a natural protection against floods but a breach in a levee causes sudden floods in
adjoining areas, as it happens in the case of the Hwang Ho river of China.
 Delta
• A delta is a tract of alluvium at the mouth of a river where it deposits more material than can
be carried away.

• The river gets divided into distributaries which may further divide and rejoin to form a
network of channels.

A delta is formed by a combination of two processes:

• Load-bearing capacity of a river is reduced as a result of the check to its speed as it enters a
sea or lake, and

• Clay particles carried in suspension in the river coagulate in the presence of salt water
and are deposited.

Note : The finest particles are carried farthest to accumulate as bottom-set beds.
Depending on the conditions under which they are formed, deltas can be of many types-

• Arcuate or Fan-shaped

• Bird’s Foot Delta

• Estuaries

• Cuspate Delta
Arcuate or Fan-shaped
This type of delta results when light depositions give rise to shallow, shifting distributaries and a
general fan-shaped profile. Examples: Nile, Ganga, Indus.
 Bird’s Foot Delta
• This type of delta emerges when limestone sediment deposits do not allow downward seepage
of water.
• The distributaries seem to be flowing over projections of these deposits which appear as a bird’s
foot.
• The currents and tides are weak in such areas and the number of distributaries lesser as
compared to an arcuate delta. Example: Mississippi river.
 Estuaries
• Sometimes the mouth of the river appears to be submerged. This may be due to a drowned
valley because of a rise in sea level.
• Here fresh water and the saline water get mixed. When the river starts ‘filling its mouth’ with
sediments, mud bars, marshes and plains seem to be developing in it.
• These are ideal sites for fisheries, ports and industries because estuaries provide access to
deep water, especially if protected from currents and tides. Example: Hudson estuary.
 Cuspate Delta
• This is a pointed delta formed generally along strong coasts and is subjected to strong wave
action. There are very few or no distributaries in a cuspate delta.

• Example: Tiber river on west coast of Italy.

GLACIAL LANDFORMS
 Glacial Landforms
• A glacier is a moving mass of ice at speeds averaging few meters a day.
• Types of Glaciers: Continental Glaciers, Ice Caps, Piedmont Glaciers and Valley Glaciers.
• The Continental Glaciers are found in the Antarctica and in Greenland. The biggest
continental ice sheet in the ice caps are the covers of snow and ice on mountains from which
the valley or mountain glaciers originate.
• The Piedmont Glaciers form a continuous ice sheet at the base of mountains as in southern
Alaska.
• The Valley Glaciers, also known as Alpine Glaciers, are found in higher regions of the
Himalayas in our country and all such high mountain ranges of the world.

• The largest of Indian glaciers occur in the Karakoram range, viz. Siachen (72 km), while
Gangotri in Uttar Pradesh (Himalayas) is 25.5 km long.
• A glacier is charged with rock debris which are used for erosional activity by moving ice.
• A glacier during its lifetime creates various landforms which may be classified into erosional
and depositional landforms.
Glacial Depositional Landforms

• Outwash Plain : Stratefied Depositions

• Esker : Un-assorted depositions of rock,
gravel, clay etc.
• Kame Terraces : Broken ridges or un-assorted
depositions
• Drumlin : Inverted boat-shaped deposition
• Kettle Holes : Formed when the deposited
material in a till plain gets depressed locally
and forms a basin.
• Moraine : Rock fragments, gravel, sand, etc.
carried by a glacier- Types: Ground Moraine
and End Moraine
Glacial Erosional Landforms

• Cirque/Corrie : Hollow basin cut into a

mountain ridge.
• Glacial Trough : steep sided and flat bottomed
valley, which has a ‘U’ shaped profile
• Hanging Valley : valley carved out by a small
tributary glacier that joins with a valley carved
out by a much larger glacier
• Arete : Steep-sided, sharp-tipped summit
• Horn : Ridge that acquires a ‘horn’ shape
when the glacial activity cuts it from more
than two sides
• D-Fjord : narrow entrance-like feature at the
coast where the stream meets the coast.
MARINE LANDFORMS
 Marine Landforms
• Sea waves, aided by winds, currents, tides and storms carry on the erosional and depositional
processes.

• The erosive work of the sea depends upon size and strength of waves, slope, height of the shore
between low and high tides, shape of the coast, composition of rocks, depth of water, human
activity etc.

• The wave pressure compresses the air trapped inside rock fissures, joints, faults, etc. forcing it to
expand and rupture the rocks along weak points. This is how rocks undergo weathering under
wave action.

• Waves also use rock debris as instruments of erosion (glaciers are quite good at this). These
rock fragments carried by waves themselves get worn down by striking against the coast or
against one another.

• The solvent or chemical action of waves is another mode of erosion, but it is pronounced only in
case of soluble rocks like limestone and chalk.
Marine Depositional Landforms

• Beach : Temporary covering of rock debris on or along a wave-cut platform.

• Bar : Currents and tidal currents deposit rock debris and sand along the coast at a distance from
the shoreline.
• Barrier : It is the overwater counterpart of a bar.
• Spit and Hook : A spit is a projected deposition joined at one end to the headland, with the other
end free in the sea, where as a hook is a shorter spit with one end curved towards the land
• Tombolos : Islands are connected to each other by a bar, called Tombolos
Marine Erosional Landforms

• Chasms : Narrow, deep indentations (a deep recess or notch on the edge or surface of
something) carved due to headward erosion (downcutting) through vertical planes of weakness in
the rocks by wave action.
• Wave-Cut Platform : The bottom of the cliff suffers the maximum intensive erosion by waves and,
as a result, a notch appears at this position.
• Sea Cliff : Shoreline marked by a steep bank (escarpment, scarp).
• Sea Caves : Differential erosion by sea waves through a rock with varying resistance across its
structure produces arched caves in rocks called sea caves.
• Sea Arches : When waves from opposite directions strike a narrow wall of rock, differential
erosion of the rock leaves a bridge like structure called Sea arch.
• Stacks/Skarries/Chimney Rock : When a portion of the sea arch collapses, the remaining
column-like structure is called a stack, skarry or chimney rock.
• Hanging Valleys : If the fluvial erosion of a stream at the shore doesn’t match the retreat of the
sea, the rivers appear to be hanging over the sea. These river valleys are called hanging valleys.
• Blow Holes or Spouting Horns : The burst of water through a small hole on a sea cave due to
the compression of air in the cave by strong waves. They make a peculiar noise.
• Plane of Marine Erosion/Peneplain : The eroded plain left behind by marine action is called a
plain of marine erosion. If the level difference between this plain and the sea level is not much,
the agents of weathering convert it into a peneplain.

Chasms

Wave Cut Platforms

Hanging Valleys Blow Holes or Spouting Horns

 Coastlines
• The boundary between the coast (the part of the land adjoining or near the sea)
and the shore (the land along the edge of a sea) is known as the coastline.

-Coastlines can be divided into the following classes:

• Coastline of Emergence
• Coastline of Submergence
• Neutral coastline
• Compound coastline
• Fault coastline
 Coastlines of Emergence
• These are formed either by an uplift of the land or by the lowering of the sea level.

• Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes, beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the typical features.

• The east coast of India, especially its south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast), appears to be a coast of
emergence.

Coramandal coast == Tamil Nadu Coast == Coastline of emergence

• The west coast of India, on the other hand, is both emergent and submergent. The northern portion
of the coast is submerged as a result of faulting and the southern portion, that is the Kerala coast, is
an example of an emergent coast.

• Konkan coast == Maharashtra and Goa Coast == Coastline of emergence

• Malabar coast == Kerala Coast == Coastline of submergence
Coastlines of Submergence
• A submerged coast is produced either by subsidence of land or by a rise in sea level.

• Ria, fjord, Dalmatian and drowned lowlands are its typical features.

Malabar coast == Kerala Coast == Coastline of submergence

Neutral Coastlines
• These are coastlines formed as a result of new materials being built out into the water.

• The word ‘neutral’ implies that there need be no relative change between the level of sea and
the coastal region of the continent.

• Neutral coastlines include the alluvial fan shaped coastline, delta coastline, volcano coastline
and the coral reef coastline.
Compound Coastlines
• Such coastlines show the forms of two of the previous classes combined, for example,
submergence followed by emergence or vice versa.

• The coastlines of Norway and Sweden are examples of compound coastlines.

Fault Coastlines
• Such coastlines are unusual features and result from the submergence of a downthrown
block along a fault, such that the uplifted block has its steep side (or the faultline) standing
against the sea forming a fault coastline.
ARID LANDFORMS
Arid Landforms: Wind Eroded & Water Eroded

• Arid Landforms : Arid regions are regions with scanty rainfall. Deserts and Semi-arid
regions fall under arid landforms.

Types :

• Water Eroded Arid Landforms – Rill, Gully, Ravine, Badland Topography, Bolsons, Playas,
Pediments, Bajada etc.

• Wind Eroded Arid Landforms – Deflation basins, Mushroom rocks, Inselbergs,

Demoiselles, Demoiselles, Zeugen , Wind bridges and windows.

• Depositional Arid Landforms – Ripple Marks, Sand dunes, Longitudinal dunes, Transverse
dunes, Barchans, Parabolic dunes, Star dunes and Loess.
Water Eroded Arid Landforms:

Rill : In hill slope geomorphology, a rill is a narrow and shallow channel cut into soil by the erosive
action of flowing water.

Gully : A gully is a landform created by running water. Gullies resemble large ditches or small
valleys, but are metres to tens of metres in depth and width.

Ravine : A ravine is a landform narrower than a canyon and is often the product of stream cutting
erosion. Ravines are typically classified as larger in scale than gullies, although smaller than
valleys.

Badland Topography :

• In arid regions occasional rainstorms produce numerous rills and channels which extensively
erode weak sedimentary formations.
• Ravines and gullies are developed by linear fluvial erosion leading to the formation of badland
topography.
• Example: Chambal Ravines.
Bolsons :

• The intermontane basins in dry regions are generally known as bolsons.

Playas :

• Three unique landforms viz. pediments, bajadas and playas are typically found in bolsons.
• Small streams flow into bolsons, where water is accumulated. These temporary lakes are called
playas.
• After the evaporation of water, salt-covered playas are called salinas.

Pediments :
• In form and function there is no difference between a pediment and an alluvial fan; however,
pediment is an erosional landform while a fan is a constructional one.

• A true pediment is a rock cut surface at the foot of mountains.

Bajada :
• Bajadas are moderately sloping depositional plains located between pediments and playa.
• Several alluvial fans coalesce to form a bajada.
Wind Eroded Arid Landforms :

The wind or Aeolian erosion takes place in the following ways, viz. deflation, abrasion, and attrition.

Deflation == removing, lifting and carrying away dry, unsorted dust particles by winds. It causes
depressions known as blow outs.

Abrasion == When wind loaded with sand grains erodes the rock by grinding against its walls is called
abrasion or sandblasting.

Attrition == Attrition refers to wear and tear of the sand particles while they are being transported.

Following are the major landforms produced by wind erosion :

• Deflation Basins : Deflation basins, called blowouts, are hollows formed by the removal of particles
by wind. Blowouts are generally small, but may be up to several kilometers in diameter.

• Mushroom Rocks : A mushroom rock, also called rock pedestal or a pedestal rock, is a naturally
occurring rock whose shape, as its name implies, resembles a mushroom.
• Inselbergs : A monadnock or inselberg is an isolated hill, knob, ridge, outcrop, or small mountain
that rises abruptly from a gently sloping or virtually level surrounding plain.

• Demoiselles : These are rock pillars which stand as resistant rocks above soft rocks as a result
of differential erosion of hard and soft rocks.

• Zeugen : A table-shaped area of rock found in arid and semi-arid areas formed when more
resistant rock is reduced at a slower rate than softer rocks around it.

• Yardangs : Ridge of rock, formed by the action of the wind, usually parallel to the prevailing wind
direction.

• Wind bridges and Windows : Powerful wind continuously abrades stone lattices, creating holes.
Sometimes the holes are gradually widened to reach the other end of the rocks to create the
effect of a window—thus forming a wind window. Window bridges, are formed when the holes are
further widened to form an arch-like feature.
 Inselberg

Wind Bridges and Windows

Arid Depositional Landforms

Landforms are also created by the depositional force of wind. These are as follows :

• Ripple Marks : These are depositional features on a small scale formed by saltation (he transport
of hard particles over an uneven surface in a turbulent flow of air or water).

• Sand Dunes : Sand dunes are heaps or mounds of sand found in deserts. Generally their heights
vary from a few metres to 20 metres but in some cases dunes are several hundred metres high
and 5 to 6 km long.
-Longitudinal Dunes : Formed parallel to the wind movement. The windward slope of the dune is
gentle whereas the leeward side is steep. These dunes are commonly found at the heart of trade-
wind deserts like the Sahara, Australian, Libyan, South African and Thar deserts.
-Transverse Dunes : Dunes deposited perpendicular (transverse) to the prevailing wind direction.
-Barchans : Crescent shaped dunes. The windward side is convex whereas the leeward side is
concave and steep.
-Parabolic Dunes : They are U-shaped and are much longer and narrower than barchans.
-Star Dunes : Have a high central peak, radically extending three or more arms.
• Loess : In some parts of the world, windblown dust and silt blanket the land. This layer of fine,
mineral-rich material is called loess.

Loess
KARST LANDFORMS
 Karst Landforms
• Karst is a landscape which is underlain by limestone which has been eroded by dissolution,
producing towers, fissures, sinkholes, etc.
• It is so named after a province of Yugoslavia on the Adriatic sea coast where such formations are
most noticeable.
• Karst topography is a landscape formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone,
dolomite, and gypsum.
• It is characterized by underground drainage systems with sinkholes, caves etc.

Conditions Essential for Full Development of Karst Topography

• Presence of soluble rocks, preferably limestone at the surface or sub-surface level.

• These rocks should be dense, highly jointed and thinly bedded.
 Types of Karst Landforms :

Karst Erosional Landforms :

• Cavern : This is an underground cave formed by water action by various methods in a

limestone or chalk area.

• Arch/Natural Bridge : When a part of the cavern collapses the portion which keeps standing
forms an arch.

• Sink Hole/Swallow Hole : Sink holes are funnel-shaped depressions having an average
depth of three to nine metres.

• Karst Window : When a number of adjoining sink holes collapse, they form an open, broad
area called a karst window.

• Sinking Creeks/Bogas : In a valley, the water often gets lost through cracks and fissures in
the bed. These are called sinking creeks, and if their tops are open, they are called bogas.
Karst Depositional Landforms :

• Stalactite and Stalagmite :

The water containing limestone in solution, seeps through the roof in the form of a continuous chain
of drops.

A portion of the roof hangs on the roof and on evaporation of water, a small deposit of limestone is left
behind contributing to the formation of a stalactite, growing downwards from the roof.

The remaining portion of the drop falls to the floor. This also evaporates, leaving behind a small
deposit of limestone aiding the formation of a stalagmite, thicker and flatter, rising upwards from the
floor.

Sometimes, stalactite and stalagmite join together to form a complete pillar known as the column.
Cavern Sink Hole Karst Window

Sinking Creek/Bogas Stalactites/Stalagmites

Summary :
Fluvial :
• Erosional Landforms : River Valley Formation, Waterfalls, Potholes, Terraces, Gulleys/Rills,
Meanders, Oxbow Lake, Peneplane (Or Peneplain)
• Depositional Landforms : Alluvial Fans and Cones, Natural Levees, Delta : Arcuate or Fan-
shaped Delta, Bird’s Foot Delta, Estuaries and Cuspate Delta

Glacial :
• Erosional Landforms : Cirque/Corrie, Glacial Trough, Hanging Valley, Arete, Horn, D-Fjord
• Depositional Landforms : Outwash Plain, Esker, Kame Terraces, Drumlin, Kettle Holes, Moraine

Marine :
• Erosional Landforms : Chasms, Wave-Cut Platform, Sea Cliff , Sea Caves, Sea Arches,
Stacks/Skarries/Chimney Rock, Hanging Valleys , Blow Holes or Spouting Horns
• Depositional Landforms : Beach, Bar, Barrier, Spit and Hook, Tombolos
Arid :

• Erosional Landforms :

-Water Eroded Arid Landforms – Rill, Gully, Ravine, Badland Topography, Bolsons, Playas,
Pediments, Bajada etc.

-Wind Eroded Arid Landforms – Deflation basins, Mushroom rocks, Inselbergs, Demoiselles,
Demoiselles, Zeugen , Wind bridges and windows.

• Depositional Landforms :

-Depositional Arid Landforms – Ripple Marks, Sand dunes, Longitudinal dunes, Transverse dunes,
Barchans, Parabolic dunes, Star dunes and Loess.
Karst :

• Erosional Landforms : Cavern, Arch/Natural Bridges, Sinkhole/Shallowhole, Karst Window,

Sinking Creeks/Bogas

• Depositional Landforms : Stalactite and Stalagmite

GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Geomorphology
[Lakes]
Lakes :

• A lake is a body of water of considerable size, localized in

a basin, that is surrounded by land apart from a river or
other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake.

• Endorheic Lakes : Some lakes do not have a natural

outflow and lose water solely by evaporation or
underground seepage or both. They are termed
endorheic lakes.
Classification of Lakes :
Based on rate of evaporation and precipitation :
• Temporary Lakes : Lakes may exist temporarily filling up the small depressions of
undulating ground after a heavy shower. Eg-Small lakes of deserts
Evaporation > Precipitation

• Permanent Lakes : These lakes are deep and carry more water than could ever be
evaporated. Eg-The Great Lakes of N.America
Precipitation > Evaporation
Based on salt content :
• Fresh Water Lakes : The lakes which are fed by rivers and out-flowing streams.

• Saline [Salt] Lakes : No natural outlets and the water evaporates rapidly and has
higher than normal salt content. Eg-The Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake of Utah,
the USA
 Based on geological factors :

Lakes Formed by Earth Movement :

• Tectonic Lakes : These lakes occur due to warping (simple deformation), subsidence
(sliding downwards), bending and fracturing (splitting) of the earth’s crust, and
tectonic depressions.
Eg-Lake Titicaca and the Caspian Sea

• Rift Valley Lakes : A rift valley is formed when two blocks of earth move apart letting
the ‘in between’ block slide downwards. Or, it’s a sunken land between two parallel
faults.
Eg- Lakes Tanganyika, Malawi
Lakes Formed by Glaciation :
• Cirque Lakes or Tarns : Cirque is a hollow basin cut into a mountain ridge.
It has steep sided slope on three sides, an open end on one side and a flat
bottom.
When the ice melts, the cirque may develop into a tarn lake.

• Rock-Hollow Lakes : The advance and retreat of glaciers can scrape

depressions in the surface where water accumulates; such lakes are
common in Scandinavia, Patagonia, Siberia and Canada.

• Lakes due to morainic damming of valleys : Valley glaciers often deposit

morainic debris across a valley so that lakes are formed when water
accumulates behind the barrier.
Lakes Formed by Volcanic Activity :
• Crater and Caldera Lakes :

During a volcanic explosion the top of the cone may be blown off leaving behind a
natural hollow called a crater.

This may be enlarged by subsidence into a caldera.

In dormant or extinct volcanoes, rain falls straight into the crater or caldera
which has no superficial outlet and forms a crater or caldera lake.

Examples: Lonar in Maharashtra and Krakatao in Indonesia.

Lakes Formed by Erosion :
• Karst Lakes : The solvent action of rain-water on limestone carves out solution
hollows. When these become clogged with debris lakes may form in them.

• Wind-Deflated Lakes : The winds in deserts creates hollows. These may reach
ground water which seeps out forming small, shallow lakes. Excessive evaporation
causes these to become salt lakes and playas. Example: Great Basin of Utah,
U.S.A.
Based on depositional or erosional activity :

• Lakes due to river deposits : Ox-bow lake, e.g. those that occur on the flood-plains
of Lower Mississippi, Lower Ganges etc.

• Lakes due to marine deposits : Also called “Lagoons”-Eg-Lake Chilka

• Lakes due to damming of water : Lakes formed by these processes are also known
as barrier lakes. Landslides, avalanches may block valleys so that rivers are
dammed. Such lakes are short-lived. Eg- Lakes that are formed in Shiwaliks (Outer
Himalayas)

• Man-Made Lakes : Artificial lakes created by erecting a concrete dam across a river
valley so that the river water can be kept back to form reservoirs. Eg-Lake Mead
above the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River, U.S.A.
IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT LAKES
Lake Baikal – Deepest Lake

• Located in Siberia, Russia.

• The deepest lake in the world [1,637 metres deep]
• It is the world’s largest lake by volume.
• It is the second longest.
 Lake Tanganyika – Longest Lake
• The longest lake in the world. [660 kilometres long]
• It is the second deepest lake in the world, after Lake
Baikal.
World’s Highest and Lowest Lakes
• The world’s highest lake, if size is not a criterion, may be the crater lake
of Ojos del Salado, at 6,390 metres. It is in Andes.

• The world’s highest lake, in terms of size is the Pumoyong Tso

(Pumuoyong Tso), in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. [5,018
metres above sea level]

• The world’s highest commercially navigable lake is Lake Titicaca in

Peru and Bolivia border at 3,812 m. It is also the largest lake in South
America.

• The world’s lowest lake is the Dead Sea, bordering Israel and Jordan
at 418 metres below sea level. It is also one of the lakes with highest
salt concentration.
The Largest Lakes (Surface Area) by Continent
• Australia – Lake Eyre (Salt Lake)
• Africa – Lake Victoria, also the third-largest freshwater lake on Earth. It is one
of the Great Lakes of Africa.
• Antarctica – Lake Vostok (Sub-Glacial)
• Asia – Lake Baikal (if the Caspian Sea is considered a lake, it is the largest in
Eurasia, but is divided between the two geographic continents)
• Europe – Lake Ladoga, followed by Lake Onega, both located in northwestern
Russia.
• North America – Lake Superior.
• South America – Lake Titicaca, which is also the highest navigable body of
water on Earth at 3,812 metres above sea level. The much larger Lake
Maracaibo is a contiguous body of water with the sea, so it is ignored.
Dead Sea :
• Also called the Salt Sea.
• Lake bordering Jordan to the East, and Palestine and Israel to the West.
• It Earth’s lowest elevation on land.
Aral Sea :
• It was a lake lying between Kazakhstan in the north and Uzbekistan, in the south.
• Aral Sea has been steadily shrinking since the 1960s after the rivers that fed it were
diverted by Soviet irrigation projects.
African Great Lakes :
• Series of lakes constituting the part of the Rift Valley lakes in and around the East African Rift.
• They include Lake Victoria, the second largest fresh water lake in the world, and Lake
Tanganyika, the world’s second largest in volume as well as the second deepest.
Largest Lakes by Surface Area
[Caspian Sea Excluded in all Facts]

• Lake Superior – North America

• Lake Victoria – Africa
• Lake Huron – North America
• Lake Michigan – North America
Largest Lakes by Volume

• Baikal – Asia
• Tanganyika – Africa
• Superior – North America
Deepest Lakes in the World

• Lake Baikal – Asia

• Lake Tanganyika
Great Lakes
• Great Lakes of North America are a series of interconnected freshwater
lakes which connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lawrence
Seaway.

• Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario [in the
order of west to east]. Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario [In the
order of largest to smallest].

• Lake Superior is the largest continental lake in the world by area, and Lake
Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country.
Summary :
-Lakes: Localized basin of water, which may be connected to a water body, such as streams or
rivers [which may serve as a "feed" for the lake-incoming or "drain" the lake-outgoing]

-Endorheic Lake : Lakes which donot have any source of outlet and are lose water by evaporation
or ground seepage or both

-Types of Lakes :

(a) Based on rate of evaporation and precipitation :

-Temporary Lakes : Evaporation is more than precipitation. Eg-Desert Lakes

-Permanent Lakes : Precipitation is more than evaporation. Eg- The Great Lakes of North America
(b) Based on salt content :

-Fresh Water Lakes

-Saline [Salt Water] Lakes-Eg The Dead Sea

(c) Based on geological factors :

-Earth Movement : Tectonic Lakes [Lake Titicaca, Caspian Sea]

Rift Valley Lakes [Lake Malawi]

-Glaciation : Cirque Lakes [Glaciated-Frozen] and Tarn Lakes [Melted]

Rock Hollow Lakes
Morainic Dammed Lakes

-Volcanic : Crater Lakes [Lonar Lake, Maharashtra]

Caldera Lakes [Krakatoa, Indonesia]
Note : When a crater is subsidised, it develops into a caldera

-Erosion : Karst Lakes

Wind-Deflated Lakes [Eg-Great Basin of Utah, The USA]

(d) Based on depositional or erosional activity :

-River Deposits [Ox-Bow Lakes]

-Marine Deposits [Lagoons]
-Water Dammed [Reasons: Avalanche, Landslides] Lakes [Barrier Lakes]
-Man-Made Dams [Lake Mead above Hoover Dam-Colorado River,The USA]
Facts :

-Deepest Lakes : 1st : Lake Baikal [1637 m], 2nd : Lake Tanganyika
-Largest Lake [By Volume]- 1st : Lake Baikal, 2nd : Lake Tanganyika
-Longest Lake : 1st : Lake Tanganyika [660 kms long], 2nd: Lake Baikal
-Highest Lake [Lake situated at the highest altitude] [without consideration of size] : Ojos del
Salado, at 6,390 metres-Andes Mountains
-Highest Lake [Lake situated at the highest altitude] [consideration size] : Pumoyong Tso
(Pumuoyong Tso)-Tibet
-Highest Lake [Commercially Navigable] : Lake Titicaca [Peru-Bolivian Border]
-Lowest Lake : The Dead Sea [Israel-Jordan Border]
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Geomorphology
[Plateaus]
A plateau is a flat-topped table land.

Plateaus occur in every continent and take up a third of the Earths land.

They are one of the four major landforms, along with mountains, plains, and hills.

Plateaus are very useful because they are rich in mineral deposits. As a result,
many of the mining areas in the world are located in the plateau areas.

Plateau Formation :

Tectonic plateaus are formed from processes that create mountain ranges –
volcanism (Deccan Plateau), crustal shortening (thrusting of one block of
crust over another, and folding occurs. Example: Tibet), and thermal
expansion (Ethiopian Highlands).
Types of Plateaus :

• Dissected Plateau

• Volcanic Plateau
Dissected Plateau :
• A dissected plateau forms as a result of upward movement in the Earth’s crust.

• The uplift is caused by the slow collision of tectonic plates. The Colorado Plateau, in the
western United States, Tibetan plateau etc. are examples.
Volcanic Plateau :
• A volcanic plateau is formed by numerous small volcanic eruptions that slowly build up
over time, forming a plateau from the resulting lava flows.

• The Columbia Plateau in the northwestern United States of America and Deccan Traps are
two such plateaus.
Others :
• Intermontane plateaus are the highest in the world, bordered by mountains. Eg- The
Tibetan Plateau.

• Continental plateaus are bordered on all sides by the plains or seas, forming away from
mountains. Eg-The Colorado Plateau [The US]

• Piedmont plateaus are bordered by mountains on one side and a plain or sea on the other.
Eg-The Malwa Plateau.
Tibetan Plateau
• Highest and largest plateau in the world and hence called the ‘Roof of the World’.

• Formed due to collision of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian tectonic plates.

• It is surrounded by mountains to the south by the Himalayan Range, to the northeast by the
Kunlun Range, and to the west by the Karakoram Range.
Deccan Plateau
• Deccan Plateau is a large plateau which forms most of the southern part of India.

• It is bordered by two mountain ranges, the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.

• The plateau includes the Deccan Traps which is the largest volcanic feature on Earth.

• Made of multiple basalt layers or lava flows, the Deccan Traps covers 500,000 square
kilometers in area.

• The Deccan Traps are known for containing some unique fossils.

• The Deccan is rich in minerals. Primary mineral ores found in this region are mica and iron
ore in the Chotanagpur region, and diamonds, gold and other metals in the Golconda
region.
Mascarene Plateau
• Plateaus also form in the ocean, such as the Mascarene Plateau in the Indian Ocean.

• It extends between the Seychelles and Mauritius Islands.

Major Plateaus and their Locations :
• Iberian Plateau : Spain
• Potwar Plateau : Pakistan
• Bavarian Plateau : Germany
• Ahaggar Plateau : Algeria
• Loess Plateau : China
• Anatolian Plateau : Turkiye
• Massif Central : France
• Altiplano or Bolivian Plateau : Andes Mountain Ranges
• Patagonian Plateau : Argentina
• Laurentian Plateau : Canada
• Katanga Plateau : Congo - Copper Production
• Kimberley Plateau : Australia
• Mexican Plateau : Mexico- Also called “Mineral Store”-World’s Biggest Silver Mine-
Chihuahua
Summary :
Plateaus

-Four Major Landforms : Mountains, Hills, Plateaus and Plains

-Plateau : Flat Topped Table Land + Rich in Mineral Deposits
-Plateau Formation : Techniques [Same as Orogeny-Mountain Formation]

-Volcanism. Eg-The Deccan Trap [The Deccan/Malwa/Chotanagpur Plateau]

-Crustal Shortening [Thrusting of Blocks and Folding]. Eg-The Tibetan Plateau
-Thermal Expansion. Eg-The Ethiopian Highlands
-Types of Plateaus :

-Dissected : Formed due to upward movement of Earth's Crust-Tibetan Plateau, Colorado Plateau
[The Western US]

-Volcanic : Formed due to numerous volcanic eruptions over time-The Deccan Trap, The Columbia
Plateau [North West US]

-Others : Intermontane [If located between mountains-Eg Tibetan Plateau], Continental [If bordered
on all sides by plains and seas-Eg-The Colorado Plateau] and Piedmont Plateau [if bordered by
mountains on one side and a plain or sea on the other-Eg-The Malwa Plateau]

-Discussion on some Plateaus :

-The Tibetan Plateau : The Roof of the World-Formed due to collision of the Indo-Australiana and
Eurasian Plates-Location : North-East : Kunlun Shan Range, West : Karakoram Range and South :
The Himalayan Range
-The Deccan Trap : Largest Volcanic Feature on the Earth, Area : 5 Lakh Sq. Kms, Consists of
Multiple Basaltic Layers [Constituents : The Deccan Plateau, The Malwa Plateau and the Chota
Nagpur Plateaus], Location : East-The Eastern Ghats and West : The Western Ghats

-The Mascarene Plateau : Indian Ocean-Between Seychelles and the Mauritius Islands
-Major Plateaus and their Locations :

• Iberian Plateau : Spain

• Potwar Plateau : Pakistan
• Bavarian Plateau : Germany
• Ahaggar Plateau : Algeria
• Loess Plateau : China
• Anatolian Plateau : Turkiye
• Massif Central : France
• Altiplano or Bolivian Plateau : Andes Mountain Ranges
• Patagonian Plateau : Argentina
• Laurentian Plateau : Canada
• Katanga Plateau [Important] : Congo - Copper Production
• Kimberley Plateau : Australia
• Mexican Plateau [Important] : Mexico- Also called “Mineral Store”-World’s Biggest Silver Mine-
Chihuahua
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Geomorphology
[Earth’s Interior]
Earth’s Layers (The Internal Structure of the Earth) :
The interior of the earth is made up of several concentric layers of
which the crust, the mantle, the outer core and the inner core are
significant because of their unique physical and chemical properties.

The crust is a silicate solid, the mantle is a viscous molten rock, the
outer core is a viscous liquid, and the inner core is a dense solid.
Mechanically, the Earth’s layers can be divided into Lithosphere,
Asthenosphere, Mesospheric Mantle (part of the Earth’s mantle
below the lithosphere and the asthenosphere), Outer Core, and
Inner Core.

Chemically, the Earth can be divided into the Crust, Upper Mantle,
Lower Mantle, Outer Core, and Inner Core.
The Crust :
• Consists of 0.5-1.0 per cent of the earth’s volume and less than 1 per cent of
Earth’s mass.
• Density increases with depth, and the average density is about 2.7 g/cm3 (Average
density of the earth is 5.51 g/cm³).
• The thickness of the crust varies in the range of 5-30 km in case of the oceanic
crust and as 50-70 km in case of the continental crust.
• The continental crust can be thicker than 70 km in the areas of major mountain
systems. It is as much as 70-100 km thick in the Himalayan region.
• The temperature of the crust increases with depth, reaching values typically in the
range from about 200 °C to 400 °C at the boundary with the underlying mantle.
• The temperature increases by as much as 30 °C for every kilometre in the upper
part of the crust.
• The outer covering of the crust is of sedimentary material and below that lie
crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks which are acidic in nature.
• The lower layer of the crust consists of basaltic and ultra-basic rocks.
• The continents are composed of lighter silicates — silica + aluminium (also
called sial) while the oceans have the heavier silicates — silica +
magnesium (also called sima) The continental crust is composed of lighter
(felsic) sodium potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like granite.
• The oceanic crust, on the other hand, is composed of dense (mafic) iron
magnesium silicate igneous rocks, like basalt.
Most Abundant Elements of the Earth’s Crust :
Most Abundant Elements of the Earth
Summary :
-Earth's Interior : Layers-Outside to Inside

-The Crust [Thickness: 0-100 Kms] [Volume : 0.5-1% of Earth's Volume, Mass : Less than 1% of the
Earth's Mass, For 1 km depth, temp. increases by 30 degrees]

Horizontal Layer:
-Lithosphere-Continental Crust : Thickness-50-70 kms and in the Himalayan region its about 70-100
kms]-Made of lighter-felsic silicates [Si+Al]
-Hydrosphere-Oceanic Crust] : Thickness-5-30 kms- Made of heavier-mafic silicates [Si+Ma]

Vertical Layer:
-The Upper Crust : Sedimentary and Acidic Rocks [Eg-Limestone, Sand Stone, Shale]-Note : Formed
when organic or mineral particles accumulate on the Earth's surface and are then cemented together

----------------------------------Discontinuity : Conrad -------------------------------------

-The Lower Crust : Basaltic [Plagioclase Feldspar, Olivine, Pyroxene] and Ultra-Basic Rocks
[Periodite, Komatitte, Picrite]-Note : Basalt is a hard, dark-colored, volcanic rock that forms when lava
cools rapidly

-The Asthenosphere [Layer between lower crust and upper mantle]

----------------------------------Discontinuity : Mohorovicc -------------------------------------

-Upper Mantle

----------------------------------Discontinuity : Repiti -------------------------------------

-Lower Mantle

----------------------------------Discontinuity : Guttenberg -------------------------------------

-Outer Core
 ----------------------------------Discontinuity : Lehmann -------------------------------------

-Inner Core

-Most Abundant Elements :

-Combine Form [Crust] : O
-Elemental Form [Crust] : Fe [Iron], [Earth] : Si, [Universe] : O

Trick for remembering the discontinuities : CM R GL

Lithosphere :
• The lithosphere is the rigid outer part of the earth with thickness varying
between 10-200 km.

• It is includes the crust and the upper part of the mantle.

• The lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates (lithospheric plates), and the
movement of these tectonic plates cause large-scale changes in the earth’s
geological structure (folding, faulting).

• The source of heat that drives plate tectonics is the primordial heat left
over from the planet’s formation as well as the radioactive decay of uranium,
thorium, and potassium in Earth’s crust and mantle.
Asthenosphere :
• The upper portion of the mantle is called as asthenosphere (astheno means weak).

• It lies just below the lithosphere extending up to 80-200 km.

• It is highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile and its density is higher than
that of the crust.

• These properties of the asthenosphere aid in plate tectonic movement and isostatic
adjustments (the elevated part at one part of the crust area is counterbalanced by a
depressed part at another).

• It is the main source of magma that finds its way to the surface during volcanic
eruptions.
The Mantle :
• It forms about 83 % of the Earth’s Volume and holds 67% of the Earth’s Mass.

• It extends from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.

• The density of the upper mantle varies between 2.9 g/cm3 and 3.3 g/cm3.

• The lower mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere. It is in a solid state.

• The density ranges from 3.3 g/cm3 to 5.7 g/cm3 in the lower mantle.

• The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium
relative to the overlying crust.

• Regarding its constituent elements, the mantle is made up of 45% oxygen, 21%
silicon, and 23% magnesium (OSM).
• In the mantle, temperatures range from approximately 200 °C at the upper
boundary with the crust to approximately 4,000 °C at the core-mantle boundary.

• Because of the temperature difference, there is a convective material circulation in

the mantle (although solid, the high temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate
material to be sufficiently ductile).

• Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface through the motions of tectonic
plates.

• High-pressure conditions ought to inhibit seismicity in the mantle.

• However, in subduction zones, earthquakes are observed down to 670 km (420 mi).
The Outer Core :
• The outer core, surrounding the inner core, lies between 2900 km and 5100
km below the earth’s surface.
• The outer core is composed of iron mixed with nickel (NiFe) and trace
amounts of lighter elements.
• The outer core is not under enough pressure to be solid, so it is liquid
even though it has a composition similar to the inner core.
• The density of the outer core ranges from 9.9 g/cm3 to 12.2 g/cm3.
• The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400 °C in the outer
regions to 6000 °C near the inner core.
• Dynamo Theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with
the Coriolis Effect, gives rise to Earth’s Magnetic Field.
The Inner Core :
• The Inner core extends from the Centre of the Earth to 5100 km below the earth’s
surface.
• The Inner core is generally believed to be composed primarily of Iron (80%) and some
Nickel(NiFe).
• Since this layer can transmit shear waves (transverse seismic waves), it is solid.
• (When P-waves strike the outer core – inner core boundary, they give rise to S-waves)
• Earth’s Inner Core rotates slightly faster relative to the rotation of the surface.
• The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field.
• The density of the inner core ranges from 12.6 g/cm3 to 13 g/cm3.
• The Core (Inner core and Outer core) accounts for just about 16 per cent of the
Earth’s Volume but 33% of Earth’s Mass.
• Scientists have determined the temperature near the Earth’s centre to be 6000 ֯C, 1000 ֯
C hotter than previously thought.
• At 6000°C, this Iron Core is as hot as the Sun’s surface, but the crushing
pressure caused by gravity prevents it from becoming liquid.
Note :

When Ambient Pressure increases the melting point of solid

increases, and vice versa.

One exception is Ice. In the case of ice increase in ambient pressure

will lower its melting point.
Summary :
-Layers of the Earth :

1. Lithosphere :
-Thickness : 10-200 kms
-Crust + Upper Mantle
-Tectonic Plates or Lithospheric Plates : Made up of :
(a). Continental Plates [Continental Crust] : Si+Al [Lighter]
(b). Oceanic Plates [Oceanic Crust] : Si+Ma [Heavier]
-Plate Tectonics driven by primordial heat + Radioactive Decay of Uranium and Thorium [Present
in the Mantle and the Earth's Crust]

2. Asthenosphere :
-Between Lower Part of the Lithosphere and Upper Portion of the Upper Mantle
-Thickness : 80-200 kms
-Density : Higher than Crust
-Nature : Volatile, Mechanically Weak and Ductile
-Role : Acts as a source of Magma, aids in plate tectonic movement and isostatic adjustments, i.e.
elevated part of the Earth is counter balanced by the depressed part of the Earth.

3. Mantle :

-Thickness : From Mohorovic Discontinuity to a depth of 2900 kms

-Upper Mantle + Lower Mantle
-Volume : 83% of the Earth's Volume
-Mass : 67% of the Earth's Mass
-Density : Upper Mantle-2.9 g/cm3 to 3.3 g/cm3, Lower Mantle- 3.3 g/cm3 to 5.7gm/cm3
-Temperature : Upper Mantle-200 °C, Lower Mantle-4000 °C
-Role : Responsible for circulation of Convection Currents
-Composition : 45% oxygen, 21% silicon, and 23% magnesium (OSM)
4. Core :

-Thickness : Outer Core : 2900 kms-5100 kms, Inner Core : 5100 kms +
-Outer Core + Inner Core
-Volume : Outer + Inner - 16% of the Earth's Volume
-Mass : Outer + Inner - 33% of the Earth's Mass
-Density : Outer Core : 9.9 g/cm3 to 12.2 g/cm3, Inner Core : 12.6 g/cm3 to 13 g/cm3

-Temperature :
-Outer Core [Semi-Solid]-4000 °C to 6000 °C
-Inner Core [Solid]-6000 °C

-Composition :
-Outer Core : Ni + Fe and trace amounts of lighter elements
-Inner Core : 80% Fe + Ni
Seismic Waves :
• Seismic: Relating to earthquakes or other vibrations of the earth
and its crust.

• Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the

Earth’s layers and are a result of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
magma movement, large landslides and large human-made
explosions.

• The refraction or reflection of seismic waves is used for

research into the structure of the Earth’s interior.
How are earthquake waves produced?
• The abrupt release of energy along a fault (sharp break in the crustal layer) causes earthquake
waves.
• Rock layers along a fault tend to move in opposite directions due to the force excreted on
them but are held in place by counteracting frictional force exerted by the overlying rock
strata.
• The point where the energy is released is called the focus or the hypocentre of an earthquake.
• The point on the surface directly above the focus is called epicentre.
Types of Seismic waves or Earthquake waves :
• The seismic waves or earthquake waves are basically of
two types — body waves and surface waves.
Body Waves :
• Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the
focus and move in all directions travelling through the interior of
the earth. Hence, the name body waves.

There are two types of body waves:

• The P-waves or Primary waves (longitudinal in nature ― wave

propagation is similar to sound waves), and
• The S-waves or Secondary waves (transverse in nature ― wave
propagation is similar to ripples on the surface of the water).
 Primary Waves (P-waves) :
• Primary waves are called so because they are the fastest among the
seismic waves and hence are recorded first on the seismograph.

P-waves are also called as the-

• Longitudinal waves because the displacement of the medium is in the
same direction as, or the opposite direction to, (parallel to) the direction of
propagation of the wave; or
• Compressional waves because they produce compression and
rarefaction when travelling through a medium; or
• Pressure waves because they produce increases and decreases in
pressure in the medium.
• P-waves creates density differences in the material leading to stretching
(rarefaction) and squeezing (compression) of the material.
• These waves are of relatively high frequency and are the least destructive
among the earthquake waves.
• The trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to these waves is in the up-
down direction (vertical).
• They can travel in all mediums, and their velocity depends on shear
strength (elasticity) of the medium.
• Hence, the velocity of the P-waves in Solids > Liquids > Gases.
• These waves take the form of sound waves when they enter the
atmosphere.
• P-wave velocity in earthquakes is in the range 5 to 8 km/s.
• The precise speed varies according to the region of the Earth’s interior,
from less than 6 km/s in the Earth’s crust to 13.5 km/s in the lower mantle,
and 11 km/s through the inner core.
Why do P-waves travel faster than S-waves?
• P-waves are about 1.7 times faster than the S-waves.
• P-waves are compression waves that apply a force in the direction of
propagation and hence transmit their energy quite easily through the medium
and thus travel quickly.
• On the other hand, S-waves are transverse waves or shear waves (motion
of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave)
and are hence less easily transmitted through the medium.
Secondary Waves (S-waves)
• Secondary waves (secondary they are recorded second on the seismograph) or S-
waves are also called as transverse waves or shear waves or distortional waves.
• They are analogous to water ripples or light waves.
• Transverse waves or shear waves mean that the direction of vibrations of the
particles in the medium is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
wave. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the material through which they pass
(they distort the medium).
• S-waves arrive at the surface after the P-waves.
• These waves are of high frequency and possess slightly higher destructive power
compared to P-waves.
• The trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to these waves is from side to
side (horizontal).
• S-waves cannot pass through fluids (liquids and gases) as fluids do not support
shear stresses.
• They travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear strength) through the solid
part of the Earth.
Surface waves (L-Waves)
• The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of waves called
surface waves (long or L-waves). These waves move only along the surface.
• Surface Waves are also called long period waves because of their long wavelength.
• They are low–frequency transverse waves (shear waves).
• They develop in the immediate neighbourhood of the epicentre and affect only the
surface of the earth and die out at smaller depth.
• They lose energy more slowly with distance than the body waves because they travel
only across the surface unlike the body waves which travel in all directions.
• Particle motion of surface waves (amplitude) is larger than that of body waves, so
surface waves are the most destructive among the earthquake waves.
• They are slowest among the earthquake waves and are recorded last on the
seismograph.
Love Waves
• It’s the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side.
Rayleigh Waves
• A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or
an ocean.
• Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down and side-to-side in the
same direction that the wave is moving.
• Most of the shaking and damage from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh
wave.
How do seismic waves help in understanding the
earth’s interior?
The emergence of Shadow Zone of P-waves and S-waves :

• S-waves do not travel through liquids (they are attenuated).

• The entire zone beyond 103° does not receive S-waves, and hence this zone is identified
as the shadow zone of S-waves. This observation led to the discovery of the liquid outer core.
• The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around the earth between 103° and
142° away from the epicentre.
• This is because P-waves are refracted when they pass through the transition between the
semisolid mantle and the liquid outer core.
• However, the seismographs located beyond 142° from the epicentre, record the arrival of
P-waves, but not that of S-waves. This gives clues about the solid inner core.
• Thus, a zone between 103° and 142° from epicentre was identified as the shadow zone
for both the types of waves.
Summary :
Contents :

-Seismic Waves or Earthquake Waves : These waves are used along with the principles of
reflection and refraction to study about the nature of the Earth's interior.

-How are Earthquakes produced?

-Due to frictional points [Focus or Hypocentre] created along the Earth's Crust along the fault lines

-Types of Seismic Waves :

(1) Body Waves [P-Waves and S-Waves]
(2) Surface Waves [Love Waves and Rayleigh Waves]
(1) Body Waves [Short Period Waves] :

(a) P [Primary Waves]- Also called -Longitudinal, Compressional, Pressure, Waves

Nature : Fastest, Can travel through Solid, Fluids : Liquid and Gases, Similar to Sound Waves, Travels
fastest in the Solid, Causes the Earth to move up and down at the surface [epicentre], Frequency of
Waves-Highest, Wavelength of Waves-Smallest, Amplitude-Smallest.

(b) S [Secondary Waves]- Also called-Transverse Waves

Nature : Slower than Longitudinal Waves, Can travel through only Solids, Similar to Water Waves,
Travels at different velocities in different solid medium, Causes the Earth to move back and forth at the
surface [epicentre], Frequency of Waves-Lower than P Waves, Wavelength of Waves-Higher than P
Waves, Amplitude-Higher than P Waves.
(2) Surface Waves [Long Period Waves] : Slower than the Body Waves and arrives last in a
seismograph-Frequency of Waves-Lowest, Wavelength of Waves-Highest, Amplitude-Highest.

(a) Love Waves : Causes the Earth to move side to side at the epicentre

(b)Rayleigh Waves : Causes the Earth to move side to side and up and down [Most destructive of
all waves], rolls like sea waves on the Earth's Surface

Earthquake Shadow Zones :

-P-Wave Shadow Zone : Appear between 103° and 142° away from the epicentre.

-S-Wave Shadow Zone : Appear in the zone beyond 103° away from the epicentre
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Geomorphic Movements
Geomorphic Movements: Large scale physical and chemical changes that take place on the
Earth’s surface due to geomorphic processes (folding, faulting, weathering, erosion, etc.) .

Geo- The Earth + Morphic- Structure

Types of Geomorphic Movements :

• Endogenic Geomorphic Movements

• Exogenic Geomorphic Movements

Endogenic Geomorphic Movements
Endogenic Geomorphic Movements :

The large-scale movements on the earth’s crust or its surface brought down by the forces
emanating from deep below the earth’s surface are called as endogenic geomorphic movements
or simply endogenic movements (endo: internal; genic: origin; geo: earth; morphic: form).

The geomorphic processes that are driven by the forces emanating from deep below the earth’s
surface are called Endogenic Geomorphic Processes (folding, faulting, etc.).

Force Behind Endogenic Movements :

• Earth’s Internal Heat

• Density Differences in Earth’s Interior leading to Conventional Currents
• Movement of the Lithospheric Plates
• Earth’s Rotation, i.e. Coriolis Effect influencing Conventional Currents
Classification of Endogenic Movements :

Endogenic movements are divided into Diastrophic Movements and Sudden Movements.

Diastrophic Movements :

Diastrophism refers to deformation of the Earth’s crust.

Diastrophic movements are gradual and might stretch for thousands of years.

Diastrophic movements are further classified into epeirogenic movements (continent forming ―
subsidence, upliftment) and orogenic movements (mountain building ― folding, faulting).

Sudden Movements :

Sudden movements like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur in a very short period.
Diastrophic Movements
Epeirogenic or Continent Forming Movements :

Epeirogenic or continent forming movements are radial movements (act along the radius of the
earth).
Their direction may be towards (subsidence) or away (uplift) from the centre.
They cause upheavals or depressions of land exhibiting undulations (wavy surface) of long
wavelengths and little folding.

Uplift :
Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea caves and fossiliferous beds above sea level are
evidence of upliftment.In India, raised beaches occur at several places along the Kathiawar,
Nellore, and Tirunelveli coasts.

Subsidence :
In 1819, a part of the Rann of Kachchh was submerged as a result of an earthquake.
Orogenic or the Mountain-Forming Movements :

In contrast to epeirogenic movement, the orogenic movement is a more complicated deformation of

the Earth’s crust, associated with crustal thickening (due to the convergence of tectonic
plates).

Such plate convergence forms orogenic belts that are characterised by “the folding and faulting of
layers of rock, by the intrusion of magma, and by volcanism.

Orogenic or the mountain-forming movements act tangentially to the earth surface, as in plate
tectonics.

Tension produces fissures (since this type of force acts away from a point in two directions), and
compression produces folds (because this type of force acts towards a point from two or more
directions).
 Folds
Fissures
Sudden Movements
Sudden Movements :

Sudden geomorphic movements occur mostly at the lithospheric plate margins (tectonic plate
margins).

The plate margins are highly unstable regions due to pressure created by pushing and pulling of
magma in the mantle (convectional currents).

These movements cause considerable deformation over a short period.

Earthquakes : Earthquakes occur when the surplus accumulated stress in rocks in the earth’s
interior due to folding, faulting or other physical changes is relieved through the weak zones over
the earth’s surface in the form of kinetic energy (seismic waves).

Volcanoes : Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock (magma) onto or towards the earth’s
surface through narrow volcanic vents or fissures.
Exogenic Geomorphic Movements
Exogenic Geomorphic Movements :

The geomorphic processes on the earth’s crust or its surface brought down by the forces
emanating from above the earth’s surface (wind, water) are called exogenic geomorphic process.

Exogenic geomorphic process gives rise to exogenic geomorphic movements or simply exogenic
movements such as weathering and erosion.

The effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic processes are small and slow but will, in the long
run, affect the rocks severely due to continued fatigue.

Force Behind Exogenic Movements :

• Direct result of the sun’s heat.

• Molecular Stresses
• Loosening of Bonds
Note : Stress is produced in a solid by pushing or pulling (shear stresses ― separating forces)
forces.
Classification of Exogenic Movements :

All the exogenic processes (weathering and erosion) are covered under a general term,
denudation.

Denudation can be classified into two types :

1) Physical Weathering : Mechanical Disintegration. Eg- Exfoliation [Over time, sheets of rock
break away from the exposed rocks along the fractures], Granular Disintegration [Differential
expansion and contraction of mineral grains resulting in grain by grain separation from the rock],
Frost Weathering, Frost Wedging [Cracks filled with water are forced further apart with
subsequent freezing and thawing], etc.

2) Chemical Weathering : Chemical Decomposition . Eg- Natural Dissolution [process where a

solute in gaseous, liquid, or solid phase dissolves in a solvent to form a solution], Solution
Weathering [When the solvent is an acidic solution rather than simple water], Carbonation –
Natural Solution Weathering [Reactions of carbon dioxide to give carbonates, bicarbonates, and
carbonic acid], Oxidation and Reduction, etc.
Summary
-Geomorphic Movements
-Types :

1. Endogenic Geomorphic Movements :

-Forces behind Endogenic Movements
-Classification of Endogenic Movements :

(a) Diastrophism :

(i) Epeirogenic or Continent Forming [Radial Forces] [Upward-Upliftment and Downward-

Subsidence]
(ii) Orogenic or Mountain Forming [Tangential Forces] [Tension-When forces act in the opposite
direction it leads to faulting and Compression(Crustal Thickening)-When forces act in the same
direction it leads to folding]

(b) Sudden Movements : Earthquakes, Volcanoes, Landslides, etc.

2. Exogenic Geomorphic Movements

-Forces behind Exogenic Movements

(a) Weathering :

(i) Physical : Exfoliation, Granular Disintegration, Frost Weathering and Frost Wedging

(ii) Chemical : Chemical Decomposition-Natural Dissolution [Solvent : Natural Water], Solution

Weathering [Solvent : Acidic Medium], Carbonation [Solvent : Carbonates, Bi-Carbonates and
Carbonic Acid], and Oxidation and Reduction

(iii) Biological

(b) Erosion :

Agents : Ice, River Water, Sea, Wind, Underground Water

GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Geomorphology
[Plate Tectonics-Theories]
Tectonics : Tectonics is the scientific study of forces (convection currents in the mantle) and
processes (collisions of the lithospheric plates, folding, faulting, volcanism) that control the structure
of the Earth’s crust and its evolution through time.

It deals with the folding and faulting associated with mountain building (orogenic movements); the
large-scale, gradual upward and downward movements of the crust (epeirogenic movements); the
growth and behaviour of old cores of continents known as cratons; and sudden horizontal
displacements along faults.
Important Theories [Tectonic Processes] :

Continental Drift Theory (CDT)

Continental drift refers to the movement of the continents relative to each other.

Polar Wandering (similar to Continental Drift Theory)

Polar wandering is the relative movement of the earth’s crust and upper mantle with respect to the
rotational poles of the earth.

Seafloor Spreading Theory (SFST)

Seafloor spreading describes the movement of oceanic plates relative to one another.

Convection Current Theory (CCT)

Convection current theory forms the basis of SFST and PT. It explains the force behind plate
movements.

Plate Tectonics (PT)

Plate tectonics is the movement of lithospheric plates relative to each other.
Continental Drift Theory (CDT)

Alfred Wegener suggested continental Drift Theory in the 1920’s.

According to Continental Drift Theory there existed one big landmass which he called Pangaea
which was covered by one big ocean called Panthalassa.

Later on, a sea called Tethys divided the Pangaea into two huge landmasses:

Laurentia (Laurasia) to the north and Gondwanaland to the south of Tethys.

Drift started around 200 million years ago (Mesozoic Era, Triassic Period, Late Triassic Epoch),
and the continents began to break up and drift away from one another.

Criticism :
• Wegener failed to explain why the drift began only in Mesozoic era and not before.
• Coastlines are a temporary feature and are liable to change.
Polar Wandering (similar to Continental Drift Theory)

The position of the poles constantly drifted (due to plate tectonics).

Criticism : Poles may have shifted, not necessarily the continents.

Seafloor Spreading Theory (SFST)

Harry Hess proposed the idea of See Floor Spreading.

When oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress causes fractures to occur in the lithosphere.

Basaltic magma rises from the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form new seafloor.

The newly formed seafloor (oceanic crust) then gradually moves away from the ridge, and its place is
taken by an even newer seafloor and the cycle repeats.

With time, older rocks are spread farther away from the spreading zone while younger rocks will be
found nearer to the spreading zone.

Criticism : Doesn’t explain the movement of continental plates

Convection Current Theory (CCT)

Convection Current Theory is the Soul of Seafloor Spreading Theory.

Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the possibility of convection currents in the mantle.

These currents are generated due to radioactive elements causing thermal differences in the
mantle.

Criticism : Convective currents may not be formed if heat is insufficient, and so the entire mechanism
and working of the theory will be impossible. It's also worth noting that rising currents condense their
heat into the crust.
Plate Tectonics (PT)

In 1967, McKenzie and Parker suggested the theory of plate tectonics. Morgan later outlined the
theory in 1968

Explains the Movement of Lithospheric plates that include both continents and oceans.

Convection currents in the mantle drag crustal plates

Evidence : Ocean bottom relief, Paleomagnetic rocks, distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes,
gravitational anomalies at trenches, etc.

Criticism : Most Widely Accepted Theory

Summary
Tectonics :
-Scientific study of forces (arising out of the mantle due to convection currents)
-Radial [Normal] Forces [Upliftment and Subsidence] : Give rise to epirogenic movements,
which creates continents [Lithospheric Crust : Continental Plates, Oceanic Plates]
-Tangential Forces [Compression and Tension] : Give rise to orogenic movements, which
creates mountains [Fold and Fault Mountains]

Note :

1.Two compressional forces [i.e. forces in the same direction] along the Earth's Surface
tangentially, give rise to fold mountains and two tensional forces [i.e. forces in the opposite
direction] along the Earth/s surface tangentially, give rise to fault/block mountains.

2. The old cores of continents are called "Cratons"

-Theories Regarding Plate Tectonics :

1. Continental Drift Theory : Relative movement of continental plates [Alfred Wegener-1920s]

-Big Landmass : Pangea, Big Ocean : Panthalasa
-Tethys Sea divides Pangea into Laurentia/Laurasia to the North and Gondwanaland in the South
-Drift of these two landmasses began in the Mesozoic Era around 200 Million Years Ago

2.Polar Wandering Theory : Relative movement of Earth's Crust and Upper Mantle with respect to
rotation of poles
-As the poles shifted their position, there is movement.

3.Sea Floor Spreading Theory : Relative movement of oceanic plates [Harry Hess]
-Due to tension/stress (i.e. oceanic plates drifting from each other) creates fissures and cracks
-Magma rises and cools on the ocean surface, forming new landmass in the sea floor
-This cycle repeats and new rocks replace the older rocks [i.e. the older landmass is pushed by the
newer landmass from the spreading zone]
4.Convection Current Theory : Explains the force [i.e. due to convection currents] behind movement
of Polar Wandering and Sea Floor Spreading Theory [Arthur Holmes-1930s]

-This happens due to differential heating of the Earth's Mantle, i.e. in the Mantle the pressure and
temperature gradient is sharp. The magma in the lower mantle is at a higher temperature and pressure
and the magma in the upper mantle is at a comparatively lower temperature and pressure. This gives
rise to convection currents which rise from the lower to upper mantle and further drags and makes its
way to the asthenosphere and above]. This causes the upper lithospheric plates [i.e. continental and
oceanic plates to move, i.e. converge or diverge]

5.Plate Tectonic Theory : Most Widely Accepted Theory-Explains the movement of lithospheric plates
[comprising of lithospheric plates, oceanic plates, asthenosphere and upper mantle] due to convection
currents circling in the upper mantle [Mc Kenzie and Parker-1967 and Outlined by Morgan-1968]
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Geomorphology
[Convergence and Divergence]
Convergence
Convergent Boundary

When one of the plates is an oceanic plate, it gets embedded in the softer asthenosphere of the
continental plate, and as a result, trenches are formed at the zone of subduction. This boundary
between the two plates is thus called the convergent boundary.

Along a convergent boundary two lithospheric plates collide against each other.
In convergence there are subtypes namely:

A) Collision of oceanic plates or Ocean-Ocean (O-O) convergence (formation of volcanic island arcs).

B) Collision of continental and oceanic plates or Ocean-Continent (O-C) convergence (formation of

continental arcs and fold mountains).

C) Collision of continental plates or Continent-Continent convergence (C-C) (formation of fold

mountains).
A) Ocean-Ocean Convergence or The Volcanic Island-Arc Convergence :

In Ocean-Ocean Convergence, a denser oceanic plate subducts below a less dense oceanic
plate forming a trench along the boundary.

Eg-Formation of the Philippine Island Arc System, Indonesian Archipelago, the Caribbean Islands,
Isthmus of Panama, Japanese Island Arc and The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench.
B) Ocean-Continent Convergence or The Continental Arcs and Fold Mountains :

Ocean-Continent Convergence is similar to Ocean-Ocean convergence.

One important difference is that in continent-ocean convergence, continental arcs and fold
mountains are formed instead of islands.
Formation of Continental Arcs

After reaching a certain depth, plates melt.

Magma (metamorphosed sediments and the melted part of the subducting plate) has lower density
and is at high pressure.

It rises due to the buoyant force offered by surrounding denser medium. The magma flows out,
sometimes violently to the surface.

A continuous upward movement of magma creates constant volcanic eruptions at the surface of
the continental plate along the margin.

Such volcanic eruptions all along the boundary form a chain of volcanic mountains which are
collectively called as a continental arc.

E.g. the Cascade Range (parallel to the Rockies), the Western Chile Range (parallel to the Andes)
Formation of Fold Mountains (Orogeny)
Orogeny (Geology) is a process in which a section of the earth’s crust is folded and deformed by
lateral compression (force acting sideways) to form a mountain range.

Orogenic movements are ‘Tectonic Movements’ of the earth involve the folding of sediments, faulting
and metamorphism (rocks that have transformed by heat, pressure).
Continental Margins are filled with thick sediments brought by the rivers.

As a result of convergence, the buoyant granite of the continental crust overrides (is placed
above) the oceanic crust (continental crust in upthrust by the oceanic crust).

As a result, the edge of the deformed continental margin is thrust above sea level.

The advancing oceanic plate adds more compressive stress on the upthrust continental margin
and leads to its folding creating a Fold Mountain System (Orogenic Belt).

In some cases, the advancing oceanic plate compresses the orogenic belt leading to its folding
(Rockies and Andes).

With the formation of the orogenic belt (fold mountain belt), resistance builds up which effectively stops
convergence. Thus, the subduction zone progresses seaward.
With the culmination of compression, erosion continues to denude mountains. This results in
isostatic adjustment (denser regions sink, and less denser regions rise) which causes the ultimate
exposure of the roots of mountains.

Examples are found in the Rockies, deformed in the late Mesozoic and early Tertiary period, and
the Andes, where the deformation began in the Tertiary Period is still going on.
C) Continent-Continent Convergence or Fold Mountains :

In Ocean-Ocean (O-O) convergence and Continent-Ocean (C-O) convergence, at least one of the
plates is denser and hence the subduction zone is quite deep (few hundred kilometres).

In Continent-Continent (C-C) Convergence, at continent-continent convergent margins, due to lower

density, both of the continental crustal plates are too light (buoyant) to be carried downward
(subduct) into a trench.

In most cases, neither plate subducts or even if one of the plates subducts, the subduction zone
will not go deeper than 40 – 50 km. The two plates converge, buckle up (suture zone), fold, and
fault.

As the continental plates converge, the ocean basic or a sedimentary basin (geoclinal or
geosynclinal sediments found along the continental margins) is squeezed between the two
converging plates.
Understanding Continent-Continent Convergence is important to understand the Formation of the
Himalayas, the Alps, the Urals and the Atlas Mountains.

Formation of the Himalayans and the Tibetan Plateau due to Continent-Continent (C-C)
Convergence

The Himalayas are the youngest mountain chain in the world.

Himalayan mountains have come out of a great geosyncline called the Tethys Sea and that the uplift
has taken place in different phases.

During Permian Period (250) million years ago, there was a supercontinent known as Pangaea.

Its Northern Part consisted of the present-day North America and Eurasia (Europe and Asia) which is
called as Laurasia or Angaraland or Laurentia.

The Southern Part of Pangaea consisted of present-day South America, Africa, South India, Australia
and Antarctica. This landmass was called Gondwanaland.
In between Laurasia and Gondwanaland, there was a long, narrow and shallow sea known as the
Tethys Sea.

Sediments were brought by these rivers and were deposited on the floor of the Tethys Sea.

These sediments were subjected to powerful compression due to the northward movement of the
Indian Plate.

This resulted in the folding of sediments.

Volcanism and Earthquakes in Continent-Continent (C-C) Convergence :
Oceanic Crust is only 5 – 30 km thick. But, the continental crust is 50 – 70 km thick. Magma cannot penetrate
this thick crust, so there are no volcanoes, although the magma stays in the crust.

Metamorphic Rocks are common because of the stress the continental crust experiences.

With enormous slabs of crust smashing together, continent-continent collisions bring on numerous and large
earthquakes (Earthquakes in Himalayan and North Indian Region, Kachchh region).
Summary :

Convergence :
-Can occur at the zone of subduction in the convergent boundary.
-Depending on the type of lithospheric plates [Continental/Oceanic], the convergence can be classified
into three types :

1. Ocean-Ocean (O-O) Convergence :

- Relatively heavier oceanic plate will subside below the other lighter oceanic plate
-Due to less thickness of these plates [5-30 kms], volcanism are very common, as the magma finds a
fissure to flow above
-Relief Features [created due to O-O Convergence] : Volcanic Island Arcs (Caribbean Islands), Deep
Trenches (Mariana Trench)

Important Note : Oceanic Plates are Denser, due to Si+Mg [SiMa], but their Thickness is less
compared to Continental Plates
2. Ocean-Continent (O-C) Convergence :

-The heavier and denser oceanic plates, subside below the lighter and less denser continental plates
-As Oceanic Plates are comparatively less thicker, so a little bit of volcanism is seen here in some
regions
-Relief Features : Continental Arcs (Cascade Range parallel to the Rockies and Western Chile Range
parallel to the Rockies) and Fold Mountains (The Rockies in N.America and the Andes in S.America)
[Tertiary Period of the Mesozoic Era]

Important Note : The Rockies Fold Mts Ranges in N.America and the Andes Fold Mts Ranges in
S.America belong to the Tertiary Period of the Mesozoic Era
3. Continent-Continent (C-C) Convergence :

-The comparatively denser continental plate will subside below the less denser continental plate
-As both the Continental Plates are very thick (50-70 kms), so extensive volcanism cannot be
witnessed in these zones
-Relief Features : Fold Mountains and Plateaus. Eg-The Himalayan Mts [Quaternary Period of the
Mesozoic Era], and the Tibetan Plateau.

Important Note :
1.The Himalayan Fold Mts Ranges belong to the Quaternary Period of the Mesozoic Era
2. The frictional drag created due to sedimentation of the Tethys Sea is less in the Himalayan C-C
Convergence zone, as compared to the sedimentation of the rivers in the Rockies/Andes O-C
Convergence zone. Thus, the Indian Plate is subsiding fast below the Eurasian Plate and the height of
the Himalayan Mountains are increasing fast as compared to the Rockies and Andes Mountain
Systems.

Note : As the zone of subsidence is very shallow in C-C Convergence, so deep trenches are not
formed.
Divergence
Divergent Boundary :
The horizontal limbs of the convection currents, just below the lithosphere, drag the plates horizontally.

The falling limbs of the convection currents create a negative pressure on the lithosphere, and
this negative pressure (pulling force) is responsible for the formation of the convergent boundary.

The rising limbs, on the other hand, create positive pressure on the lithosphere, and this
positive pressure (pushing force) creates a divergent boundary.

Divergence (divergent boundary) is responsible for the evolution and creation of new seas and
oceans just like convergent boundaries are responsible for the formation of fold mountains,
volcanic arcs, rift valleys, rift lakes, etc.
Evolution of a Divergent Boundary – Formation of Rift Valleys, Rift Lakes, Seas & Oceans
Summary :
Convergence :

O-O : Trench, Islands and Island Arcs

O-C : Continetal Arcs and Fold Mountain Ranges - The Rockies [North America], The Andes
[South America]
C-C : Fold Mountain Ranges-The Himalayas [Asia], The Alps [Europe], The Urals [Russia] and
The Atlas Mountain [Africa] Ranges

Divergence : Formation of Volcanic Arcs, Fold Mountains,Rift Valleys, Rift Lakes

Convection Current : Falling Limbs ->Negative Pressure [Pulling Force] : Convergence

Convection Current : Rising Limbs->Positive Pressure [Pushing Force] : Divergence
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Geomorphology
[Mountains-Folds and Faults]
Folds and Fold Mountains
Fold Mountains :

Fold mountains are formed when sedimentary rock strata in geosynclines are subjected to
compressive forces.

They are the loftiest mountains, and they are generally concentrated along continental margins.

Note :

Geosyncline: A large-scale depression in the Earth’s crust containing very thick deposits. E.g. Tethys
geosyncline.
‘Fold’ in Geology :

A fold is an undulating structure (wave-like) that forms when rocks or a part of the earth’s crust is
folded (deformed by bending) under compressional stress.

The folds are made up of multiple strata (rock layers).

• The folds that are upwardly convex are called as anticlines.
• The folds that are downwardly convex are called synclines.
Definitions :

• Limbs: The limbs are the flanks of the fold.

• Hinge Line: The boundary where the flanks join together (the line of maximum curvature).

• Axial Plane: Plane defined by connecting all the hinge lines of stacked folding surfaces (the plane in which
hinge lines of various strata lie).
Types of Folds :

• A symmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is vertical.

• An asymmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is inclined.

• An isoclinal fold has limbs that are essentially parallel to each other and thus approximately
parallel to the axial plane.

• An overturned fold has a highly inclined axial plane such that the strata on one limb are
overturned.

• A recumbent fold has an essentially horizontal axial plane.

Classification of Fold Mountains :

• On the basis of period of origin : Very old fold mountains, Old fold mountains and Alpine fold
mountains.

Very Old Fold Mountains :

They are more than 500 million years old.

They have rounded features (due to denudation).
They are of low elevation.
Eg-Laurentian mountains, Algoman mountains, etc.

Old Fold Mountains :

Old fold mountains had their origin before the Tertiary Period (tertiary period started 66 million years
ago).
Eg-The fold mountain systems belonging to Caledonian and Hercynian mountain-building periods
fall in this category.
The Appalachians in North America and the Ural Mountains in Russia are the examples.

They are also called thickening relict fold mountains because of lightly rounded features and medium
elevation.
Top layers are worn out due to erosional activity. Example: Aravalli Range in India.

The Aravalli Range in India is the oldest fold mountain systems in India.
The range rose in post-Precambrian event called the Aravalli-Delhi orogeny.

Alpine or Young Fold Mountains :

Alpine fold mountains belonging to the Tertiary period (66 million years ago to present) can be grouped
under the new fold mountains category since they originated in the Tertiary period.
Examples are the Rockies, the Andes, the Alps, the Himalayas, etc.
• On the basis of the nature of folds :

Simple Fold Mountains

• Simple fold mountains with open folds in which well-developed systems of synclines and anticlines
are found, and folds are of wavy patterns.

Complex Fold Mountains

• Complex fold mountains in which the rock strata are intensely compressed to produce a complex
structure of folds.
• In the Himalayas, over folds and recumbent folds are often found detached from their roots and
carried a few hundred kilometres away by the tectonic forces. These detached folds are called
‘nappe.’
Faults and Block Mountains
‘Fault’ in Geology :

When the Earth’s crust bends folding occurs, but when it cracks, faulting takes place.

A fault is a planar fracture (crack) in a volume of earth’s crust, across which there has been
significant displacement of a block/blocks of crust.

The faulted edges are usually very steep, e.g. the Vosges and the Black Forest of the Rhineland.

Faults occur due to tensile and compressive forces acting on the parts of the crust.
Large faults within the Earth’s crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces, such as subduction
zones or transform faults.

Energy release associated with rapid movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes.

• Active Fault : The pieces of the Earth’s crust along a fault move over time.

• Inactive Fault : Movement along them at one time, but no longer move.

The type of motion along a fault depends on the type of fault.

Types of Faults :
• Strike-Slip Fault (also known transcurrent fault),
the plane of the fault is usually near vertical, and the
blocks move laterally either left or right with very little
vertical motion (the displacement of the block is
horizontal).

• Dip-Slip Faults

Dip-Slip Faults can be either Normal or Reverse.

-Normal Faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is

being extended such as a divergent boundary.

-Reverse Faults occur in areas where the crust is being

shortened such as at a convergent boundary.
• Oblique-Slip Faults

A fault which has a component of dip-slip and a

component of strike-slip is termed an oblique-slip fault.

Nearly all faults have some component of both dip-slip

and strike-slip.

Many disastrous earthquakes are caused along the

oblique slip.
A downthrown block between two normal faults is a
graben.

An upthrown block between two normal faults is a

horst.
Block Mountains :

Block Mountains are created because of faulting on a large scale (when large areas or blocks of
earth are broken and displaced vertically or horizontally).

The uplifted blocks are termed as horsts, and the lowered blocks are called graben.

Eg-The Great African Rift Valley (valley floor is graben), The Rhine Valley (graben) and the Vosges
mountain (horst) in Europe are examples.

Block mountains are also called fault-block mountains since they are formed due to faulting as a
result of tensile and compressive forces.

There are two basic types of block mountains:

• Tilted Block Mountains have one steep side contrasted by a gentle slope on the other side.
• Lifted Block Mountains have a flat top and extremely steep slopes.
Summary :
Fold : Undulating Structures [Wavy Patterns]

-Upward Convex : Anticline

-Downward Convex : Syncline

-Important Definitions : Limbs, Hinge Line and Axial Line

-Types of Folds :
1. Symmetrical : Axial Plane is Vertical
2. Asymmetrical : Axial Plane is Inclined
3. Isoclinal : Limbs are Parallel to the Axial Plane
4. Overturned : Limbs are Non-Parallel to the Axial Plane
5. Recumbent : Axial Plane is Horizontal
Classification of Fold Mountains :

1. Based on Period of Origin :

a. Very Old Fold Mountains : Rounded Features, Denudation, Low Elevation [Laurentian and
Algoman Mountains]
b. Old Fold Mountains : Lightly Rounded Features, Medium Elevation [Appalachians in North
America and the Ural Mountains in Russia and Aravalli Range in India-Oldest Fold Mountains in
India]
c. Alpine or New Fold Mountains : Mesozoic Era [Tertiary Period] : Rockies, the Andes, the Alps
and Mesozoic Era [Quaternary Period] : The Himalayas

2. Based on Nature of Folds :

a. Simple Fold Mountains [well developed system of synclines and anticlines]

b. Complex Fold Mountains [complex structure of folds, prevalance of Nappe, which are detached
folds]
Faults and Block Mountains :

Types :

(1) Based on activity :

(a) Active Faults

(b) Inactive Faults

(2) Based on Vertical and Horizontal or Mixed Displacement :

(a) Strike-Slip Fault [Horizontal]

(b) Dip-Slip Faults [Vertical] : Normal and Reverse Faults

(c) Oblique Slip [Mixed]

-Horst : upthrown block between two normal faults
-Graben : downward block between two normal faults

-Block Mountains : Types-

(a) Tilted Block Mountain [One side steep, other side gentle]
(b) Lifted Block Mountain [Both sides steep, and flat top]
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Geomorphology
[Volcanism]
A volcano is a vent or a fissure (crack) in the crust from which lava (molten rock), ash, gases, rock
fragments erupt from a magma chamber below the surface.

Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of molten rock, pyroclastics and volcanic gases to the
surface through a vent.

Causes of Volcanism :

• Huge temperature difference between the inner layers and the outer layers of the earth due to the
differential amount of radioactivity.
• This temperature difference gives rise to convectional currents in the mantle.
• The convection currents in the mantle create convergent and divergent boundaries (weak zones).
• At the divergent boundary, molten, semi-molten and sometimes gaseous material appears on earth at
the first available opportunity.
• The earthquakes here may expose fault zones through which magma may escape (fissure type volcano).
• At the convergent boundary, the subduction of denser plate creates magma at high pressure which will
escape to the surface in the form of violent eruptions.
Volcanism : Types of Lava -

Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or Stratovolcanic Lava

• These lavas are highly viscous with a high melting point.
• They are light-coloured, of low density, and have a high
percentage of silica.
• They flow slowly and seldom travel far before solidifying.
• The resultant volcanic cone is therefore stratified (hence the
name stratovolcano) and steep-sided.

Basic or Basaltic or Shield Lava

• These are the hottest lavas, about 1,000 °C and are highly
fluid.
• They are dark coloured basalt, rich in iron and magnesium
but poor in silica.
• They flow out of volcanic vent quietly and are not very
explosive.
• Due to their high fluidity, they flow readily with a speed of 10
to 30 miles per hour.
Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes across the World

Occur along converging plate margins and Mid-Oceanic ridges.

• 70 per cent of earthquakes occur in the Circum-Pacific Belt.

• 20 per cent of earthquakes take place in the Mediterranean-Himalayan belt including Asia Minor,
the Himalayas and parts of North-West China.

The Belts of highest concentration are Aleutian-Kurile islands arc, Melanesia and New Zealand-
Tonga belt.

Note : Only 10 per cent to 20 per cent of all volcanic activity is above the sea, and terrestrial
volcanic mountains are small when compared to their submarine counterparts.
Volcanism :

• Along the Pacific Ring of Fire :

The Aleutian Islands [Alaska] into Kamchatka [Russia], Japan, the Philippines, and Indonesia (Java
and Sumatra in particular), Pacific Islands of Solomon, New Hebrides, Tonga and North Island, New
Zealand, Andes to Central America (particularly Guatemala, Costa Rica and Nicaragua), Mexico and
right up to Alaska.

• Along the Atlantic coast :

Atlantic coasts have comparatively few active volcanoes but many dormant or extinct volcanoes, e.g.
St. Helena, Cape Verde Islands and the Canary Islands etc.

• Along the Great Rift region :

In Africa, some volcanoes are found along the East African Rift Valley, e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt.
Kenya.
• Along the The West Indian Islands :

The Lesser Antilles (Part of West Indies Islands) are made up mainly of volcanic islands, and some of
them still bear signs of volcanic liveliness.

• Along the Mediterranean Region :

Volcanoes of the Mediterranean region are mainly associated with the Alpine folds, e.g. Vesuvius,
Stromboli (Light House of the Mediterranean) and those of the Aegean islands.

A few continue into Asia Minor (Mt. Ararat, Mt. Elbruz).

• Volcanism (Volcanos) in India :

There are no volcanoes in the Himalayan Region or the Indian Peninsula.

Barren Island (only active volcano in India) in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands became active in the 1990s.
The other volcanic island in Indian territory is Narcondam, about 150 km north-east of Barren Island; it is probably
extinct. Its crater wall has been destroyed.
Extinct, Dormant and Active Volcanoes :

• Active Volcano : Erupts fairly frequently. Eg-Barren Island in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
[India], Anak Krakatoa [Indonesia]

• Dormant Volcano : Eruption has not occured regularly. Eg-Mount Kilimanjaro [Tanzania]

• Extinct or Ancient Volcano : Eruption has been recorded in historic times. Eg-Mount Kenya,
Narcondam Island in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands [India]
Volcanic Landforms :

Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive and intrusive landforms based on whether magma
cools within the crust or above the crust.

Rocks formed by the cooling of magma within the crust are called Plutonic rocks.
Rocks formed by the cooling of lava above the surface are called Igneous rocks.
Mantle Plumes and Volcanic Hotspots :

The mantle plume provides a continuous supply of abnormally hot magma to a fixed location in the
mantle referred to as a hotspot.
The abnormally high heat of the hotspot facilitates the melting of rock at the base of the
lithosphere.
The melted rock, known as magma, which is at high pressure, often pushes through cracks in the
crust to form hotspot volcanoes (e.g. Mount Mauna Kea).
Note : Hotspot Volcanism is a type of volcanism that typically occurs at the interior parts of the
lithospheric plates rather than at the zones of convergence and divergence (plate margins).
Summary :
Volcanoes :
-Vulcan-In Roman and Greek mythology, Vulcan is the god of fire, metalworking, and the forge
-Phenomenon of eruption of molten rock, pyroclastics [volcanic materials, including rocks, flows,
and deposits, that are produced by explosive volcanic eruptions] and volcanic gases [SO2, CO2,
H2S, etc.] to the surface through a vent

Note :
-Pyroclasts : Include :

-Pyroclastic Rock: A hardened, compressed, or solidified version of a pyroclastic deposit.

-Tephra: A term that was originally used as a synonym for pyroclastic materials, but is now used
more specifically to describe pyroclastic materials that fall through the air.
-Tuff: A deposit made up of ash-sized fragments.
-Nuée Ardente Deposits: Deposits that are mainly found in valleys.
-Ignimbrites: Deposits that form plateau-like structures that bury the previous topography.
-Causes of Volcanism :

-Radioactivity : Differential Heating (Temperature) leads to Differential Pressure and rise of the
magma

-Convection Current leads to rise in the magma and escape through the Convergent and
Divergent Boundaries

-Types of Lava :

1. Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or Stratovolcanic Lava :

-Nature : Highly Viscous
-Composition : Silica
-Colour : Light
-Density : Low
-Speed : Slow
-Explosion : Violent
-Landform : Formation of steep-sided Strato Volcanoes
-Examples : Mount Vesuvius (79 ce), Mount Tambora (1815), Krakatoa (1883), Novarupta (1912),
and Mount Pinatubo (1991)

2. Basic or Basaltic or Shield Lava :

-Nature : Highly Fluid
-Composition : Iron and Magnesium [Poor in Silica]
-Colour : Dark
-Density : High
-Speed : High [10-30 mph]
-Explosion : Less Violent
-Landform : Formation of gentle sided-Shield Volcanoes
-Examples : Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa
-Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes throughout the world :

1. 70 % : Circum-Pacific Belt [Includes-New Zealand-Tonga Belt, Melanasia and Aleutian-Kurile

Islands
2. 20 % : Mediterranean-Himalayan Belt [Includes-Asia Minor, Himalayas and the North-West
China]
3. Rest : 10 % : Rest of the World

Note :

-10-20% of all volcanoes occur over the sea level, i.e. in land and rest 80% volcanoes are formed
below sea level.

-The volcanoes formed at the submarine ridges are larger than their terrestrial counterparts
-Important Location : Volcanism-

1. Pacific Ring of Fire : The Aleutian Islands [Alaska] into Kamchatka [Russia], Japan, the
Philippines, and Indonesia (Java and Sumatra in particular), Pacific Islands of Solomon, New
Hebrides, Tonga and North Island, New Zealand, Andes to Central America (particularly Guatemala,
Costa Rica and Nicaragua), Mexico and right up to Alaska.

2. Atlantic Coast : St. Helena, Cape Verde Islands and the Canary Islands

3. Great Rift Region : East African Rift Valley, E.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya.

4. Lesser Antilles [West Indian Islands]

5. Mediterranean Region : Vesuvius, Stromboli (Light House of the Mediterranean) and Aegean
Islands.
6. Volcanos in India :

-No volcanoes in India Peninsular

-Active Volcano : India-Barren Island
-Extinct Volcano : Narcondam Island

-Note :

The Greater Antilles are larger than the Lesser Antilles, with the four largest islands in the Caribbean
making up the Greater Antilles.

Location :
The Greater Antilles are located in the north of the Caribbean Sea, while the Lesser Antilles are
located to the east and south.

-Trinidad and Tobago

Composition :
The Greater Antilles are made up of continental rock, while the Lesser Antilles are made up of
volcanic rock or coral islands.

Greater Antilles :
-Cuba
-Jamaica
-Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic)
-Puerto Rico
-The Cayman Islands
-Navassa Island
Lesser Antilles :
-The Virgin Islands
-The Leeward Islands
-The Windward Islands
-The Leeward Antilles
-Barbados
-Saint Lucia

-Types of Volcanoes : Based on Frequency of Eruption-

1. Active Volcano : Eruption-Fairly Frequent. Eg-Barren Island [India] and Anak Krakatoa
[Indonesia]
2. Dormant Volcano : Eruption-Not present in near recorded history. Eg-Mount Kiliminjaro
[Tanzania]
3. Extinct Volcano : Eruption-Present in recorded history. Eg-Mount Kenya, Narcondam Island
[India]
Volcanic Landforms :

-Intrusive Volcanic Landforms : Plutonic Rocks, Batholiths, Horizontal Magma Deposits-Sills and
Laccoliths, Vertical Magma Deposits-Dykes and Diatremes, etc.

-Extrusive Volcanic Landforms : Lava Plateau (Deccan Plateau), Cinder Cone, Ash Cone,
Cladera, Composite (Strato)/ Basaltic (Shield) Volcanoes etc.

-Hotspot Volcanism

-List of major volcanoes in the World :

-Mediterranean Region :
-Italy : Etna (Sicily), Vesuvius, Stromboli
-Atlantic Region :
-Teide, Tenerife, Canary Islands ; Fogo, Cape Verde Islands ; Beerenberg, Jan Mayen, Norway;
Askja, Iceland

-North American Region :

-Mexico : Citlaltépetl, Veracruz-Puebla; Colima-Colima; Popocatépetl
-The US : Rainier-Washington DC; Hood-Oregon; Redoubt, Alaska; Shishaldin, Alaska; Katmai,
Alaska

-South America Region :

-Guatemala : Tajumulco, Acatenango, Fuego, Pacaya
-Costa Rica : Irazú, Poás, Arenal
-El Salvador : Santa Ana, San Miguel,Izalco
-Nicaragua : Momotombo
-Ecuador : Cotopaxi,Tungurahua, Sangay
-Colombia : Ruiz
-Chile : Llaima, Villarrica, Hudson

-Pacific Ocean Region :

-Hawaii : Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, Kilauea, Loihi
-Ross Island : Erebus

-East Asian Region :

-Russia : Kamchatka Peninsula [Klyuchevskaya, Tolbachik, Shiveluch, Bezymianny], Alaid-Kuril
Islands
-Japan : Kyushu [Unzen, Aso], Honshu [Ontake, Fuji]

Southeast Asia and Oceania Region :

-Indonesia : Kerinci, Rinjani, Semeru, Slamet, Raung, Agung, Merapi, Tambora, Papandayan,
Kelud, Krakatoa (Krakatau)
-Philippines : Apo, Mayon, Taal
-New Zealand : Ruapehu
-Papua New Guinea : Ulawun
Africa and Indian Ocean Region :
• Cameroon : Cameroon Island
• Congo : Nyamulagira (Kinshasa)
• Tanzania : Ol Doinyo Lengai
• Réunion (France) : Fournaise
• Comoros : Karthala
• Ethiopia : Erta-Ale

India :
• Barren Island, Andaman Islands-1787
• Narcondam Island, Andaman Islands
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Geomorphology
[Rocks]
Rocks are an aggregate of one or more minerals held together by chemical bonds.

Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks.

The scientific study of rocks is called petrology.

Based on the mode of formation three major groups of rocks are defined: igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic.

• Igneous Rocks — solidified from magma and lava.

• Sedimentary Rocks — the result of deposition of fragments of rocks.
• Metamorphic Rocks — formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallisation.
Igneous Rocks or Primary Rocks :

The solidification of magma formed the first rocks on earth.

Rocks formed out of solidification of magma (molten rock below the surface) and lava (molten rock
above the surface) and are known as Igneous or Primary rocks.

Having their origin under conditions of high temperatures the igneous rocks are unfossiliferous.

Granite, Gabbro, Basalt, are some of the examples of igneous rocks.

There are three types of igneous rocks based on place and time taken in cooling of the molten
matter, plutonic rocks, volcanic rocks and intermediate rocks.

There are two types of rocks based on the presence of acid-forming radical, silicon, acidic rocks
and basic rocks.
Sedimentary Rocks or Detrital Rocks :

Sedimentary rocks are formed by lithification ― consolidation and compaction of sediments.

Hence, they are layered or stratified of varying thickness. Example: sandstone, shale etc.

Sediments are a result of denudation (weathering and erosion) of all types of rocks.

These types of rocks cover 75 per cent of the earth’s crust but volumetrically occupy only 5 per
cent (because they are available only in the upper part of the crust).

• Ice deposited sedimentary rocks are called till or tillite. Wind-deposited sediments are called
loess.

Depending upon the mode of formation, sedimentary rocks are classified into:

• Mechanically Formed — sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess.

• Organically Formed — geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal.
Metamorphic Rocks :

The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’.

Metamorphism is a process by which recrystallisation and reorganisation of minerals occur within

a rock. This occurs due to pressure, volume and temperature changes.

When rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic processes or when molten magma rising
through the crust comes in contact with the crustal rocks, metamorphosis occurs.

In the process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals get arranged in layers or lines.
Such an arrangement is called foliation or lineation.

Sometimes minerals or materials of different groups are arranged into alternating thin to thick layers.
Such a structure in is called banding.

Gneissoid, Slate, Schist, Marble, Quartzite etc. are some examples of metamorphic rocks.
Some examples of Metamorphosis :
Rock Cycle :

• Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old rocks are transformed into new ones.
• Igneous rocks are primary rocks, and other rocks form from these rocks.
• Igneous rocks can be changed into sedimentary or metamorphic rocks.
• The fragments derived out of igneous and metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary rocks.
• Sedimentary and Igneous rocks themselves can turn into metamorphic rocks.
• The crustal rocks (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary) may be carried down into the mantle (interior of the
earth) through subduction process and the same meltdown and turn into molten magma, the source for
igneous rocks
Some Rock-Forming Minerals :

• Feldspar: Half the crust is composed of feldspar. It has a light colour, and its main constituents are
silicon, oxygen, sodium, potassium, calcium, aluminium. It is used for ceramics and gloss making.
• Quartz: It has two elements, silicon and oxygen. It has a hexagonal crystalline structure. It is
uncleaved, white or colourless. It cracks like glass and is present in sand and granite. It is used in
the manufacture of radio and radar.
• Bauxite: A hydrous oxide of aluminium, it is the ore of aluminium. It is non-crystalline and occurs in
small pellets.
• Cinnabar (mercury sulphide): Mercury is derived from it. It has a brownish colour.
• Dolomite: A double carbonate of calcium and magnesium. It is used in cement and iron and steel
industries. It is white.
• Gypsum: It is hydrous calcium sulphate and is used in cement, fertiliser and chemical industries.
• Haematite: It is a red ore of iron.
• Magnetite: It is the black ore (or iron oxide) of iron.
• Amphibole: It forms about 7 per cent of the earth’s crust and consists mainly of aluminium,
calcium, silica, iron, magnesium, etc. It is used in the asbestos industry.
• Mica: It consists of potassium, aluminium, magnesium, iron, silica, etc., and forms 4 % of the
earth’s crust. It is generally found in igneous and metamorphic rocks and is mainly used in electrical
instruments.
• Olivine: The main elements of olivine are magnesium, iron and silica. It is normally a greenish
crystal.
• Pyroxene: It consists of calcium, aluminium, magnesium, iron and silica. It is of green or black
colour.

Note : Other minerals like chlorite, calcite, barite, etc., are also present in rocks.
Summary :
Rocks : aggregate of one or more minerals held together by chemical bonds.
-Common Minerals Found : Feldspar and Quartz

-Petrology : Study of Rocks

-Groups of Rocks : The rocks can be classified into 3 groups-

1.

-Based on place and time of the magma cooling :

Primary Rocks : Can be classified into 3 types-

a. Igneous or Volcanic Rocks

b. Intermediate Rocks
c. Plutonic Rocks
-Based on acidity or basicity : Can be classified into 2 types-

a. Acidic Rocks-Granite, Gabbro

b. Basic Rocks-Basalt

2. Sedimentary Rocks : Formed by Lithification-consolidation and compaction of sediments,

presence of stratified layers of varying thickness, occupy 75% of the Earth's Crust, but only 5% of
Earth's Volume

Ice-deposited Sedimentary Rocks : Till or Tillite

Aeolian or Wind deposited Sedimentary Rocks : Loess

Sedimentary Rocks can be classified into types based on mode of formation:

a. Mechanically Formed- sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess.

b. Organically Formed- geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal.
c. Chemically Formed- limestone, halite, potash.
3. Metamorphic Rocks : Formed by Metamorphism-recrystallisation and reorganisation of minerals.
Examples-Gneissoid, Slate, Schist, Marble, Quartzite

-Foliation or Lineation : Process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals get arranged in
layers or lines

-Banding : Minerals or materials of different groups are arranged into alternating thin to thick layers

Note : The Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks get metamorphosed into metamorphic rocks
Examples :

-Granite [Igneous Rock] converts to Gneiss [Under High Pressure]

-Clay [Shale] [Sedimentary Rock] converts to Schist [Under High Pressure]
-Clay [Shale] [Sedimentary Rock] converts to Slate or Phyllite [Under High Temperature]
-Sandstone [Sedimentary Rock] converts to Quartzite [Under High Temperature]
-Coal [Sedimentary Rock] converts to Anthracite or Graphite [Under High Temperature]
-Limestone [Sedimentary Rock] converts to Marble [Under High Temperature]
-Rock Cycle

-Minerals forming Rocks : Feldspar, Quartz, Bauxite, Cinnabar (Mercury Sulphide), Dolomite,
Gypsum, Haematite (Red Ore of Iron), Magnetite (Black Ore of Iron), Amphibole, Mica, Olivine and
Pyroxene

Note : Other minerals like chlorite, calcite, barite, etc., are also present in rocks.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Geomorphology
[Earthquakes]
Earthquakes :
• An earthquake is shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface, caused by the seismic waves or
earthquake waves that are generated due to a sudden movement (sudden release of energy) in
the earth’s crust (shallow-focus earthquakes) or upper mantle (some shallow-focus and all
intermediate and deep-focus earthquakes).

• A seismograph, or seismometer, is an instrument used to detect and record earthquakes.

Focus and Epicentre :
• The point where the energy is released is called the focus or the hypocentre of an
earthquake.
• The point on the surface directly above the focus is called epicentre (first surface point to
experience the earthquake waves).
• A line connecting all points on the surface where the intensity is the same is called an
isoseismic line.
Foreshocks and Aftershocks :

• Usually, a major or even moderate earthquake of shallow focus is followed by many lesser-size
earthquakes known as aftershocks.

• A mild earthquake preceding the violent shaking movement of an earthquake is known as a

foreshock.
Swarms :
• Large numbers of small earthquakes may occur in a region for months without a major
earthquake.
• Such series of earthquakes are called earthquake swarms.
• Earthquakes associated with volcanic activity often occur in swarms.
• Earthquake swarms can serve as markers for the location of the flowing magma throughout the
volcanoes.

Causes of Earthquakes :

• Fault Zones
• Plate tectonics
• Volcanic activity
• Human Induced Earthquakes
Fault Zones :
• The immediate cause of most shallow earthquakes is the sudden release of stress along a fault rupture
(crack) in the earth’s crust.
• Sudden slipping of rock formations along fault rupture in the earth’s crust happens due to the constant
change in volume and density of rocks due to intense temperature and pressure in the earth’s interior.
• The longer the length and the wider the width of the faulted area, the larger the resulting magnitude.
• The longest earthquake ruptures along thrust faults (convergent boundary) are approximately 1,000 km.
• The longest earthquake ruptures on strike-slip faults (transform fault) are about half to one third as long as
the lengths along the thrust fault.
• The fault ruptures along normal faults (divergent boundary) are shorter.
Plate Tectonics :
• Slipping of land along the faultline along convergent, divergent and transform boundaries cause
earthquakes.

• Reverse faults (convergent boundary) are associated with the most powerful earthquakes,
megathrust earthquakes, including almost all of those of magnitude 8 or more.

• Megathrust earthquakes occur at subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is forced
underneath another. E.g. 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake.

• Strike-slip faults, particularly continental transforms, can produce major earthquakes up to about
magnitude 8.

• San Andreas Fault is a transform fault where Pacific plate and North American plate move
horizontally relative to each other causing earthquakes along the fault lines.

• Earthquakes associated with normal faults (divergent/transform boundary) are generally less
than magnitude 7.
Volcanic Activity :
• Volcanic activity also can cause an earthquake, but the earthquakes of volcanic origin are
generally less severe and more limited in extent than those caused by fracturing of the earth’s
crust.

• Earthquakes in volcanic regions are caused by the consequent release of elastic strain energy
both by tectonic faults and the movement of magma in volcanoes.

• Such earthquakes can serve as an early warning of volcanic eruptions, as during the 1980
eruption of Mount St. Helens

• There is a clear correspondence between the geographic distribution of volcanoes and major
earthquakes, particularly in the Circum-Pacific Belt and along Oceanic Ridges.

• Volcanic Vents, however, are generally several hundred kilometres from the epicentres of most
major shallow earthquakes, and many earthquake sources occur nowhere near active
volcanoes.
Human Induced Earthquakes :
• Human Induced Earthquakes refers to typically minor earthquakes and tremors that are
caused by human activity like mining, large scale petroleum extraction, artificial lakes
(reservoirs), nuclear tests etc.

• The pressure offered by a column of water in a large and deep artificial lake alter stresses
along an existing fault or fracture. Also, the percolation of water weakens the soil structure
and lubricates the faults.

Reservoir-Induced Seismicity :

• Loading and Unloading of water can significantly change the stress. This significant
change in stress can lead to a sudden movement along the fault or fracture, resulting in an
earthquake.
• The 6.3 magnitude 1967 Koynanagar earthquake occurred near the Koyna Dam
reservoir in Maharashtra and claimed more than 150 lives. There have been several
earthquakes of smaller magnitude since then.
• Some geologists believe that the earthquake was due to reservoir-triggered seismic activity.
• The 2008 Sichuan earthquake, which caused approximately 68,000 deaths, is another
possible example. It is believed that the construction and filling of the Zipingpu Dam may
have triggered the earthquake.
Earthquakes Based on the Depth of Focus :
Earthquakes can occur anywhere between the Earth’s surface and about 700 kilometres below the
surface.

For scientific purposes, this earthquake depth range of 0 – 700 km is divided into three zones:
shallow, intermediate, and deep.

Shallow focus earthquakes are found within the earth’s outer crustal layer, while deep focus
earthquakes occur within the deeper subduction zones of the earth.

Shallow Earthquakes are 0 – 70 km deep.

Intermediate Earthquakes are 70 – 300 km deep.
Deep Earthquakes are 300 – 700 km deep.
Wadati–Benioff Zone:
• Wadati Benioff zone is a zone of subduction along which earthquakes are common. The most
powerful earthquakes occur along this zone (most powerful earthquakes occur along the
convergent boundary).
• Differential motion along the zone produces numerous earthquakes, the foci of which may be as
deep as about 700 kilometres.
• Wadati–Benioff zones can be produced by slip along the subduction thrust fault (Himalayan
Region – C-C convergent boundary) or slip on faults within the downgoing plate (O-O and C-O
convergent boundary).
Distribution of Earthquakes :
• Earth’s major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with the margins of tectonic plates.
• The most important earthquake belt is the Circum-Pacific Belt, which affects many populated
coastal regions around the Pacific Ocean—for example, those of New Zealand, New Guinea,
Japan, the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the western coasts of North and South America.
• The seismic activity is by no means uniform throughout the belt, and there are many branches at
various points.
• Because at many places the Circum-Pacific Belt is associated with volcanic activity, it has been
popularly dubbed the “Pacific Ring of Fire.”
• The Pacific Ring of Fire accounts for about 68 per cent of all earthquakes.
• A Second Belt, known as the Alpine Belt (Himalayas and Alps).
• The energy released in earthquakes from this belt is about 15 per cent of the world total.
• The mid-world mountain belt (Alpine Belt) extends parallel to the equator from Mexico across
the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea from Alpine-Caucasus ranges to the Caspian,
Himalayan mountains and the adjoining lands.
• There also are striking connected belts of seismic activity, mainly along oceanic ridges—including
those in the Arctic Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the western Indian Ocean—and along the
rift valleys of East Africa.
Summary :
Contents :

-Earthquakes

-Focus, Epicentre and Isosesmic Lines

-Foreshock, Aftershock and Swarms

-Causes of Earthquakes:

A) Fault Zones

B)Plate Tectonics
1) Thrust Faults : Convergent Boundaries : Longest Ruptures(cracks)-Almost 1000 Kms-Earthquake
Magnitude : 8+ (Richter Scale)
Eg-2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake
[Note : Longer the fault, greater will be the magnitude of the earthquake]

2) Strike Slip Fault : Divergent Boundaries : Comparatively Smaller Ruptures- Earthquake

Magnitude : Below 8 (Richter Scale)
Eg-San Andreas Fault [Pacific and North American Plate]

3) Normal Fault : Divergent/Transform Boundaries : Smallest Ruptures- Earthquake Magnitude :

Between 6-8 (Richter Scale)
C)Volcanic Activity : 1980 St. Helena Eruption

D)Human Induced Earthquakes [Reservoir Induced Seismicity-1967 Koynanagar Earthquake and

2008 Sichuan Earthquake]

-Earthquakes Based on : The Depth of the Focus :

• Shallow Earthquakes are 0 – 70 km deep.

• Intermediate Earthquakes are 70 – 300 km deep.
• Deep Earthquakes are 300 – 700 km deep.

-Wadati–Benioff Zone : Zone of Subduction, where Earthquakes originate-Can be along Convergent

Boundary [Continent-Continent] in Thrust Faults or along Divergent Boundary [Continent-Ocean and
Ocean-Ocean] in Strike Slip or Normal Faults
-Distribution of Earthquakes :
1st Belt : Pacific Ring of Fire Belt
2nd Belt : Alpine Belt [or Mid-World Mountain Belt]
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Geomorphology
[Tsunamis]
Tsunami is a Japanese word for “Harbour Wave”.

A tsunami is a series of very long-wavelength waves in large water bodies like seas or large lakes
caused by a major disturbance above or below the water surface or due to the displacement of a
large volume of water.

They are sometimes referred to as tidal waves because of long wavelengths, although the
attractions of the Moon and Sun play no role in their formation.

Earthquakes (e.g. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami), Volcanic Eruptions (e.g. tsunami caused by the
violent eruption of Krakatoa in 1883), Landslides (tsunami caused by the collapse of a section of
Anak Krakatoa in 2018), Underwater Explosions, Meteorite Impacts, etc. have the potential to
generate a tsunami.

Subduction Zones off Chile, Nicaragua, Mexico and Indonesia have created killer tsunamis.

The Pacific among the oceans has witnessed the greatest number of tsunamis (over 790 since
1990).
Mechanism of Tsunami Waves
Megathrust earthquakes cause a sudden displacement in a seabed sufficient to cause the sudden
raising of a large body of water.

As the subducting plate plunges beneath the less dense plate, stresses build-up, the locked zone
between the plates give way abruptly, and the parts of the oceanic crust is then upthrust resulting in
the displacement of a large column of water vertically.

The tsunami on December 26, 2004, was caused after an earthquake displaced the seabed off the
coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.

A marine volcanic eruption can generate an impulsive force that displaces the water column and
gives birth to a tsunami.

During a submarine landslide, the equilibrium sea-level is altered by sediment moving along the floor
of the sea. Gravitational forces then propagate a tsunami.

Most destructive tsunamis can be caused due to the fall of extra-terrestrial objects on to the earth.
Propagation of the Waves
Gravity acts to return the sea surface to its original shape.

The ripples then race outward, and a tsunami is caused.

As a tsunami leaves deep waters and propagates into the shallow waters, it transforms. This is
because as the depth of the water decreases, the speed of the tsunami reduces. But the change of
total energy of the tsunami remains constant.

With the decrease in speed, the height of the tsunami wave grows. A tsunami which was
imperceptible in deep water may grow to many metres high, and this is called the ‘shoaling’ effect.
Sometimes, the sea seems to at first draw a breath, but then this withdrawal is followed by the
arrival of the crest of a tsunami wave. Tsunamis have been known to occur suddenly without
warning.
In some cases, there are several great waves separated by intervals of several minutes or more.
The first of these waves is often preceded by an extraordinary recession of water from the shore,
which may commence several minutes or even half an hour beforehand.
Properties of Tsunami Waves
• Series of waves of very, very long wavelengths and period.
• Different from the wind-generated waves (period of five to twenty seconds).
• Behave as Shallow-water waves because of their long wavelengths. They have a period in the
range of ten minutes to two hours and a wavelength exceeding 500 km.
• The rate of energy loss of a wave is inversely related to its wavelength. So, tsunamis lose
little energy as they propagate because of their very large wavelength.
• They travel at high speeds in deep waters, and their speed falls when they hit shallow
waters.
• Occurs 1000 metres deep in water has a speed of more about 350 km per hour. At 6000 m, it
can travel at speeds about 850 km per hour.
• Not noticed by ships far out at sea.
• Amplitude is negligible when compared with their wavelength, and hence the waves go
unnoticed in deep oceans.
• When tsunamis approach shallow water, however, the wave amplitude increases
(conservation of energy).
• The waves may occasionally reach a height of 20 to 30 metres above mean sea level in closed
harbours and inlets (funnelling effect).
2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami :

Tsunami or the Harbour wave struck havoc in the Indian Ocean on the 26th of December 2004.
The wave was the result of an earthquake that had its epicentre near the western boundary of
Sumatra.
The magnitude of the earthquake was 9.0 on the Richter scale.

Plate Tectonics :

Indian plate went under the Burma plate, there was a sudden movement of the sea floor, causing
the earthquake.
The ocean floor was displaced by about 10 – 20m and tilted in a downward direction.
A huge mass of ocean water flowed to fill in the gap that was being created by the displacement.
This marked the withdrawal of the water mass from the coastlines of the landmasses in the south
and Southeast Asia.
After thrusting of the Indian plate below the Burma plate, the water mass rushed back towards the
coastline as a tsunami.
Tsunami Waves
• Tsunami travelled at a speed of about 800 km. per hour, comparable to speed of commercial
aircraft and completely washed away some of the islands in the Indian ocean.

• The Indira point in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands that marked the southernmost point of India
got completely submerged.

• As the wave moved from earthquake epicentre from Sumatra towards the Andaman Islands and
Sri Lanka, the wavelength decreased with decreasing depth of water.

• The travel speed also declined from 700-900 km per hour to less than 70 km per hour.

• Tsunami waves travelled up to a depth of 3 km from the coast killing more than 10,000 people
and affected more than lakh of houses.

• In India, the worst affected were the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
Pondicherry and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Shifts in Geography:
• Tsunamis and earthquakes can cause changes in geography.

• The December 26 earthquake and tsunami shifted the North Pole by 2.5 cm in the
direction of 145 degrees East longitude and reduced the length of the day by 2.68
microseconds.

• This, in turn, affected the velocity of earth’s rotation and the Coriolis force which plays a
strong role in weather patterns.

• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands may have (moved by about 1.25 m owing to the
impact of the colossal earthquake and the tsunami.
Tsunami Warning Systems
• While the earthquake cannot be predicted in advance, it is possible to give a three-hour
notice of a potential tsunami.
• Such early warning systems are in place across the Pacific Ocean. Post-2004, they were
installed in the Indian Ocean as well.
• In 1965, early warning system was started by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA). The member states of the NOAA include the major Pacific Rim
countries.
• NOAA has developed the ‘Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis’ (DART)
gauge.
• Each gauge has a very sensitive pressure recorder on the sea floor. Data is generated
whenever changes in water pressure occur.
• The data is transmitted to a surface buoy which then relays it over satellite.
• Computer systems at the Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre (PTWC) in Hawaii monitor data.
• Based on the data, warnings are issued.
India’s Preparedness :
• The Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting System (DOARS) was set up in the Indian
Ocean post-2004.

• The Indian government plans to set up a network with Indonesia, Myanmar and Thailand etc.

• A National Tsunami Early Warning Centre, which can detect earthquakes of more than 6
magnitude in the Indian Ocean, was inaugurated in 2007 in India.

• Set up by the Ministry of Earth Sciences in the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information
Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad, the tsunami warning system would take 10-30 minutes to
analyse the seismic data following an earthquake.
Summary
-Tsunamis : Japanese-Harbour Waves
-Series of waves of large wavelengths [Can be as large as 500 kms]

-Reasons for generation of a tsunami :

1. Earthquakes at the sea bed leading to its displacement

2. Marine Volcanic Eruption
3. Submarine Landslide-Leading to oscillation created by waves and gravity
4. Extra-Terrestrial Objects falling on the Earth
-Properties of Tsunamis :

-At Mid-Ocean : Deep Water

Deeper the hypocentre of the Earthquake, Higher the Speed, More loss of Energy, Greater Wave-
Length, Lesser Amplitude

-Near Shore : Shallow Water

Speed Decreases, Wave Length-Decreases, Amplitude Increases [Shoaling Effect]-The waves may
occasionally reach a height of 20 to 30 metres above mean sea level in closed harbours and inlets,
which is called "Funneling Effect"
-Tsunami Warning Systems :

1965-Pacific Ocean : The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) develops Deep
Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis’ (DART) Gauge which sends the information to the
Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre (PTWC)

Post-2004-Indian Ocean : The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS),
Hyderabad develops The Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting System (DOARS) , along with
Indonesia, Myanmar and Thailand which sends the information to the National Tsunami Early
Warning Centre (NTEWS)
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Geomorphology
[Erosion]
Soil Erosion
• Soil erosion is the loosening and displacement of topsoil from the land due to the action of
agents like wind and water.

• Soil erosion in nature may be a slow process (geological erosion) or a fast process promoted
by human activities like overgrazing, deforestation.

• Weathering and erosion lead to the simultaneous process of ‘degradation’ and ‘aggradation’.

• Erosion is a mobile process while weathering is a static process (there is no motion of

disintegrated material except the falling down under the force of gravity).
Water Erosion
• Running water is one of the main agents, which carries away soil particles.

• Soil erosion by water occurs by means of raindrops, waves or ice.

• Erosion by water is termed differently according to the intensity and nature of erosion:
raindrop erosion, sheet erosion, rill and gully erosion, stream bank erosion,
landslides, coastal erosion, glacial erosion.
• Raindrop Erosion or Splash Erosion :

-A raindrop is approximately 5 mm in diameter and hits the soil at a velocity of 32 km/hr. Larger
raindrops and gusts of wind hit the soil surface even at higher velocities.

-Raindrops behave like tiny bombs when falling on exposed soil, displace soil particles and destroy soil
structure.

-Presence of vegetation on land prevents raindrops from falling directly on the soil thus erosion of soil
in areas covered by vegetation is prevented.

• Sheet Erosion :

-With continued rainfall the displaced soil particles fill in the spaces between soil particles and prevent
water from seeping into the soil. This results in surface runoff and even more erosion.
-The detachment and transportation of soil particles by flowing rainwater is called sheet or wash off
erosion.
-Weathering and erosion tend to level down the irregularities of landforms and create a peneplane.
• Rill and Gully Erosion :

-In rill erosion finger like rills appear on the cultivated land after it has undergone sheet erosion.
-These rills are usually smoothened out every year while forming.
-Each year the rills slowly increase in number become wider and deeper.
-Gully erosion is the removal of soil along drainage lines by surface water runoff.
-When rills increase in size, they become gullies. Once started, gullies will continue to move by
headward erosion or by slumping of the side walls.
-Gullies formed over a large area gives rise to badland topography (Chambal Ravines).
-When a gully bed is eroded further due to headward erosion, the bed gradually deepens and
flattens out, and a ravine is formed. The depth of a ravine may extend to 30 metres or more.
-Further erosion of ravine beds gives rise to canyons. Canyons are few hundred meters deep and
wide. (Grand Canyon on Colorado River).
• Streambank Erosion :

-The erosion of soil from the banks (shores) of the streams or rivers due to the flowing water is called
bank erosion.

-In certain areas where the river changes its course, the river banks get eroded at a rapid rate.

-Streambank erosion damages the adjoining agricultural lands, highways and bridges.
 Landslide :
• The sudden mass movement of soil is called a landslide.

• Landslides occur due to instability or loss of balance of land mass with respect to gravity.

• The loss in balance occurred mainly due to excessive water or moisture in the earth mass.

• Gravity acts on such an unstable landmass and causes the large chunks of surface materials
such as soil and rocks to slide down rapidly.
Coastal Erosion :
• In the coastal areas, waves dash along the coast and cause heavy damage to the soil.

• During the landfall of cyclones, storm surges destroy beaches and wash away the top
layer.

• In estuaries, tidal bores cause extensive damage to the surrounding banks.

Glacial Erosion :
• In the polar regions and high mountainous regions like the Himalayas, soil erosion is
caused by sowing moving glaciers.

• This is called glacial erosion.

 Wind Erosion :
• Wind erosion or aeolian erosion is quite significant in arid and semi-arid regions.
• Winds usually blow at high speeds in deserts due to the absence of physical obstruction.
• These winds remove the fertile, arable, loose soils leaving behind a depression devoid of
topsoil.
• The depression formation in deserts is the first step in Oasis formation. Oasis forms in
depressions when there is underground water that gets accumulated above rocks.
• Very fine and medium sands are moved by wind in a succession of bounds and leaps, known
as saltation.
• Small sand and dust particles are transported over long distances through the air by a process
known as suspension.
• Coarse sand is not usually airborne but rather is rolled along the soil surface. This type of
erosion is called surface creep.
• Very coarse sand and gravels are too large to be rolled by wind, so wind-eroded soils have
surfaces covered with coarse fragments. This kind of arid soil surface is known as desert
pavement.
 Fluvial Erosional Landforms
• Fluvial Erosional Landforms are landforms created by the erosional activity of rivers.

Various aspects of fluvial erosive action include:

• Hydration: the force of running water wearing down rocks.
• Corrosion: chemical action that leads to weathering.
• Attrition: river load particles striking, colliding against each other and breaking down in the
process.
• Corrasion or Abrasion: solid river load striking against rocks and wearing them down.
• Downcutting (Vertical Erosion): the erosion of the base of a stream (downcutting leads to valley
deepening).
• Lateral Erosion: the erosion of the walls of a stream (leads to valley widening).
• Headward Erosion: erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which causes the origin to move
back away from the direction of the stream flow, and so causes the stream channel to lengthen.
• Braiding: The main water channel splitting into multiple, narrower channel. A braided river, or
braided channel, consists of a network of river channels separated by small, and often temporary,
islands called braid bars. Braided streams occur in rivers with low slope and/or large sediment
load.
Summary
-Erosion :

1. Soil Erosion : Loosening and displacement of topsoil from the land due to the action of
agents like wind and water.
-Nature of Soil Erosion : Slow (Natural Geological Erosion) or Fast (Erosion companied by
Anthropogenic Activities-Deforestation and Overgrazing)

Note : Erosion is a mobile process [loosening of top soil + movement] whereas, Weathering is
a static process [loosening of top soil]

2. Water Erosion : Soil Erosion [Due to Water-External Agent] :

-Raindrop Erosion (Splash Erosion)

-Sheet Erosion (Wash Off Erosion) : Left over denuded land is called Peneplane

-Rill and Gully Erosion : Deepening of erosion in peneplane results in rill like projections and further
results into Gully Erosion

Note :

Sequence of Soil Erosion :

-Undisturbed Soil Particles
-Disturbed Soil Particles : Weathering
-Disturbed Soil Particles + Movement : Erosion
-Sheet Erosion (Wash Off Erosion) : Erosion of soil particles in sheets
-Rill Erosion : Finger like projections formed after sheet erosion and deepening of the gullies
-Gully Erosion : Deepening of gullies due to intense erosion in the gullies
-Rill Erosion + Gully Erosion = Badland Topography
-Badland Topography + Headward Erosion = Ravine Beds
-Ravine Beds + Erosion = Canyons [Eg-Grand Canyon on the Colorado River]
3. Stream Bank Erosion

4. Landslides

5. Coastal Erosion

6. Glacial Erosion

7. Wind or Aeolian Erosion

8. Fluvial Erosion
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Geomorphology
[Drainage]
 Drainage Systems (Drainage Patterns)
• Drainage systems, also known as river systems, are the patterns formed by the streams,
rivers, and lakes in a particular drainage basin.

• They are governed by tectonic irregularity, nature of underlying rock strata, and the gradient
of the land.

• Based on the correlation between the topology and the direction of flow, drainage patterns
are classified into concordant drainage and discordant or insequent drainage.
Concordant Drainage Patterns
• A drainage pattern is described as concordant if it correlates to the topology and geology of the
area.

• In simple words, in a concordant drainage pattern, the path of the river is highly dependent on
the slope of the river and topography.

• Concordant drainage patterns are the most commonly found drainage patterns and are
classified into many consequent, subsequent, obsequent and resequent.

Consequent Rivers :
-The rivers which follow the general direction of the slope are known as the consequent rivers.
-Most of the rivers of peninsular India are consequent rivers.
-For example, rivers like the Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery, descending from the Western
Ghats and flowing into the Bay of Bengal, are some of the consequent rivers of Peninsular India.
Subsequent Rivers :

-A tributary stream that is formed by headward erosion along an underlying rock after the main
drainage pattern (consequent river) has been established is known as a subsequent river.

-The Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons and Son meet the Yamuna and the Ganga at right angles.
They are the subsequent drainage of the Ganga drainage system.

Obsequent Rivers :

-After the valley development of consequent and subsequent rivers, obsequent rivers may form at
right angles to the subsequent rivers and flow opposite to the direction of flow of the original
consequent river.
Resequent Rivers :

-A resequent river flows in the same direction as that of the initial consequent drainage.

-Resequent rivers originate at a much later stage (hence they are called resequent) in comparison
to the master consequent rivers.
Discordant or Insequent Drainage Patterns
• A drainage pattern is described as discordant if it does not correlate to the topology (surface
relief features) and geology of the area.
• In simple words, in a discordant drainage pattern, the river follows its initial path irrespective of
the changes in topography.
• Discordant drainage patterns are classified into two main types: antecedent and superimposed.
• Usually, rivers in both these drainage types flow through a highly sloping surface.

Antecedent Drainage or Inconsequent Drainage :

• A part of a river slope and the surrounding area gets uplifted, and the river sticks to its original
slope, cutting through the uplifted portion like a saw (vertical erosion) and forming deep gorges.
This type of drainage is called antecedent drainage.

Example: Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra and other Himalayan rivers , etc.

Superimposed or Epigenetic (Discordant) or Superinduced Drainage :

• When a river flowing over a softer rock stratum reaches the harder basal rocks but continues to
follow the initial slope, it seems to have no relation with the harder rock bed.

This type of drainage is called superimposed drainage.

Other Drainage Patterns :
Dendritic or Pinnate Drainage Pattern
• This is an irregular tree branch shaped pattern that develops in a terrain which has uniform
lithology (uniform rock structure), and where faulting and jointing are insignificant.
• Examples: Indus, Godavari, Mahanadi, Cauvery, Krishna.
Trellis Drainage Pattern :

-In this type of pattern, the short subsequent streams meet the main stream at right angles, and
differential erosion through soft rocks paves the way for tributaries.
Examples: The old folded mountains of the Singhbhum (Chotanagpur Plateau) and Seine and its
tributaries in Paris basin (France) have drainage of trellis pattern.
Angular Drainage Pattern :

-The tributaries join the main stream at acute angles.

-This pattern is common in Himalayan foothill regions.
Rectangular Drainage Pattern :

-The main stream bends at right angles and the tributaries join at right angles creating rectangular
patterns.

-This pattern has a subsequent origin. Example: Colorado River (USA), streams found is the
Vindhyan Mountains of India.
Radial Drainage Pattern :

-The tributaries from a summit follow the slope downwards and drain down in all directions.
Examples: Streams of Saurashtra region, the rivers originating from the Amarkantak Mountain,
Central French Plateau, Mt. Kilimanjaro.
-The Narmada, Son and Mahanadi originate from Amarkantak Hills and flow in different directions.
Annular Drainage Pattern :

-When the upland has a soft outer stratum, the radial streams develop subsequent tributaries which
try to follow circular drainage around the summit.
Example: Black Hill streams of South Dakota.

-This is not a very common drainage pattern in India. Some examples of this are however found in
Pithoragarh (Uttarakhand), Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Parallel Drainage Pattern :

-The tributaries seem to be running parallel to each other in a uniformly sloping region.
Example: Rivers of lesser Himalayas and The small and swift rivers originating in the Western Ghats
that flow into Arabian Sea.
Centripetal Drainage Pattern :

-In a low-lying basin, the streams converge from all sides.

Examples: streams of Ladakh, Tibet, and the Baghmati and its tributaries in Nepal.
Deranged Drainage Pattern :

-This is an uncoordinated pattern of drainage characteristic of a region recently vacated by an ice-

sheet.

-The picture is one of the numerous watercourses, lakes and marshes; some inter-connected and
some in local drainage basins of their own.

-This type of drainage is found in the glaciated valleys of Karakoram.

Barbed Drainage Pattern :

A pattern of drainage in which the confluence of a tributary with the main river is characterized by a
discordant junction — as if the tributary intends to flow upstream and not downstream.
This pattern is the result of the capture of the main river which completely reverses its direction of
flow, while the tributaries continue to point in the direction of former flow.
The Arun River (Nepal), a tributary of the Kosi is an interesting example of barbed drainage pattern.
Summary
Drainage : Patterns formed by the streams, rivers, and lakes in a particular drainage basin.

Types of Drainage Patterns :

1. Concordant Drainage : Consequent, Subsequent, Obsequent and Resequent.

-Consequent : Rivers which follow the general direction of the slope
-Subsequent : Tributary stream that is formed by headward erosion along an underlying rock
-Obsequent : May form at right angles to the subsequent rivers and flow opposite to the
direction of flow of the original consequent river
-Resequent : Flows in the same direction as that of the initial consequent drainage
2. Discordant or Insequent Drainage

-Antecedent Drainage or Inconsequent Drainage : River slope and the surrounding area gets
uplifted, and the river sticks to its original slope, cutting through the uplifted portion like a saw (vertical
erosion) and forming deep gorges

-Superimposed or Epigenetic (Discordant) or Superinduced Drainage : River flowing over a

softer rock stratum reaches the harder basal rocks but continues to follow the initial slope, it seems to
have no relation with the harder rock bed.
3. Others Drainage Patterns :
-Dendritic or Pinnate : Shape-Irregular tree branch
-Trellis : Short subsequent streams meet main (head) stream at right angles
-Angular : Tributaries join at right angles
-Rectangular : Main stream bends at right angles and the tributaries join at right angles creating
rectangular patterns
-Radial : Tributaries from a summit follow the slope downwards and drain down in all directions
-Annular : Radial streams develop subsequent tributaries which try to follow circular drainage around
the summit
-Parallel : Tributaries seem to be running parallel to each other
-Centripetal : In a low-lying basin, the streams converge from all sides
-Deranged : Uncoordinated pattern of drainage vacated by an ice-sheet
-Barbed : This pattern is the result of the capture of the main river which completely reverses its
direction of flow, while the tributaries continue to point in the direction of former flow
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Climatology
[Latitudes and Longitudes]
Contents :

• Latitudes and Longitudes

• Motions of the Earth
• Atmosphere
• Winds
• Air Mass and Fronts
• Humidity, Condensation and Smog
• Precipitation and Thunder Storms
• Cyclones
• El Nino, La Nina, Modoki,ENSO, IOD
• Polar Vortex and Ozone Hole
• Climate
Latitude :

Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the earth’s surface, measured in degrees from the
center of the earth.

Note :
1 mile = 1.607 km.

Important parallels of latitudes :

Besides the equator (0°), the north pole (90°N) and the south pole (90° S), there are four
important parallels of latitudes–

• Tropic of Cancer (23½°N) in the Northern Hemisphere.

• Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S) in the Southern Hemisphere.
• Arctic Circle at 66½° North of the Equator.
• Antarctic Circle at 66½° South of the Equator.
Longitude :

Longitude is an angular distance, measured in degrees along the equator east or west of the
Prime (or First) Meridian.

Unlike the equator which is centrally placed between the poles, any meridian could have been taken to
begin the numbering of longitude. It was finally decided in 1884, by international agreement, to
choose as the zero meridian the one which passes through the Royal Astronomical
Observatory at Greenwich, near London.

This is the Prime Meridian (0°) from which all other meridians radiate eastwards and westwards
up to 180°.
Longitude and Time :

Since the earth makes one complete revolution of 360° in one day or 24 hours, it passes
through 15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes.

The earth rotates from west to east, so every 15° we go eastwards, local time is advanced by 1
hour.

Conversely, if we go westwards, local time is retarded by 1 hour.

We may thus conclude that places east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain time, whereas
places west of Greenwich see the sun later and lose time.

If we know G.M.T., to find local time, we merely have to add or subtract the difference in the
number of hours from the given longitude.
Standard Time and Time Zones

In larger countries such as Canada, U.S.A., China, and U.S.S.R, it would be inconvenient to have
single time zone. So these countries have multiple time zones.

Both Canada and U.S.A. have five time zones—the Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Mountain and Pacific
Time Zones.

The difference between the local time of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts is nearly five hours.

U.S.S.R had eleven time zones before its disintegration. Russia now has nine time zones.
The International Date Line

The International Date Line is an imaginary line where the date changes by exactly one day when it is
crossed. A traveler crossing the date line from east to west loses a day (because of the loss in time
he has made); and while crossing the dateline from west to east he gains a day (because of the gain
in time he encountered).
Why is the international dateline drawn in a zigzag manner?

The International Date Line (IDL) passes through the Pacific Ocean.

It is an imaginary line, like longitudes and latitudes.

The time difference on either side of this line is 24 hours. So, the date changes as soon as one
crosses this line.

Some groups of Islands (Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia) fall on either of the dateline. So if the
dateline was straight, then two regions of the same Island Country or Island group would fall
under different date zones.

Thus to avoid any confusion of date, this line is drawn through where the sea lies and not land. Hence,
the IDL is drawn in a zig-zag manner.
Indian Standard Time :

The Indian Government has accepted the meridian of 82.5° east for the standard time which is 5
hours 30 mins, ahead of Greenwich Mean Time.
Chaibagaan Time :

150 years ago British colonialists introduced “chaibagaan time” or “bagaan time”, a time schedule
observed by tea planters, which was one hour ahead of IST.

This was done to improve productivity by optimizing the usage of daytime.

After Independence, Assam, along with the rest of India, has been following IST for the past 66 years.

The administration of the Indian State of Assam now wants to change it’s time zone back to
Chaibagaan time to conserve energy and improve productivity.

Indian Government didn’t accept to such a proposal.

GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Climatology
[Motions of the Earth]
Contents :

• Latitudes and Longitudes

• Motions of the Earth
• Atmosphere
• Winds
• Air Mass and Fronts
• Humidity, Condensation and Smog
• Precipitation and Thunder Storms
• Cyclones
• El Nino, La Nina, Modoki,ENSO, IOD
• Polar Vortex and Ozone Hole
• Climate
Rotation of Earth :

Earth rotates along its axis from west to east.

It takes approximately 24 hrs to complete on rotation.

Days and Nights occur due to rotation of the earth.

The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the Circle of Illumination.

Earth rotates on a tilted axis.

Earth’s rotational axis makes an angle of 23.5° with the normal i.e. it makes an angle of 66.5°
with the orbital plane.

Note : Orbital Plane is the plane of earth’s orbit around the Sun.
Why are days always longer than nights at the equator?

If there was no atmosphere, there would be no refraction and the daytime and nighttime would be near
equal at the equator, at least during equinoxes.

But due to atmosphere, the sun’s rays gets refracted (bending of light). Refraction is particularly
stronger during the morning and the evening time when the sun’s rays are slant.

Even though the actual sun is below the horizon, its apparent image would appear above the horizon
due to refraction. This makes the days longer than nights at the equator.
Why temperature falls with increasing latitude (as we move from equator
towards poles)?

Because of the spherical (Geoid) shape of the earth and the position of the sun.

Because the energy received per unit area decreases from equator to poles.

Because Equator receives direct sunlight while Poles receive slant or oblique rays of the Sun.
Revolution of Earth :

The second motion of the earth around the sun in its orbit is called revolution. It takes 365¼ days
(one year) to revolve around the sun.

Six hours saved every year are added to make one day (24 hours) over a span of four years. This
surplus day is added to the month of February. Thus every fourth year, February is of 29 days instead
of 28 days. Such a year with 366 days is called a leap year.
Solstice :

On 21st June, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun. The rays of the sun fall directly on
the Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these areas receive more heat.
The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting.
The north pole is inclined towards the sun and the places beyond the Arctic Circle experience
continuous daylight for about six months.
Since a large portion of the northern hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it is summer in the
regions north of the equator. The longest day and the shortest night at these places occur on 21st
June.
At this time in the southern hemisphere all these conditions are reversed. It is winter season there.
The nights are longer than the days. This position of the earth is called the Summer Solstice.

On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of the sun as the south pole tilts
towards it. As the sun’s rays fall vertically at the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° s), a larger portion of the
southern hemisphere gets light. Therefore, it is summer in the southern hemisphere with longer days
and shorter nights. The reverse happens in the northern hemisphere. This position of the earth is
called the Winter Solstice.
Equinox :

On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator.

At this position, neither of the poles is tilted towards the sun; so, the whole earth experiences equal
days and equal nights. This is called an Equinox.

On 23rd September, it is Autumn season [season after summer and before the beginning of winter]
in the Northern Hemisphere and Spring season [season after winter and before the beginning of
summer] in the Southern Hemisphere.

The opposite is the case on 21st March, when it is Spring in the Northern Hemisphere and
Autumn in the Southern Hemisphere.

Rotation === Days and Nights.

Revolution === Seasons.
Daylight saving in some Temperate Regions :

Daylight Saving Time (DST) or Summer Time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer
months by one hour.

In DST, evening time is increased by sacrificing the morning hours.

[Normal days = Start office at 10 AM and close at 5 PM

In DST = Advance clock by one hour (can be more) = Start office at 9 AM and Close at 4 PM]
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Climatology
[Atmosphere]
Contents :

• Latitudes and Longitudes

• Motions of the Earth
• Atmosphere
• Winds
• Air Mass and Fronts
• Humidity, Condensation and Smog
• Precipitation and Thunder Storms
• Cyclones
• El Nino, La Nina, Modoki,ENSO, IOD
• Polar Vortex and Ozone Hole
• Climate
Atmosphere :

Our planet earth is enveloped by a deep blanket of gases extending several thousands of kilometres
above its surface. This gaseous cover of the earth is known as the atmosphere.

Atmospheric Pressure: The air exerts pressure on earth’s surface by virtue of its weight. This
pressure is called atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is the most important climatic
element. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1034 gm per square centimeter.
Major Greenhouse Gases : Carbon dioxide, Ozone, Water Vapour, Methane

Structure of Atmosphere :
Troposphere :
• It is the atmospheric layer between the earth’s surface and an altitude of 8 km at the poles
and 18 km at the equator.
• The thickness is greater at the equator, because the heated air rises to greater heights.
• The troposphere ends with the Tropopause.
• The temperature in this layer, as one goes upwards, falls at the rate of 5°C per kilometer, and
reaches -45°C at the poles and -80°C over the equator at Tropopause (greater fall in
temperature above equator is because of the greater thickness of troposphere – 18 km).
• The fall in temperature is called ‘Lapse Rate’.
• The troposphere is marked by temperature inversion, turbulence and eddies.
• It is also meteorologically the most significant zone in the entire atmosphere (Almost all the
weather phenomena like rainfall, fog and hailstorm etc. are confined to this layer).
• It is also called the convective region, since all convection stops at Tropopause.
• The troposphere is the theatre for weather because all cyclones, anticyclones, storms and
precipitation occur here, as all water vapours and solid particles lie within this.
• The troposphere is influenced by seasons and jet streams.
Tropopause :
• Top most layer of Troposphere.
• It acts as a boundary between troposphere and stratosphere.
• This layer is marked by constant temperatures.
Stratosphere :
• It lies beyond troposphere, up to an altitude of 50 km from the earth’s surface.
• The temperature in this layer remains constant for some distance but then rises to reach a level of
0°C at 50 km altitude.
• This rise is due to the presence of ozone (harmful ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by ozone).
• This layer is almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon, making conditions
most ideal for flying aeroplanes. So aeroplanes fly in lower stratosphere, sometimes in
upper troposphere where weather is calm.
• Sometimes, cirrus clouds are present at lower levels in this layer.

Ozonosphere :
• It lies at an altitude between 30 km and 60 km from the earth’s surface and spans the
stratosphere and lower mesosphere.
• Because of the presence of ozone molecules, this layer reflects the harmful ultraviolet radiation.
• The ozonosphere is also called chemosphere because, a lot of chemical activity goes on
here.
• The temperature rises at a rate of 5°C per kilometer through the ozonosphere.
Mesosphere :
• This is an intermediate layer beyond the ozone layer and continues upto an altitude of 80 km
from the earth’s surface.
• The temperature gradually falls to -100°C at 80 km altitude.
• Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from the space.

Thermosphere :
• In thermosphere temperature rises very rapidly with increasing height.
• Ionosphere is a part of this layer. It extends between 80-400 km.
• This layer helps in radio transmission. In fact, radio waves transmitted from the earth are
reflected back to the earth by this layer.
• Person would not feel warm because of the thermosphere’s extremely low pressure.
• The International Space Station and satellites orbit in this layer. (Though temperature is high,
the atmosphere is extremely rarified – gas molecules are spaced hundreds of kilometers apart.
Hence a person or an object in this layer doesn’t feel the heat)
• Aurora’s are observed in lower parts of this layer.
Ionosphere :
• This layer is located between 80 km and 400+ km and is an electrically charged layer.
• This layer is characterized by ionization of atoms.
• Because of the electric charge, radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to
the earth by this layer.
• Temperature again starts increasing with height because of radiation from the sun.

The ionosphere is located within the thermosphere and extends from 37 to 190 miles (60-300 km)
above the Earth's surface.

It is divided into three regions or layers:

• F-Layer [150-800 kms]
• E-Layer [90-150 kms]
• D-Layer [8-90 kms]

• During the daytime, the F-Layer splits into two layers, then recombines at night.
• Ionosphere's existence is due to radiation from the sun striking the atmosphere, all three layers
are more dense during day.
• At night, they decrease in density, with the D-Layer essentially disappearing.
• The E-Layer was discovered first.

E-Layer
• 1901 : Guglielmo Marconi transmitted a signal between Europe and North America and showed
that it had to bounce off an electrically conducting layer at about 62 miles (100 km) altitude.

• 1902 : American Electrical Engineer Arthur Edwin Kennelly (1861–1939)[5] and the British
Polymath Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925),gave an explanation for the propagation of radio waves
beyond the horizon observed by Guglielmo Marconi in 1901

• 1910 : William Eccles proposed the name "Heaviside Layer" for the radio-wave reflecting layer in
the upper atmosphere

• 1925 : The name Kennelly–Heaviside layer was proposed in 1925 to give credit to the work of
Kennelly and Heaviside
• 1927 : Sir Edward Appleton named that conducting layer the (E)lectrical-Layer. Additional
conducting layers discovered later were simply named alphabetically, D and F. However, it was not
until 1924 that the existence of these reflective layers was shown by British Scientist Edward V.
Appleton,for which he received the 1947 Nobel Prize in Physics.

D-Layer :

• Absorption of HF radio waves

F-Layer :
Appleton–Barnett Layer :
• Named after- English Physicist Edward Appleton and New Zealand Physicist and Meteorologist
Miles Barnett.
• F-Layer of Ionization : Presence of ionized gases. F region has the highest concentration of free
electrons and ions anywhere in the atmosphere.
• Height : 150-800 kms (100-500 miles)
• Comprises : Two Layers : F1 and F2 layers.
The F layer consists of one layer (F2) at night, but during the day, a secondary peak (labelled F1)
often forms in the electron density profile. Because the F2 layer remains by day and night, it is
responsible for most skywave propagation of radio waves and long distance high frequency
(HF, or shortwave) radio communications.

Above the F layer, the number of oxygen ions decreases and lighter ions such as hydrogen and
helium become dominant. This region above the F layer peak and below the plasmasphere is called
the topside ionosphere.
Exosphere :
• This is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending beyond the ionosphere above a height of
about 400 km.
• The air is extremely rarefied and the temperature gradually increases through the layer.
• Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the space from here.
• Temperature gradually increases through the layer. (As it is exposed to direct sunlight)
• This layer coincides with space.
Van Allen Radiation Belt :

-Zone of highly energetically charged particles, originating from the Coronal Mass Ejections (CME) of
the sun and trapped into the Earth’s Magnetosphere

-Named after James Van Allen, who discovered these belts in 1958

-Extent : Altitude of 640 kms- 58,000 kms

-Location : These belts are located in the inner region of the Earth’s Magnetic Field.

-Classification:

1. Inner Belt
2. Outer Belt
Inner Belt :

The inner Van Allen Belt extends typically from an altitude of 0.2 to 2 Earth radii (L values of 1.2 to 3)
or 1,000 km (620 mi) to 12,000 km (7,500 mi) above the Earth.

Note : In certain cases, when solar activity is stronger or in geographical areas such as the South
Atlantic Anomaly, the inner boundary may decline to roughly 200 km above the Earth’s Surface

The inner belt contains high concentrations of electrons in the range of hundreds of keV and energetic
protons with energies exceeding 100 MeV.

Outer Belt :

The outer Van Allen Belt extends typically from an altitude of 3 Earth radii and extending to 10 Earth
radii (RE)—13,000 to 60,000 kilometres (8,100 to 37,300 mi) above the Earth's surface.

The outer belt consists mainly of high-energy (0.1–10 MeV) electrons trapped by the Earth's
magnetosphere.
South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) :

Area where Earth's inner Van Allen radiation belt comes closest to Earth's surface, dipping down
to an altitude of 200 kilometres (120 mi).

The SAA is the near-Earth region where Earth's magnetic field is weakest relative to an idealized
Earth-centered dipole field.
Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis

An aurora is a natural light display in Earth's sky, predominantly seen in high-latitude regions (around
the Arctic and Antarctic).

They are also commonly known as the northern lights (aurora borealis) or southern lights (aurora
australis).

Aurora Borealis :

• Often called the Northern Lights, it occurs in the northern hemisphere, predominantly in regions
near the Arctic Circle.
• This includes countries like Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, Canada, and Alaska.
• The northern lights result from charged particles from the sun, mainly electrons and protons,
colliding with the Earth’s magnetosphere and interacting with gases in the Earth’s atmosphere.
• These collisions produce colourful displays of light, primarily in green, red and purple hues.
Aurora Australis :

• Also known as the Southern Lights, it occurs in the Southern Hemisphere, primarily around the
Antarctic Circle.
• It can be seen in countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Antarctica, and parts of southern
South America.
• The southern lights have the exact underlying cause as the Northern Lights, i.e., charged particles
from the sun interact with the Earth’s magnetic field and atmosphere in the Southern Hemisphere,
creating similar colourful light displays.

Mechanism of Formation :

• They occur due to activity on the surface of the Sun. The star continuously releases a stream of
charged particles, mainly electrons and protons, and magnetic fields called the solar wind.
• As the solar wind approaches the Earth, it is deflected by the planet’s magnetic field, which
acts like a protective shield.
• However, some of the charged particles are trapped in the magnetic field and they travel down
the magnetic field lines at the north and south poles into the upper atmosphere of the Earth.
• These particles then interact with different gases present there, resulting in tiny flashes that light
up the night sky.
• For example, when solar wind particles collide with oxygen, a green colour light is produced.
Interaction with nitrogen produces shades of blue and purple.

Note : The auroras are usually limited to the poles, but can expand to Mid-Latitudes, when the solar
wind is extremely strong.
Temperature Distribution on Earth
Temperature Distribution on Earth :

Insolation :

Earth intercepts only one in two billion parts of solar radiation. This intercepted radiation is called
Insolation.

Insolation == Proportion of Solar energy received or intercepted by earth.

Some heat within the core and mantle is transferred to the surface and ocean bottoms through
volcanoes, springs and geysers. But this heat received at the surface form interiors of the earth is
negligible compared to that received from sun.

Earth receives Sun’s radiation (heat) in the form of short waves (visible light + wavelengths below
visible light – most of it is ultraviolet radiation) which are of electromagnetic nature.
The Earth absorbs short wave radiation during daytime and reflects back the heat received into
space as long-wave radiation (mostly infrared radiation) during night.
Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy :

The heat energy from the solar radiation is received by the earth through three mechanisms—

Radiation == Heat transfer from one body to another without actual contact or movement. It is
possible in relatively emptier space, for instance, from the sun to the earth through space.

Conduction == Heat transfer through matter by molecular activity. Heat transfer in iron and other
metals is by conduction. Generally, denser materials like water are good conductors and a lighter
medium like air is a bad conductor of heat.

Convection == Transfer of heat energy by actual transfer of matter or substance from one place to
another. (Heat Transfer by convection cycles in atmosphere as well as oceans)
Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution :

• The Angle of Incidence or the Inclination of the Sun’s Rays.

• Duration of Sunshine.

• Transparency of Atmosphere : Aerosols (Smoke, Sooth), Dust, Water Vapour, Clouds etc. effect
transparency.

• Land-Sea Differential : Albedo of land is much greater than albedo of oceans and water bodies.
Especially snow covered areas reflect up to 70%-90% of insolation.

• Prevailing Winds : The leeward side or the interiors do not get the moderating effect of the sea,
and therefore experience extremes of temperature.

• Ocean Currents : Ocean currents influence the temperature of adjacent land areas considerably.
Latitudinal Heat Balance :

The amount of insolation received varies from latitude to latitude.

Regions within the equator and 40° N and S latitudes receive abundant sunlight and hence more
heat will be gained than lost. Hence they are energy surplus regions.

Regions beyond 40° N and S latitudes lose more heat than that gained from sunlight. Hence they are
energy deficit regions (This is because of slant sunlight and high albedo of polar regions).

Going by this logic, the tropics should have been getting progressively hotter and the poles getting
progressively cooler. And the planet would have been inhospitable except for few regions near mid-
latitudes. But, in reality, this does not happen.

The atmosphere (planetary winds) and the oceans (ocean currents) transfer excess heat from the
tropics (energy surplus region) towards the poles (energy deficit regions) making up for heat loss at
higher latitudes.
And most of the heat transfer takes place across the mid-latitudes (30° to 50°)[more while studding
jet streams and cyclones], and hence much of the stormy weather is associated with this region.

Thus, the transfer of surplus energy from the lower latitudes to the deficit energy zone of the higher
latitudes, maintains an overall balance over the earth’s surface.
Heat Budget :

The earth receives a certain amount of Insolation (Short Waves) and gives back heat into space by
terrestrial radiation (Longwave Radiation). Through this give and take, or the heat budget, the earth
maintains a constant temperature.
The Mean Annual Temperature Distribution :

Isotherm == An imaginary line joining places having equal temperatures.

The horizontal or latitudinal distribution of temperature is shown with the help of a map with
isotherms.

Effects of altitude is not considered while drawing an isotherm. All the temperatures are reduced to
sea levels.
General Characteristics of Isotherms :

Generally follow the Parallels: Isotherms have close correspondence with the latitude parallels
mainly because the same amount of insolation is received by all the points located on the same
latitude.

Sudden Bends at Ocean – Continent Boundaries: Due to differential heating of land and water,
temperatures above the oceans and landmasses vary even on the same latitude. (we have seen how
land sea differential effects temperature distribution)

Narrow Spacing between isotherms indicate rapid change in temperature (high thermal gradient).
Wide Spacing between isotherms indicate small or slow change in temperatures (low thermal
gradient).
General Temperature Distribution :

Temperature Gradients are usually low over the Eastern Margins of Continents. (This is because of Warm
Ocean Currents)

Temperature Gradients are usually high over the Western Margins of Continents. (This is because of Cold
Ocean Currents)

• The isotherms are irregular over the northern hemisphere due to an enhanced land-sea contrast.
Because of predominance of land over water in the north, the northern hemisphere is warmer.

• The thermal equator (ITCZ) lies generally to the North of Geographical Equator.

• While passing through an area with warm ocean currents, the isotherms show a poleward shift.

• (North Atlantic Drift and Gulf Stream combined with westerlies in Northern Atlantic; Kurishino Current and
North Pacific Current combined with westerlies in Northern Pacific)

• Mountains also affect the horizontal distribution of temperature. For instance, the Rockies and the Andes
stop the oceanic influence from going inwards into North and South America.
Seasonal Temperature Distribution :

• The global distribution of temperature can well be understood by studying the temperature
distribution in January and July.

• The temperature distribution is generally shown on the map with the help of isotherms. The
Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperature.

• In general, the effect of the latitude on temperature is well pronounced on the map, as the
isotherms are generally parallel to the latitude.

• The deviation from this general trend is more pronounced in January than in July, especially
in the Northern Hemisphere.

• In the Northern Hemisphere the land surface area is much larger than in the Southern
Hemisphere. Hence, the effects of land mass and the ocean currents are well pronounced.
Seasonal Temperature Distribution – January :

During January, it is Winter in the Northern Hemisphere and Summer in the Southern
Hemisphere.
The Western Margins of Continents are warmer than their Eastern Counterparts, since the
Westerlies are able to carry high temperature into the landmasses.
The temperature gradient is close to the Eastern Margins of Continents. The isotherms exhibit
a more regular behavior in the Southern Hemisphere.

Northern Hemisphere :
The isotherms deviate to the North over the Ocean and to the South over the continent. This
can be seen on the North Atlantic Ocean.

Southern Hemisphere :
The effect of the ocean is well pronounced in the Southern Hemisphere. Here the isotherms are
more or less parallel to the latitudes and the variation in temperature is more gradual than in the
Northern Hemisphere. The thermal equator lies to the south of geographical equator (because the
Intertropical Convergence Zone or ITCZ has shifted southwards with the apparent southward
movement of the sun).
Seasonal Temperature Distribution – July :

During July, it is Summer in the Northern Hemisphere and Winter in the Southern Hemisphere.
The isothermal behavior is the opposite of what it is in January.
In July the isotherms generally run parallel to the latitudes.
The equatorial oceans record warmer temperature, more than 27°C. Over the land more than 30°C
is noticed in the subtropical continental region of Asia, along the 30° N latitude.

Northern Hemisphere :

The highest range of temperature is more than 60° C over the North-Eastern Part of Eurasian
continent. This is due to continentiality. The least range of temperature, 3°C, is found between 20°
S and 15° N.
Over the Northern Continents, a poleward bend of the isotherms indicates that the landmasses
are overheated and the hot tropical winds are able to go far into the northern interiors.
The isotherms over the northern oceans show an equator ward shift indicating that the oceans
are cooler and are able to carry the moderating effect into tropical interiors. The lowest
temperatures are experienced over Greenland.
Southern Hemisphere :

The gradient becomes regular over the Southern Hemisphere but shows a slight bend towards
the equator at the edges of continents. Thermal Equator now lies to the North of the
Geographical Equator.
Lapse Rate and Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Lapse Rate :

• Lapse rate is rate of change in temperature observed while moving upward through the
Earth’s Atmosphere.

• The lapse rate is considered positive when the temperature decreases with elevation, zero
when the temperature is constant with elevation, and negative when the temperature
increases with elevation (temperature inversion).

Adiabatic Lapse Rate :

• Adiabatic Lapse Rate is the rate of fall in temperature of a rising or a falling air parcel
adiabatically.
• Adiabatic or Adiabatically: Heat doesn’t enter or leave the system. All temperature changes
are internal.
• Adiabatic Lapse Rate is governed by Gas law [Pressure ‘P’ is directly proportional to Temperature
‘T’ when Volume ‘V’ is a constant].
Wet and Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate :

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate :

The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is the rate of fall in temperature with altitude for a parcel of
dry or unsaturated air (air with less moisture, to keep it simple) rising under adiabatic
conditions.

The dry adiabatic lapse rate for the Earth’s atmosphere equals 8° C per kilometre.

Unsaturated air has less than 100% Relative Humidity [a measure of the actual amount of water
vapor in the air compared to the total amount of vapor that can exist in the air at its current
temperature.]

• Saturated air == The air that cannot hold any more moisture. Its stomach is full.
• Unsaturated air == It’s stomach is not full. It can accommodate some more moisture.
Note: Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate is mainly associated with stable conditions [because it has less
moisture].
Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate :

When an air parcel that is saturated (stomach full) with water vapour rises, some of the vapour will
condense and release latent heat [Additional Heat from inside]. This process causes the parcel to cool
more slowly than it would if it were not saturated.

The wet adiabatic lapse rate for the Earth’s atmosphere equals 4° C per kilometre.

Note : Wet Adiabatic Lapse rate is mainly associated with unstable conditions [because it has more
moisture].
Weather conditions at different adiabatic lapse rates :

LR (Lapse Rate) = Average Adiabatic Lapse Rate of entire atmosphere = 6 °C/km

[ALR of a place may be greater than or lesser than the Laspe Rate of atmosphere, i.e, it may be less
than or greater than 6 °C/km]

If ALR at a place is greater than 6 °C/km then it is called DALR = Less moisture than normal =
more stable than normal.

If ALR at a place is lesser than 6 °C/km then it is called WALR = More moisture than normal =
less stable than normal or instability.

Absolute Stability: ALR (at a place) > DALR == Little moisture in the air parcel == It won’t rain

Conditional Stability: WALR < ALR < DALR == Normal moisture conditions == It may or may not rain

Absolute Instability: ALR (at a place) < WALR == Excess moisture in the air parcel == It will rain
violently.
Latent Heat of Condensation :

Latent heat of condensation is the driving force behind all tropical cyclones.

It is the heat released or absorbed during phase change.

Latent Heat, characteristic amount of energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its
physical state that occurs without changing its temperature.

The latent heat associated with melting a solid [heat is absorbed] or freezing a liquid [heat is released] is
called the heat of fusion; that associated with vaporizing a liquid [heat is absorbed] or a solid [heat is
absorbed] or condensing a vapour [heat is released] is called the heat of vaporization.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Climatology
[Winds]
Contents :

• Latitudes and Longitudes

• Motions of the Earth
• Atmosphere
• Winds
• Air Mass and Fronts
• Humidity, Condensation and Smog
• Precipitation and Thunder Storms
• Cyclones
• El Nino, La Nina, Modoki,ENSO, IOD
• Polar Vortex and Ozone Hole
• Climate
Pressure Systems :
Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled.

This results in variations in the atmospheric pressure.

The differences in atmospheric pressure causes the movement of air from high pressure to low
pressure, setting the air in motion. Atmospheric Pressure also determines when the air will rise or
sink.

Air in horizontal motion is wind.

The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across latitudes, thereby, maintaining a constant
temperature for the planet as a whole.

The vertical rising of moist air forms clouds and bring precipitation.
Air Pressure :
Since air has mass, it also has weight. The pressure of air at a given place is defined as a force
exerted in all directions by virtue of the weight of all the air above it.

The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the
atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure.
The atmospheric pressure is expressed in various units.

Measurement of Air Pressure :

• Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column of air at any given place and time. It is measured
by means of an instrument called barometer.
• The units used by meteorologists for this purpose are called millibars (mb).
• One millibar is equal to the force of one gram on a square centimeter. A pressure of 1000
millibars is equal to the weight of 1.053 kilograms per square centimeter.
• In other words, it will be equal to the weight of a column of mercury 75 cm high.
• The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be about 76 centimeters (1013.25 millibars).
Vertical Variation of Pressure :

In general, the atmospheric pressure decreases on an average at the rate of about 34 millibars
every 300 metres of height.

The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the horizontal pressure gradient.

But, it is generally balanced by a nearly equal but opposite gravitational force.

Horizontal Distribution of Pressure :

Small differences in pressure are highly significant in terms of the wind direction and velocity.
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels.

Isobars are lines connecting places having equal pressure. In order to eliminate the effect of
altitude on pressure, it is measured at any station after being reduced to sea level for purposes of
comparison.
The spacing of isobars expresses the rate and direction of pressure changes and is referred to
as Pressure Gradient.

Close spacing of Isobars indicates a steep or strong pressure gradient, while wide spacing suggests
weak gradient. The pressure gradient may thus be defined as the decrease in pressure per unit
distance in the direction in which the pressure decreases most rapidly.

There are distinctly identifiable zones of homogeneous horizontal pressure regimes or ‘pressure belts’.

On the Earth’s Surface, there are in all Seven Pressure Belts.

The Seven Pressure Belts are :

• Equatorial Low
• The Sub-Tropical Highs-2
• The Sub-Polar Lows-2
• The Polar Highs-2

Except the Equatorial Low, all others form matching pairs in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’
• Lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes.
• Width may vary between 5°N and 5°S and 20°N and 20°S.
• This belt happens to be the zone of convergence of trade winds from two hemispheres from sub-
tropical high pressure belts.
• This belt is also called the Doldrums, because of the extremely calm air movements.
• The position of the belt varies with the apparent movement of the Sun.

Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes

• The sub-tropical highs extend from near the tropics to about 35°N and S.
• The corresponding latitudes of sub-tropical high pressure belt are called horse latitudes.
• In early days, the sailing vessels with cargo of horses found it difficult to sail under calm conditions
of this high pressure belt.
• They used to throw horses into the sea when fodder ran out. Hence the name horse latitudes.
Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt :

• Located between 45°N and S latitudes and the Arctic and the Antarctic circles (66.5° N and S
latitudes).
• Owning to low temperatures in these latitudes the sub polar low pressure belts are not very well
pronounced year long.
• On long-term mean climatic maps, the sub polar low-pressure belts of the northern hemisphere are
grouped into two centers of atmospheric activity: the Iceland low and the Aleutian depression
(Aleutian low).
• Such belts in the southern hemisphere surround the periphery of Antarctica and are not as well
differentiated.

Polar High Pressure Belt :

• The polar highs are small in area and extend around the poles.
• They lie around poles between 80 – 90° N and S latitudes.
Factors Controlling Pressure Systems :

Thermal Factors : When air is heated, it expands and, hence, its density decreases. This naturally leads to low pressure. On
the contrary, cooling results in contraction. This increases the density and thus leads to high pressure. Eg-Formation of
equatorial low and polar highs are examples of thermal lows and thermal highs, respectively.

Dynamic Factors : Variations of temperature, the formation of pressure belts may be explained by dynamic controls arising
out of pressure gradient forces and rotation of the earth (Coriolis force).
Why are there no tropical cyclones at the equator?

The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at the poles and
is absent at the equator.

At the equator (Coriolis force is zero) wind blows perpendicular to the isobars. The low pressure
gets filled instead of getting intensified i.e., there is no spiraling of air due to zero Coriolis effect. The
winds directly gets uplifted vertically to form thunderstorms.
Pressure and Wind: Geostrophic Wind :

The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 – 3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of the
surface and are controlled by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force.

When isobars are straight and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced
by the Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as
the geostrophic wind.

The wind movement around a low is called cyclonic circulation. Around a high it is called anti
cyclonic circulation. The direction of winds around such systems changes according to their location
in different hemispheres.
Jet Streams :

• Circumpolar (situated around or inhabiting around one of the earth’s poles) : Jet streams are
winds that circle around the earth with poles as their centers.
• Narrow, concentrated bands : The stream of air is very narrow (50 -150 km across) and, the air in
the stream is directed towards the axis of the stream making it very narrow.
• Meandering : The meandering jet streams are called Rossby Waves.
• Upper Tropospheric : Jet streams flow just below the Tropopause.
• High Velocity : Pressure gradient increases with altitude and creates high velocity winds at higher
altitudes.
• Geostrophic Streams : The direction of jet stream is perpendicular to the pressure gradient force.
• Bounded by Low Speed Winds : The winds surrounding jet streams are of comparatively low
velocities.
• Part of Upper Level Westerlies : Jet streams flow from west to east in both the hemispheres and
hence they are called westerlies or upper level westerlies.
Major Jet Steams:

Permanent Jet Streams :

• Subtropical Jet Stream : The sub-tropical jet stream is produced by the earth’s rotation (Coriolis
force) and temperature contrast between tropical and sub – tropical regions.STJ is closely
connected to the Indian and African summer monsoons
• Polar Jet Stream : The polar front jet is produced by a temperature difference and is closely
related to the polar front.It determines the path and speed and intensity of temperate cyclones.

Temporary Jet Streams :

• The Tropical Easterly Jet or African Easterly Jet Stream : The TEJ is a unique and dominant
feature of the northern hemispheric summer over southern Asia and northern Africa. The TEJ is
found near between 5° and 20°N.
• The Somali Jet Stream : The Somali jet occurs during the summer over northern Madagascar and
off the coast of Somalia. The jet is most intense from June to August.
General Circulation of the Atmosphere :

The pattern of planetary winds depend on:

• Latitudinal Variation of atmospheric heating;

• Emergence of Pressure Belts;
• The Migration of Belts following apparent path of the sun;
• The Distribution of Continents and Oceans;
• The Rotation of Earth.

The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds is called the General Circulation of the
Atmosphere. The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water
circulation which influences the Earth’s Climate.
Hadley Cell :

The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of the convection currents
caused by low pressure. Low pressure in turn occurs due to high insolation. The winds from the
tropics converge at this low pressure zone.

The converged air rises along with the convective cell. It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an
altitude of 14 km, and moves towards the poles. This causes accumulation of air at about 30° N and
S. Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a subtropical high. Another reason for
sinking is the cooling of air when it reaches 30° N and S latitudes.

Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the equator as the easterlies. The easterlies
from either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Such
circulations from the surface upwards and vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell in the tropics is
called Hadley Cell.
Ferrel Cell :

In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the rising
warm air that blows from the subtropical high. At the surface these winds are called westerlies and the
cell is known as the Ferrel cell.

Polar Cell :

At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards middle latitudes as the
polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.

These three cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere. The transfer of heat
energy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintains the general circulation.

The general circulation of the atmosphere also affects the oceans. The large-scale winds of the
atmosphere initiate large and slow moving currents of the ocean. Oceans in turn provide input of
energy and water vapour into the air. These interactions take place rather slowly over a large part of
the ocean.
Walker Cell :

Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is most important in terms of general atmospheric
circulation.

The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifts towards South American coast and replaces
the cool Peruvian current. Such appearance of warm water off the coast of Peru is known as the El
Nino.

The El Nino event is closely associated with the pressure changes in the Central Pacific and Australia.

This change in pressure condition over Pacific is known as the Southern Oscillation.

The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation and El Nino is known as ENSO.

Classification of Winds :

Permanent Winds or Primary Winds or Prevailing Winds or Planetary Winds :

The Trade Winds, Westerlies and Easterlies.

Secondary or Periodic Winds :

• Seasonal Winds: These winds change their direction in different seasons. Eg-Monsoons in India.
• Periodic Winds: Land and Sea Breeze, Mountain and Valley Breeze.

Local Winds :
These blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area.
Eg-Winds like Loo, Mistral, Foehn, Bora.
Loo :

• Harmful Wind
• In the plains of northern India and Pakistan, sometimes a very hot and dry wind blows from the
west in the months of May and June, usually in the afternoons. It is known as Its temperature
invariably ranges between 45°C and 50°C. It may cause sunstroke to people.

Foehn or Fohn :

• Beneficial Wind
• Foehn is a hot wind of local importance in the Alps. It is a strong, gusty, dry and warm wind which
develops on the leeward side of a mountain range. As the windward side takes away whatever
moisture there is in the incoming wind in the form of orographic precipitation, the air that descends
on the leeward side is dry and warm (Katabatic Wind).
• The temperature of the wind varies between 15°C and 20°C. The wind helps animal grazing by
melting snow and aids the ripening of grapes.
Chinook :

• Beneficial Wind
• Foehn like winds in USA and Canada move down the west slopes of the Rockies and are known as
• It is beneficial to ranchers east of the Rockies as it keeps the grasslands clear of snow during much
of the winter.

Mistral :

• Harmful Wind
• Mistral is one of the local names given to such winds that blow from the Alps over France towards
the Mediterranean Sea.
• It is channeled through the Rhine valley. It is very cold and dry with a high speed.
• It brings blizzards into southern France.
Sirocco :

• Harmful Wind
• Sirocco is a Mediterranean wind that comes from the Sahara and reaches hurricane speeds in
North Africa and Southern Europe.
• It arises from a warm, dry, tropical air mass that is pulled northward by low-pressure cells moving
eastward across the Mediterranean Sea, with the wind originating in the Arabian or Sahara deserts.
The hotter, drier continental air mixes with the cooler, wetter air of the maritime cyclone, and the
counter-clockwise circulation of the low propels the mixed air across the southern coasts of Europe.
• The Sirocco causes dusty dry conditions along the northern coast of Africa, storms in the
Mediterranean Sea, and cool wet weather in Europe.
Temperature Inversion :

Temperature inversion, is a reversal of the normal behavior of temperature in the troposphere, in

which a layer of cool air at the surface is overlain by a layer of warmer air.

Ideal Conditions For Temperature Inversion :

• Long nights, so that the outgoing radiation is greater than the incoming radiation.
• Clear skies, which allow unobstructed escape of radiation.
• Calm and stable air, so that there is no vertical mixing at lower levels.
Types of Temperature Inversion :

• Temperature Inversion in Intermontane Valley (Air Drainage Type of Inversion) : Temperature

in the lower layers of air increases instead of decreasing with elevation. This happens commonly
along a sloping surface.

• Ground Inversion (Surface Temperature Inversion) : A ground inversion develops when air is
cooled by contact with a colder surface until it becomes cooler than the overlying atmosphere; this
occurs most often on clear nights, when the ground cools off rapidly by radiation. If the temperature
of surface air drops below its dew point, fog may result.

• Subsidence Inversion (Upper Surface Temperature Inversion) : A subsidence inversion

develops when a widespread layer of air descends.

• Frontal Inversion (Advectional type of Temperature Inversion) : A frontal inversion occurs when
a cold air mass undercuts a warm air mass.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Climatology
[Air Mass and Fronts]
Contents :

• Latitudes and Longitudes

• Motions of the Earth
• Atmosphere
• Winds
• Air Mass and Fronts
• Humidity, Condensation and Smog
• Precipitation and Thunder Storms
• Cyclones
• El Nino, La Nina, Modoki,ENSO, IOD
• Polar Vortex and Ozone Hole
• Climate
Air Mass :

• The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an air mass.

• It is a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture.

• Air masses form an integral part of the global planetary wind system. Therefore, they are
associated with one or other wind belt.

• They extend from surface to lower stratosphere and are across thousands of kilometers.

Source Regions : The main source regions are the high pressure belts in the sub tropics (giving
rise to tropical air masses) and around the poles (the source for polar air masses).
Conditions for the formation of Air masses :

• Source region should be extensive with gentle, divergent air circulation (slightly at high
pressure).
• Areas with high pressure but little pressure difference or pressure gradient are ideal source
regions.
• There are no major source regions in the mid-latitudes as these regions are dominated by
cyclonic and other disturbances.
Air Masses [Based on Source Regions] :

There are five major source regions. These are:

• Warm Tropical and Sub-Tropical Oceans;

• The Subt-Topical Hot Deserts;
• The relatively Cold High Latitude Oceans;
• The very Cold Snow covered Continents in High Latitudes;
• Permanently Ice covered Continents in the Arctic and Antarctica.

Accordingly, following types of airmasses are recognised:

• Maritime tropical (mT);
• Continental tropical (cT);
• Maritime polar (mP);
• Continental polar (cP);
• Continental arctic (cA).
Fronts :

Front is a three dimensional boundary zone formed between two converging air masses with
different physical properties (temperature, humidity, density etc.).

Front Formation :

The process of formation of a front is known as Frontogenesis (war between two air masses), and
dissipation of a front is known as Frontolysis (one of the air masses win against the other).

In Northern Hemisphere Frontogenesis (convergence of air masses) happens in anti-clockwise

direction and in Southern Hemisphere, clockwise direction. This is due to Coriolis Effect.

Mid-latitude cyclones or temperate cyclones or extra-tropical cyclones occur due to

frontogenesis.
Classification of Fronts :

Based on the mechanism of frontogenesis and the associated weather, the fronts can be studied
under the following types-

Stationary Front : When the surface position of a front does not change (when two air masses are
unable to push against each other; a draw), a stationary front is formed.The wind motion on both sides
of the front is parallel to the front.Warm or cold front stops moving, so the name stationary front.Once
this boundary resumes its forward motion, becomes a warm front or cold front.

Cold Front : Such a front is formed when a cold air mass replaces a warm air mass by advancing into
it or that the warm air mass retreats and cold air mass advances.
Warm Front : It is a sloping frontal surface along which active movement of warm air over cold air
takes place.

Occluded Front : Process by which the cold front of a rotating low-pressure system catches up the
warm front, so that the warm air between them is forced upwards.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Climatology
[Humidity, Consdensation and Smog]
Contents :

• Latitudes and Longitudes

• Motions of the Earth
• Atmosphere
• Winds
• Air Mass and Fronts
• Humidity, Condensation and Smog
• Precipitation and Thunder Storms
• Cyclones
• El Nino, La Nina, Modoki,ENSO, IOD
• Polar Vortex and Ozone Hole
• Climate
Humidity : Water vapour present in the air is known as Humidity.

Absolute Humidity : The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as
the absolute humidity.

Relative Humidity : The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full
capacity at a given temperature is known as the relative humidity.

Relative Humidity = [Actual amount of water vapor in air (absolute humidity)/humidity at saturation
point (the maximum water vapor air can hold at a given temperature)] X 100 %

Note : Relative Humidity is greater over the Oceans and Least over the Continents (Absolute Humidity
is greater over oceans because of greater availability of water for evaporation).

Dew Point : The temperature at which saturation [RH=100%] occurs in a given sample of air is known
as dew point.
Specific Humidity : It is expressed as the weight of water vapour per unit weight of air. Since it is
measured in units of weight (usually grams per kilogram), the specific humidity is not affected by
changes in pressure or temperature.

Note : Absolute Humidity and Relative Humidity are Variable whereas Specific Humidity is a constant.

Condensation : The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation.

Forms of Condensation :

Condensation can take place when the dew point is :

-Lower than the Freezing Point : White frost and snow are produced
-Higher than the Freezing Point : Dew, fog and clouds are produced
Clouds :

Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the
water vapour in free air at considerable elevations.

Clouds are caused mainly by the adiabatic cooling of air below its dew point.

As the clouds are formed at some height over the surface of the earth, they take various shapes.

According to their height, expanse, density and transparency or opaqueness clouds are grouped
under four types :

(i) Cirrus;
(ii) Cumulus;
(iii) Stratus;
(iv) Nimbus.
Smog :

Smog = Smoke + Fog (Smoky Fog) caused by the burning of large amounts of coal, vehicular
emission and industrial fumes (Primary pollutants).

Smog contains soot particulates like smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and other components.

At least two distinct types of smog are recognized:

-Sulfurous Smog
-PhotoChemical Smog
Sulfurous Smog :

• Sulfurous smog is also called “London Smog,” (first formed in London).

• Sulfurous smog results from a high concentration of SULFUR OXIDES in the air and is caused
by the use of sulfur-bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal (Coal was the mains source of power in
London during nineteenth century. The effects of coal burning were observed in early twentieth
century).

• This type of smog is aggravated by dampness and a high concentration of suspended particulate
matter in the air.
Photochemical Smog :

Photochemical smog is also known as “Los Angeles Smog”.

Photochemical smog occurs most prominently in urban areas that have large numbers of
automobiles (Nitrogen oxides are the primary emissions).

Photochemical (Summer Smog) forms when pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (primary pollutant)
and organic compounds (primary pollutants) react together in the presence of SUNLIGHT. A
gas called OZONE (Secondary pollutant) is formed.

Nitrogen Dioxide + Sunlight + Hydrocarbons = Ozone (Ozone in stratosphere it is beneficial, but

near the earth’s surface it results in global warming as it is a greenhouse gas)

The resulting smog causes a light brownish coloration of the atmosphere, reduced visibility,
plant damage, irritation of the eyes, and respiratory distress.
Haze :

Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where dust, smoke and other dry particles
obscure the clarity of the sky (No condensation. Smog is similar to haze but there is condensation in
smog).

Sources for haze particles include farming (ploughing in dry weather), traffic, industry, and wildfires.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Climatology
[Precipitation and Thunder Storms]
Contents :

• Latitudes and Longitudes

• Motions of the Earth
• Atmosphere
• Winds
• Air Mass and Fronts
• Humidity, Condensation and Smog
• Precipitation and Thunder Storms
• Cyclones
• El Nino, La Nina, Modoki,ENSO, IOD
• Polar Vortex and Ozone Hole
• Climate
Precipitation : The process of continuous condensation in free air helps the condensed particles to
grow in size. When the resistance of the air fails to hold them against the force of gravity, they fall on
to the earth’s surface. So after the condensation of water vapour, the release of moisture is known as
precipitation.

Types of Precipitation :

• Rainfall: Drop size more than 0.5 mm.

• Virage: Raindrops evaporate before reaching the earth.
• Drizzle: Light rainfall; drop size less than 0.5 mm.
• Mist: Evaporation occurs before reaching the ground leading to foggy weather.
• Snowfall: Fine flakes of snow fall when the temperature is less than 0°C.
• Sleet: Frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow; mixture of snow and rain or merely partially
melted snow.
• Hail: Precipitation in the form of hard rounded pellets is known as hail; 5 mm and 50 mm.
Types of Rainfall :

On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types –

• The Convectional Rainfall

• The Orographic or Relief Rainfall

• The Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall

• The Monsoonal Rainfall

The Conventional Rainfall :

The, air on being heated, becomes light and rises up in convection currents. As it rises, it expands and
loses heat and consequently, condensation takes place and cumulous clouds are formed. This
process releases latent heat of condensation which further heats the air and forces the air to go
further up.

Convectional Precipitation is heavy but of short duration, highly localised and is associated with
minimum amount of cloudiness.

It occurs mainly during summer and is common over equatorial doldrums in the Congo basin,
the Amazon basin and the islands of South-East Asia.

Adiabatic Lapse Rate – Latent Heat of Condensation

The Orographic or Relief Rainfall :

This type of precipitation occurs when warm, humid air strikes an orographic barrier (a mountain
range) head on. Because of the initial momentum, the air is forced to rise. As the moisture laden
air gains height, condensation sets in, and soon saturation is reached. The surplus moisture
falls down as orographic precipitation along the windward slopes.

The chief characteristic of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes receive greater rainfall. After
giving rain on the windward side, when these winds reach the other slope, they descend, and
their temperature rises. Then their capacity to take in moisture increases and hence, these leeward
slopes remain rainless and dry. The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is
known as the rain-shadow area (Some arid and semi-arid regions are a direct consequence of rain-
shadow effect.

Example: Patagonian desert in Argentina, Eastern slopes of Western Ghats). It is also known as the
relief rain.
Example: Mahabaleshwar, situated on the Western Ghats, receives more than 600 cm of rainfall,
whereas Pune, lying in the rain shadow area, has only about 70 cm.
The wind descending on the Leeward Side is heated adiabatically and is called Katabatic Wind.
Frontal Precipitation : When two air masses with different temperatures meet, turbulent conditions
are produced. Along the front convection occurs and causes precipitation. For instance, in North-West
Europe, Cold Continental Air and Warm Oceanic Air converge to produce heavy rainfall in adjacent
areas.

Cyclonic or Frontal Rain :

Cyclonic Rainfall is convectional rainfall on a large scale.
The precipitation in a tropical cyclone is of convectional type while that in a temperate cyclone is
because of frontal activity.
The Monsoonal Rainfall :

This type of precipitation is characterized by seasonal reversal of winds which carry oceanic moisture
(especially the south-west monsoon) with them and cause extensive rainfall in south and southeast
Asia.
Thunderstorm :

Thunderstorms and tornadoes are severe local storms. They are of short duration, occurring over a
small area but are violent.

Thunderstorm is a storm with thunder and lightning and typically also heavy rain or hail.

Thunderstorms mostly occur on ground where the temperature is high. Thunderstorms are less
frequent on water bodies due to low temperature.

Worldwide, there are an estimated 16 million thunderstorms each year, and at any given moment,
there are roughly 2,000 thunderstorms in progress.
How does a thunderstorm form?

Cumulus Stage :
• Ground is significantly heated due to solar insolation.
• A low pressure starts to establish due to intense upliftment of an air parcel (convention).
• Air from the surroundings start to rush in to fill the low pressure.
• Intense convection of moist hot air builds up a towering cumulonimbus cloud.

Mature Stage :
• Characterized by intense updraft of rising warm air, which causes the clouds to grow bigger and
rise to greater height.
• Later, downdraft brings down to earth the cool air and rain.
• The incoming of thunderstorm is indicated by violent gust of wind. This wind is due to the
intense downdraft.
• The updraft and downdraft determine the path of the thunderstorm. Most of the time, the path
is erratic.
Dissipating Stage :
• When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero temperature prevails, hails are formed
and they come down as hailstorm. Intense precipitation occurs.
• In a matter of few minutes, the storm dissipates and clear weather starts to prevail.

Types of Thunderstorms :

• Convectional, Frontal, Orographic Thunderstorms.

• Isolated Thunderstorms, Multiple-Cell Thunderstorms, Super-Cell Thunderstorms.
Thermal Thunderstorm :

-Caused due to intense heating of ground during summer.

Orographic Thunderstorm :

-Forceful upliftment of warm moist air parcel when it passes over a mountain barrier creates
cumulonimbus cloud causing heavy precipitation on the windward side.
-Orographic ‘Cloud bursts’ are common in Jammu and Kashmir, Cherrapunji and Mawsynram.

Frontal Thunderstorm :

-Thunderstorms occurring along cold fronts.

Single-Cell Thunderstorm :

• Single-cell thunderstorms are small, brief, weak storms that grow and die within an hour or so.
They are typically driven by heating on a summer afternoon.
• Single-cell storms may produce brief heavy rain and lightning (Very common in India during
summers, mostly April, May. In Kerala they are called ‘Mango Showers’ and in Karnataka ‘Blossom
showers’).

Multi-Cell Thunderstorm :

• A multi-cell storm is a thunderstorm in which new updrafts form along the leading edge of rain-
cooled air (the gust front).
• Individual cells usually last 30 to 60 minutes, while the system as a whole may last for many hours.
• Multi-cell storms may produce hail, strong winds, brief tornadoes, and/or flooding.
Super-Cell Thunderstorm :

• A super-cell is a long-lived (greater than 1 hour) and highly organized storm feeding off an updraft
(a rising current of air) that is tilted and rotating.
• Most large and violent tornadoes come from super-cells.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Climatology
[Cyclones]
Contents :

• Latitudes and Longitudes

• Motions of the Earth
• Atmosphere
• Winds
• Air Mass and Fronts
• Humidity, Condensation and Smog
• Precipitation and Thunder Storms
• Cyclones
• El Nino, La Nina, Modoki,ENSO, IOD
• Polar Vortex and Ozone Hole
• Climate
TROPICAL CYCLONE
Introduction :
Cyclones that develop in the regions between the Tropics of Capricorn and
Cancer are called “Tropical Cyclones”.

The World Meteorological Organisation uses the term 'Tropical Cyclone’ to

cover weather systems in which winds exceed ‘Gale Force’ (minimum of 34
knots or 63 kph).

Tropical cyclones are the progeny of ocean and atmosphere, powered by the heat
from the sea; and driven by easterly trades and temperate westerlies, high
planetary winds and their own fierce energy.
Naming a Cyclone : Genesis and Evolution

1800 : The practice began in the Caribbean, naming storms after saints from the Roman Catholic
calendar.

Post WW-II : The use of female names became common for better organisation in tracking storms.

1979 : Following criticism of gender bias, the naming system was updated in 1979 to include both
male and female names, alternating between the two.

2000 : The practice of naming cyclones in the North Indian Ocean region begun by the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO), a specialised agency of the UN.

Note : Collaborative Naming Lists: In the North Indian Ocean, a collaborative list of cyclone names
was established by Tropical Cyclone Regional Body (TCRB).
TCRB in the North Indian Ocean is a group of 13 countries namely Bangladesh, India, Maldives,
Myanmar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Oman, Thailand, Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and
Yemen.

Suggestion Submission Process: Each of the 13 member countries is required to provide 13

suggestions for names to a WMO panel which reviews and finalises the name.

Global Standardisation: Naming cyclones facilitates easier identification for both the media and the
public, helping them follow the cyclone’s progress and potential threats.

Rotation and Retirement of Names: Names on the cyclone list are rotated periodically, ensuring a
fresh selection over time.

Retired names, typically those associated with deadly or destructive storms, are replaced with new
suggestions to avoid negative associations.
Formation of Cyclones :
Tropical Cyclone is a weather phenomenon, which is formed only over warm
ocean waters near the equator.
Factors are Responsible for Formation of Tropical Cyclones :

• Warm Ocean Waters: Sea surface temperatures of at least 27°C are essential for tropical
cyclone development. Warm water provides the heat and moisture needed to fuel the storm's
rising air and convection process.

• Coriolis Force: The Coriolis effect, caused by Earth's rotation, is necessary to give the cyclone
its spin. This force is weak near the equator, so tropical cyclones generally form at least 5° north
or south of the equator .

• Low Wind Shear: Low vertical wind shear (the difference in wind speed and direction at different
altitudes) is crucial. High wind shear can disrupt the vertical structure of the storm, preventing it
from strengthening .

• Pre-existing Disturbance: A tropical disturbance, such as a low-pressure system, provides the

initial organisation of air circulation around which a cyclone can form.

• Convergence of Air: The convergence of warm, moist air at the surface, which rises and cools,
creating clouds and thunderstorms, is fundamental to developing the cyclone's core.
Factors Contributing to the Formation:

• A depression (an area of low pressure characterised by circulating winds and atmospheric
instability) has formed over the central Bay of Bengal, serving as the genesis for Cyclone Remal.

• The Bay of Bengal, experiences water temperatures higher(2–3°C) warmer than average.
This warm water provides the energy needed for cyclones to form and intensify.

• The Madden Julian Oscillation, a band of clouds moving eastward, along with the winds and
warm ocean waters, is currently moving south of the Bay of Bengal. These winds play a role in
initiating cyclones due to their rotational effect.
Characteristics of a Tropical Cyclone:
• The centre of a cyclone is very calm and clear with very low air pressure. The average
speed is 120 kmph.

• They have closed isobars which leads to greater velocity.

• Isobars are imaginary lines on a weather map that connect locations with equal
atmospheric pressure.

• They develop over oceans and sea only.

• They move from east to west under the influence of trade winds.

• They are seasonal in nature.

Classification of Cyclones :
Cyclones are classified on the basis of wind speed by the Indian Meteorological
Department (IMD):

• Depression: Wind speeds of between 31–49 km/h

• Deep Depression: Between 50-61 km/h
• Cyclonic Storm: Between 62–88 km/h
• Severe Cyclonic Storm: Between 89-117 Km/h
• Very Severe Cyclonic Storm: Between 118-166 Km/h
• Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm: Between 167-221 Km/h
• Super Cyclonic Storm: Above 222 Km/h
Category of a Tropical Cyclone :
• The category of a tropical cyclone is determined by its sustained wind speed,
as measured by the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale.

• It is classified into five categories — Category 1 to Category 5.

• While Category 1 tropical cyclones bring winds of 119 to 153 kmph,

Category 5 tropical cyclones, which are the strongest, have winds of 252
kmph or higher.

• Storms that reach Category 3 and higher are considered major tropical
cyclones due to their potential to inflict significant damage.
 Tropical cyclones are known by different names in
various regions :

• Hurricanes – In the in the West Indian islands in the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean.

• Tornados - In the Guinea lands of West Africa and southern USA

• Typhoons – In the Northwest Pacific Ocean, particularly affecting East and Southeast Asia
(e.g., Japan, Philippines, China, Taiwan).

• Cyclones – In the Southwest Indian Ocean (off the coast of Africa, Madagascar), the
Southeast Indian Ocean, and the Southwest Pacific Ocean.

• Willy-Willies – An informal term used for tropical cyclones in Australia.

Impacts of Cyclone :

• Human Impact: Cyclones can cause widespread casualties due to strong winds, storm surges,
and flooding. Thousands of people may be evacuated or displaced, leading to temporary or
permanent loss of homes.

• Infrastructure Loss: Strong winds can cause power outages and structural damage, while
flooding disrupts transportation and communication.

• Environmental Impact: High winds and storm surges erode coastlines, destroying natural
habitats and human structures along the shore.Cyclones can cause long-term damage to forests,
wetlands, and marine ecosystems, affecting biodiversity.

• Agriculture Loss: Low-lying agricultural areas are vulnerable to seawater intrusion and
waterlogging from heavy rains, which can destroy crops and reduce agricultural productivity.
Prolonged rainfall may lead to water accumulation in fields, affecting soil health and damaging
crops.
Four-Stage Cyclone Warning System :

• Pre-Cyclone Watch (Green): Issued 72 hours in advance. Alerts about potential cyclonic
disturbances and expected adverse weather in coastal areas.

• Cyclone Alert (Yellow): Issued at least 48 hours before adverse weather begins. Provides
information on the storm’s location, intensity, and advises on safety measures.

• Cyclone Warning (Orange): Issued at least 24 hours before the onset of adverse weather. Offers
detailed updates on cyclone position, expected landfall, and associated impacts like heavy rainfall
and strong winds.

• Post Landfall Outlook (Red): Issued at least 12 hours before landfall. Detailed adverse weather
conditions likely to affect inland areas after landfall.

[Note : The Contemporary Developments related to Cyclones are updated in the Disaster
Mangement Part]
Reasons for Intense Rainfall:

• Intense Convection: The cyclone may show intense convection, which extends up to the upper
layers of the atmosphere.

Intense convection begins when warm, moist air rises, cools, and expands, causing moisture to
condense into water droplets and form clouds.

As the rising air continues to cool and condense, it forms cumulonimbus clouds, typical of
thunderstorms and creates conditions conducive to heavy rainfall

• Warm Moist Air: There is an influx of warm, moist air into the core of the cyclone, which further
enhances convection leading to more intense rainfall.

The influx of warm, moist air helps to maintain and intensify the cyclone and enhances the cyclone's
strength which results in intense rainfall over a relatively small area.
• Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO) Influence: MJO is conducive for convection hence heavy
rainfall.

The MJO is made up of two parts:

An enhanced rainfall phase and a suppressed rainfall phase.

-During the enhanced phase, surface winds converge, causing air to rise and create more rainfall.

-In the suppressed phase, winds converge at the top of the atmosphere, causing air to sink and
leading to less rainfall.

This dipole structure moves west to east in the Tropics, creating more cloudiness and rainfall in the
enhanced phase, and more sunshine and dryness in the suppressed phase.
TEMPERATE CYCLONE
[Extra Tropical Cyclone]
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclone (Extra-Tropical Cyclones)

The Extra-Tropical Cyclones are storm systems emerging in the mid and high latitudes, away from the
tropics.

They are low-pressure systems with associated cold fronts, warm fronts, and occluded fronts.

These cyclones are formed along the polar front.

In the beginning, the front is stationary.

Extra-tropical cyclones are also known as mid-latitude storms or baroclinic storms.

In the Northern Hemisphere, cold air blows from the north of the front and warm air blows from
the south.
When the pressure descents along the front, the cold air move towards the south, and the warm air
moves northwards setting in motion an anticlockwise cyclonic circulation.
Polar Front Theory :
According to this theory, the warm-humid air masses
from the tropics meet the dry-cold air masses from
the poles and thus a polar front is formed as a
surface of discontinuity.

Such conditions occur over sub-tropical high, sub-

polar low pressure belts and along the Tropopause.

The cold air pushes the warm air upwards from

underneath. Thus a void is created because of
lessening of pressure. The surrounding air rushed in
to occupy this void and coupled with the earth’s
rotation, a cyclone is formed which advances with
the westerlies (Jet Streams).

Note :

• Jet Stream plays a major role in temperate

cyclonogeneis.
• Jet Streams also influence the path of temperate
cyclones.
[Note : The Contemporary Developments related to Cyclones are updated in the Disaster
Mangement Part]
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Climatology
[El Nino, La Nina, Modoki, ENSO, IOD ]
Contents :

• Latitudes and Longitudes

• Motions of the Earth
• Atmosphere
• Winds
• Air Mass and Fronts
• Humidity, Condensation and Smog
• Precipitation and Thunder Storms
• Cyclones
• El Nino, La Nina, Modoki,ENSO, IOD
• Polar Vortex and Ozone Hole
• Climate
Normal Conditions :

In a normal year, a surface low pressure develops in the region of Northern Australia and
Indonesia and a high pressure system over the coast of Peru. As a result, the trade winds over
the Pacific Ocean move strongly from East to West.

The Easterly Flow of the trade winds carries warm surface waters westward, bringing convective
storms (thunderstorms) to Indonesia and coastal Australia. Along the coast of Peru, cold bottom
cold nutrient rich water wells up to the surface to replace the warm water that is pulled to the west.
Walker Circulation (Occurs during Normal Years) :

The Walker Circulation (Walker Cell) is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a
high pressure system over the Eastern Pacific Ocean, and a low pressure system over
Indonesia.
El-Nino
During El Nino Year :

In an El Niño year, air pressure drops over large areas of the Central Pacific and along the coast
of South America.

The normal low pressure system is replaced by a weak high in the western Pacific (the southern
oscillation). This change in pressure pattern causes the trade winds to be reduced == Weak Walker
Cell. Sometimes Walker Cell might even get reversed.

This reduction allows the equatorial counter current (current along doldrums) to accumulate warm
ocean water along the coastlines of Peru and Ecuador.

This accumulation of warm water causes the thermocline to drop in the eastern part of Pacific
Ocean which cuts off the upwelling of cold deep ocean water along the coast of Peru.

Climatically, the development of an El Niño brings drought to the western Pacific, rains to the
equatorial coast of South America, and convective storms and hurricanes to the central Pacific.
Normal Conditions :

Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Cold Ocean Water == Good for Fishing.

Western Pacific == Indonesia and Australia == Warm Ocean Water == Plenty of rains.

El Nino Conditions :

Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Warm Ocean Water == Fishing industry takes a hit.

Western Pacific == Indonesia and Australia == Cold Ocean Water == Drought.

How El Nino impacts monsoon rainfall in India ?

• El Nino and Indian Monsoon are inversely related.

• The most prominent droughts in India – six of them – since 1871 have been El Nino droughts,
including the recent ones in 2002 and 2009

• However, not all El Nino years led to a drought in India. For instance, 1997/98 was a strong El Nino
year but there was no drought (Because of IOD).

• On the other hand, a moderate El Nino in 2002 resulted in one of the worst droughts.

• El Nino directly impacts India’s agrarian economy as it tends to lower the production of summer
crops such as rice, sugarcane, cotton and oilseeds.

• The ultimate impact is seen in the form of high inflation and low gross domestic product growth as
agriculture contributes around 14 per cent to the Indian economy.
La-Nina
After an El Niño event weather conditions usually return back to normal.

However, in some years the trade winds can become extremely strong and an abnormal accumulation
of cold water can occur in the central and eastern Pacific. This event is called a La Niña.

A strong La Niña occurred in 1988 and scientists believe that it may have been responsible for the
summer drought over central North America. During this period, the Atlantic Ocean has seen very
active hurricane seasons in 1998 and 1999.

One of the hurricanes that developed, named Mitch, was the strongest October hurricane ever to
develop in about 100 years of record keeping.
Effects of La Nina :

Some of the other weather effects of La Niña include

• Abnormally heavy monsoons in India and Southeast Asia

• Cool and Wet Winter Weather in South-Eastern Africa, wet weather in Eastern Australia
• Cold Winter in Western Canada and North-Western United States
• Winter Drought in the Southern United States
El-Nino Modoki
The El Niño Modoki :

El Niño Modoki is a Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere phenomenon in the Tropical Pacific.

It is different from another coupled phenomenon in the Tropical Pacific namely, El Niño.

Conventional El Niño is characterized by strong anomalous warming in the Eastern Equatorial

Pacific.

Whereas, El Niño Modoki is associated with strong anomalous warming in the Central Tropical
Pacific and cooling in the Eastern and Western Tropical Pacific.
El-Nino Southern Oscillation [ENSO]
El Nino Southern Oscillation [ENSO] :

The formation of an El Niño [Circulation of Water] is linked with Pacific Ocean circulation pattern
known as the Southern Oscillation [circulation of atmospheric pressure]

Southern Oscillation, in oceanography and climatology, is a coherent inter-annual fluctuation of

atmospheric pressure over the tropical Indo-Pacific region.

El Nino and Southern Oscillation coincide most of the times hence their combination is called ENSO –
El Nino Southern Oscillation.

Only El Nino == [Warm water in Eastern Pacific + Cold water in Western Pacific].

Only SO == [Low Pressure over Eastern Pacific + High Pressure over Western Pacific]

ENSO = [Warm water in Eastern Pacific + Low Pressure over Eastern Pacific] + [Cold water in
Western Pacific + High Pressure over Western Pacific].
It was demonstrated that a positive IOD index often negated the effect of ENSO, resulting in
increased Monsoon rains in several ENSO years like the 1983, 1994 and 1997.

Further, it was shown that the two poles of the IOD – the Eastern Pole (around Indonesia) and the
Western Pole (off the African coast) were independently and cumulatively affecting the quantity of
rains for the Monsoon in the Indian subcontinent.

Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric component of the IOD was later discovered and named as
Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation [EQUINOO]

[Oscillation of warm water and atmospheric pressure between Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea].
Indian Ocean Dipole [IOD]
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) :

Although ENSO was statistically effective in explaining several past droughts in India, in the recent
decades the ENSO-Monsoon relationship seemed to weaken in the Indian subcontinent.
For E.g. the 1997, strong ENSO failed to cause drought in India.

However, it was later discovered that just like ENSO was an event in the Pacific Ocean, a similar
seesaw ocean-atmosphere system in the Indian Ocean was also at play. It was discovered in 1999
and named the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD).

The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined by the difference in sea surface temperature between
two areas (or poles, hence a dipole) – a western pole in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean)
and an eastern pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia.

IOD develops in the equatorial region of Indian Ocean from April to May peaking in October.
Positive IOD : Winds over the Indian Ocean blow from East to West (from Bay of Bengal towards
Arabian Sea). This results in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean near African Coast) being much
warmer and eastern Indian Ocean around Indonesia becoming colder and dry.

Negative IOD : Reverse happens making Indonesia much warmer and rainier.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Climatology
[Polar Vortex and Ozone Hole]
Contents :

• Latitudes and Longitudes

• Motions of the Earth
• Atmosphere
• Winds
• Air Mass and Fronts
• Humidity, Condensation and Smog
• Precipitation and Thunder Storms
• Cyclones
• El Nino, La Nina, Modoki,ENSO, IOD
• Polar Vortex and Ozone Hole
• Climate
Polar Vortex :

A polar vortex is a large pocket of very cold air, typically the coldest air in the Northern
Hemisphere, which sits over the polar region during the winter season.

Characteristics :
-Cold
-Upper Tropospheric: Extending till the lower levels of stratosphere (At poles, the troposphere
extends up to 8-9 km)
-Circumpolar
-Low Pressure
-Large Cyclonic Parcel of Air [1000 km] (Counter-Clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere)
-Associated with Jet Streams [Rossby Waves]
-Formed mainly in winter and gets weaker in summer
-Surrounds Polar Highs and lie within the Polar Front (boundary separating the temperate and polar
air masses).
Ozone Hole [Ozone Depletion at South Pole] :

• Polar vortex and ozone depletion are two distinct but related phenomena.
• There is a steady decline of about 4% in the total volume of ozone in Earth’s stratosphere.
• Much larger decrease in stratospheric ozone is observed around Earth’s polar regions.
• Depletion of ozone is due to increase in halocarbons in the atmosphere.

Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) :

Extend from 12 km – 22 km above the surface.

They are Nacreous Clouds.
Nacreous Clouds :

• Nacreous clouds, sometimes called mother-of-pearl clouds, are rare clouds.

• They are mostly visible within two hours after sunset or before dawn.

• They form in frigid regions of the lower stratosphere, some 15 – 25 km (9 -16 mile) high and
well above tropospheric clouds. They are bright even after sunset and before dawn because at
those heights there is still sunlight.

• They are seen mostly during winter at high latitudes like Scandinavia, Iceland, Alaska and
Northern Canada. Sometimes, however, they occur as far south as England.

• Polar Stratospheric Clouds or Nacreous Clouds contain water, nitric acid and/or sulfuric
acid.

• They are formed mainly during the event of polar vertex in winter; more intense at south pole.
• The Cl-Catalyzed Ozone Depletion is dramatically enhanced in the presence of Polar
Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) [Finally this how polar vortex leads to ozone depletion]
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

• The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (Vienna Convention) was agreed in 1985.
• It established global monitoring and reporting on ozone depletion.
• It also created a framework for the development of protocols for taking more binding action.

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

• The Montreal Protocol under the Vienna Convention (the protocol) was agreed in 1987.
• It facilitates global cooperation in reversing the rapid decline in atmospheric concentrations of ozone.
• Under the protocol countries agreed to phase out the production and consumption of certain chemicals
that deplete ozone.
• Phase out of these substances is required by specific deadlines.
• The Vienna Convention and its Montreal Protocol are the first and only global environmental treaties to
achieve universal ratification, with 197 parties.
• As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering.
• Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070.
Kigali amendment to Montreal Protocol 2016

• Kigali is the capital city of Rwanda.

• In the 28th meeting of the Parties (2016) to the Montreal Protocol, negotiators from 197 nations have
signed an agreement to amend the Montreal Protocol in Kigali.
• The parties are expected to reduce the manufacture and use of Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by roughly
80-85% from their respective baselines, till 2045.
• This phase down is expected to arrest the global average temperature rise up to 0.5 °C by 2100.
• It is a legally binding agreement between the signatory parties with non-compliance measures.
• It came into effect from 1st January 2019.
• HCFCs are used as interim substitute to replace CFC, these are allowed up to 1st January 2040.
India’s Position :

India has agreed on a lenient schedule as it consumes only 3% of HFCs as compared to the other nations like
the USA (37%) and China (25%).
Note : HFO Alternatives to HFCs
• HFO stands for hydrofluoro olefin.
• HFO refrigerants are composed of hydrogen, fluorine and carbon atoms, but contain at least one double
bond between the carbon atoms.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Climatology
[Climate]
Contents :

• Latitudes and Longitudes

• Motions of the Earth
• Atmosphere
• Winds
• Air Mass and Fronts
• Humidity, Condensation and Smog
• Precipitation and Thunder Storms
• Cyclones
• El Nino, La Nina, Modoki,ENSO, IOD
• Polar Vortex and Ozone Hole
• Climate
World Climate
Types of World Climate :

• Hot Wet Equatorial Climate [Equatorial Zone]

• Monsoonal Climate [Hot Zone]

• Sudan Climate or Savanna Climate or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate [Hot Zone]
• Hot Desert Climate [Hot Zone]

• Warm Temperate Eastern Climate : China Type Climate, Gulf Type Climate, Natal Type Climate [Warm
Temperate Zone]
• Steppe Climate (Temperate Grassland Climate) [Warm Temperate Zone]
• Mediterranean Climate (Western Margin Climate) [Warm Temperate Zone]

• Cool Temperate Eastern Marine Climate or Eastern Margin (Laurentian) Climate [Cool Temperate Zone]
• Central Continent Siberian Climate or Boreal Climate or Taiga Climate [Cool Temperate Zone]
• Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate or North-West European Maritime Climate or Western Margin
British Climate [Cool Temperate Zone]

• Tundra or Arctic or Polar Type Climate [Cold Zone]

 Hot Wet Equatorial Climate :

Dominated by Maritime Tropical Air Masses.

Temperature
• Temperature is uniform throughout the year.
• The mean monthly temperatures are always around 27° C with very little variation.
• There is no winter.
• Cloudiness and heavy precipitation moderate the daily temperature.
• Regular land and sea breezes assist in maintaining a truly equable climate.
• The diurnal range of temperature is small, and so is the annual range.

Precipitation
• Precipitation is heavy and well distributed throughout the year.
• Annual average is always above 150 cm. In some regions the annual average may be as high as 250 – 300
cm.
• There is no month without rain (distinct dry season is absent). The monthly average is above 6 cm most of
the times.
• There are two periods of maximum rainfall, April and October. [shortly after the equinox]. Least
rain fall occurs in June and December [solstice].
• The double rainfall peaks coinciding with the equinoxes are a characteristic feature of
equatorial climates not found in any other type of climate.
• There is much evaporation and convectional air currents are set up, followed by heavy
thunderstorms in the afternoons.
 Monsoonal Climate :

• Occur within 5° to 30° N and S of the equator.

• On-shore [sea to land] tropical monsoons occur in the summer and off-shore [land to sea] dry monsoons
in the winter.
• They are best developed in the Indian sub-continent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of
Vietnam and south China and northern Australia.

Temperature
• Monthly mean temperatures above 18 °C.
• Temperatures range from 30-45° C in summer. Mean summer temperature is about 30°C.
• In winters, temperature range is 15-30° C with mean temperature around 20-25° C.

Precipitation
• Annual mean rainfall ranges from 200-250 cm. In some regions it is around 350 cm.
• Places like Cherrapunji & Mawsynram receive an annual rainfall of about 1000 cm. [They lie on the
windward side of the Meghalaya hills, so the resulting orographic lift (orographic rainfall) enhances
precipitation. Also, they are located between mountains which enhances cloud concentration due to funneling
effect]
 Sudan Type Climate or Savanna Climate or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate :

This type of climate has alternate wet and dry seasons similar to monsoon climate but has
considerably less annual rainfall.
Also, there is no distinct rainy season like in monsoon climate.
[Only two seasons – winter and summer. Rains occur in summer].

Floods and droughts are common.

Vegetation, wildlife and human life are quite different from monsoon climate regions.

Indian Savanna :

Certain parts across Northern Karnataka, Southern Maharashtra and Telangana exhibit
characteristics of both semi-arid and savanna climate.

Due to irrigation and cultivation, this region is different from other savanna regions.
Rainfall
• Mean annual rainfall ranges from 80 – 160 cm [Rainfall decreases with distance from equator].
• In the northern hemisphere, the rainy season begins in May and lasts till September.
• In the southern hemisphere, the rainy season is from October to March.

Temperature
• Mean annual temperature is greater than 18° C.
• The monthly temperature hovers between 20° C and 32° C for lowland stations.
• Highest temperatures do not coincide with the period of the highest sun (e.g. June in the northern
hemisphere) but occur just before the onset of the rainy season, i.e. April in Northern Hemisphere and October
in Southern Hemisphere.
• Days are hot and nights are cold. This extreme diurnal range of temperature is another characteristic
feature of the Sudan type of climate.
Winds
• The prevailing winds of the region are the Trade Winds, which bring rain to the coastal districts.
• They are strongest in the summer [favorable position of ITCZ] but are relatively dry by the time they reach
the continental interiors or the western coasts [Trade winds are easterlies – flow from east to west. So rainfall
decreases from east to west here].
• In West Africa, the North-East Trades, in fact, blow off-shore [continent to sea] from the Sahara Desert and
reach the Guinea coast as a dry, dust-laden winds.
 Hot Desert Climate :

• The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore Trade Winds, hence they are
also called Trade Wind Deserts.

• The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between
latitudes 15° and 30°N. and S

• They include the biggest Sahara Desert (3.5 million square miles), Great Australian Desert,
Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.

• In North America, the desert extends from Mexico into U.S.A. and is called by different names at
different places, e.g. the Mohave, Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Deserts.

• In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert (rain shadow effect and off-shore trade winds)
is the driest of all deserts with less than 2 cm of rainfall annually.
Mid-Latitude Desert Climate :

• The temperate deserts are rainless because of either continentiality or rain-shadow effect.
[Gobi desert is formed due to continentiality and Patagonian desert due to rain-shadow
effect]

• Amongst the mid-latitude deserts, many are found on plateau and are at a considerable distance
from the sea. These are Ladakh, The Kyzyl Kum, Turkestan, Taklimakan and Gobi deserts of
Central Asia, drier portions of the Great Basin Desert of the western United States and Patagonian
Deserts of Argentina etc..

• The Patagonian Desert is more due to its rain-shadow position on the leeward side of the lofty
Andes than to continentiality.
Rainfall (Both Hot and Cold Deserts) :

• Deserts, whether hot or mid-latitude have an annual precipitation of less than 25 cm.
• Atacama (driest place on earth) has practically no rain at all.
• Rain normally occurs as violent thunderstorms of the convectional type.
• It ‘bursts’ suddenly and pours continuously for a few hours over small areas.
• The thunderstorm is so violent, and comes so suddenly that it has disastrous consequences on desert
landforms [flash floods].
 Warm Temperate Eastern Climate :
Different variants of Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate include the-

• Temperate Monsoon Climate or China Type Climate

• Gulf Type Climate
• Natal Type Climate

Found between 20° and 35° N and S latitude (warm temperate latitudes just outside the tropics);
on the East Coast in both hemispheres.
China Type Climate

Temperate Monsoon or China Type climate is observed in most parts of China. The climate is also
observed in Southern parts of Japan.

Gulf Type Climate

Found in South-Eastern U.S.A., bordering the Gulf of Mexico where continental heating in summer
induces an inflow of air from the cooler Atlantic Ocean.

Natal Type Climate

• Found in in New South Wales (Australia), Natal (South Africa), Parana-Paraguay-Uruguay Basin
(South America).

• Natal type is different from Temperate Monsoon or China type as it receives rainfall from on-shore
Trade Winds all the year round.
Temperature :

• The mean monthly temperature varies between 4° C and 25° C and is strongly modified by maritime
influence.
• Occasionally, the penetration of cold air (Polar Vortex) from the continental interiors may bring down the
temperature to freezing point.
• Though frosts are rare they occasionally occur in the colder interiors.

Precipitation :

• Rainfall is more than moderate, anything from 60 cm to 150 cm.

• This is adequate for all agricultural purposes and hence supports a wide range of crops.
• Areas which experience this climate are very densely populated.
• There is the fairly uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year.
• Rain comes either from convectional sources or as orographic rain in summer, or from depressions in
prolonged showers in winter.
• In summer, the regions are under the influence of moist, maritime airflow from the subtropical anticyclonic
cells.
• Local storms, e.g. typhoons (tropical cyclones), and hurricanes, also occur.
 Steppe Climate (Temperate Grassland Climate) :

Distribution
• They lie in the interiors of the continents.
• Lie in the Westerly wind belt [mid-latitudes or temperate region].
• Grasslands are practically treeless due to continentiality [deep within the interiors of the continents where rain bearing winds
don’t reach].
• In Eurasia, they are called the Steppes, and stretch eastwards from the shores of the Black Sea to the foothills of the Altai
Mountains. [2,000 miles long belt].
Name of the Temperate Grassland Region

Pustaz Hungary and surrounding regions

North America [between the foothills of the Rockies and the Great
Prairies
Lakes]

Pampas Argentina and Uruguay [Rain-shadow effect]

Bush-veld (more tropical) Northern South Africa

High Veld (more temperate) Southern South Africa

Downs Australia: Murray-Darling basin of southern Australia

Canterbury New Zealand

 Mediterranean Climate (Western Margin Climate) :

• Clear skies and high temperatures; hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.
• Mean Annual Precipitation ranges from 35 – 90 cm.
• Temperature of warmest month greater than or equal to 10⁰ C.
• Temperature of coldest month is less than 18⁰ C but greater than –3⁰ C
• Climate is not extreme because of cooling from water bodies.
 Cool Temperate Eastern Marine Climate or Eastern Margin (Laurentian)
Climate:

Intermediate type of climate between the British Type Climate (moderate) and the Taiga Type Climate
(extreme) of climate.

It has features of both the maritime and the continental climates.

Distribution of Laurentian Climate

Laurentian type of climate is found only in two regions and that too only in the northern hemisphere.
Temperature
• Characterized by cold, dry winters and warm, wet summers.
• Winter temperatures is below freezing-point and snow fall is quite natural.
• Summers are as warm as the tropics (~25 °C).

Precipitation
• Rainfall occurs throughout the year with summer maxima [easterly winds from the oceans bring rains]
• Annual rainfall ranges from 75 to 150 cm [two – thirds of rainfall occurs in the summer].
• Dry Westerlies that blow from continental interiors dominate winters.
 Central Continent Siberian Climate or Boreal Climate or Taiga Climate

The Siberian Climate is experienced in the Northern Hemisphere. Here, continents that are within the higher
altitude have a broad east-west spread. On the polar side around the arctic circle, it merges into the arctic tundra
of Canada and Eurasia. As we move in the southward direction, the Siberian climate changes to a temperate
steppe climate.

Temperature
• The Siberian climate is known for long-duration cold winters and short-duration summers because the zone
lies across 60 degrees towards north of the equator.
• Spring and autumn seasons are rarely experienced in the Siberian climate.
• This type of climate is experienced in areas such as Moscow, continental Europe, Churchill, northern Canada,
and the borders of Hudson Bay.
• Due to extreme temperatures in Siberia, the place is also known as a “cold pole of the Earth ”.
• Since the area experiences extreme temperatures, therefore, the annual range of temperature is high. This is
quite evident from the fact that the temperature falls below the freezing point in winters.
• Snow falls are also experienced here but the amount of snowfall varies from place to place. It is heaviest in
the northern tundra and Siberian taiga.
• The frosting begins in early August and all the lakes and ponds become icebound by September.
Precipitation

• In this cold region, there is no maritime influence in the interior. In the winter season, frontal disturbances
might occur.
• Annual precipitation in the Siberian region ranges between 38 cm and 63 cm.
• The precipitation is in the form of snow in winters due to all-time below freezing mean temperatures.
 Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate or North-West European Maritime
Climate or Western Margin British Type Climate :

• The cool temperate western margins are under the influence of the Westerlies all-round the year.
• They are the regions of frontal cyclonic activity [Temperate Cyclones].
• This type of climate is typical to Britain, hence the name ‘British Type’.
• Also called as North-West European Maritime Climate due to greater oceanic influence.

Temperature

• The mean annual temperatures are usually between 5° C and 15° C.

• Winters are abnormally mild. This is because of the warming effect brought by warm North Atlantic Drift.
• Sometimes, unusual cold spells are caused by the invasion of cold polar continental air (Polar Vortex)
from the interiors.
Precipitation

• The British type of climate has adequate rainfall throughout the year with a tendency towards a slight winter
maximum (due to frontal cyclones).
• Western margins have the heaviest rainfall due to westerlies.
• Relief can make great differences in the annual amount. This is particularly significant in New Zealand where
the western margins are subjected to heavy orographic rainfall whereas the eastern Canterbury plains receive
comparatively less rainfall due to rain-shadow effect.
 Tundra or Arctic or Polar Type Climate :

Distribution
• Found in regions north of the Arctic Circle and south of Antarctic Circle.
• The ice-caps are confined to highlands and high latitude regions of Greenland and Antarctica.
• In the southern hemisphere, Antarctica is the greatest single stretch of ice-cap (10,000 feet thick).
• The lowlands – coastal strip of Greenland, the barren grounds of northern Canada and Alaska and the
Arctic seaboard of Eurasia, have tundra climate.

Temperature
• The tundra climate is characterized by a very low mean annual temperature.
• In mid-winter temperatures are as low as 40 – 50 °C below freezing.
• Summers are relatively warmer.
• Normally not more than four months have temperatures above freezing-point.
• Within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, there are weeks of continuous darkness (Rotation and Revolution).
• The ground remains solidly frozen and is inaccessible to plants.
• Frost occurs at any time and blizzards, reaching a velocity of 130 miles an hour are not infrequent.
Precipitation

• Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow and sleet.

• Convectional rainfall is generally absent.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Oceanology
[Major and Minor Ocean Relief Features]
Contents :

• Major and Minor Ocean Relief Features

• Marginal Seas of the World
• Ocean Currents
• Vertical and Horizontal Temperature Distribution of the Oceans
• Ocean Salinity
• Tides
• Coral Reefs
Ocean Relief :

Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic, volcanic, erosional and depositional processes and their
interactions.

Ocean relief features are divided into major and minor relief features.

Major Ocean Relief Features :

Four major divisions in the ocean relief are:

• The Continental Shelf

• The Continental Slope
• The Continental Rise
• The Deep Sea Plain or the Abyssal Plain
Minor Ocean Relief Features :

• Ridges
• Hills
• Seamounts
• Guyots
• Trenches
• Canyons
• Sleeps
• Fracture zones
• Island arcs
• Atolls
• Coral reefs
• Submerged volcanoes
• Sea-scarps
Major Ocean Relief Features :

Continental Shelf :

• Continental Shelf is the gently sloping seaward extension of continental plate.

• These extended margins of each continent are occupied by relatively shallow seas and gulfs.
• Continental Shelf of all oceans together cover 7.5% of the total area of the oceans.
• Gradient of continental is of 1° or even less.
• The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
• The continental shelves are covered with variable thicknesses of sediments brought down by
rivers, glaciers etc.
• Massive sedimentary deposits received over a long time by the continental shelves, become the
source of fossil fuels [Petroleum].
• Examples: Continental Shelf of South-East Asia, Great Banks around Newfoundland, Submerged
region between Australia and New Guinea.
The shelf is formed mainly due to

-Submergence of a part of a continent

-Relative rise in sea level
-Sedimentary deposits brought down by rivers

There are various types of shelves based on different sediments of terrestrial origin —
-Glaciated shelf (Surrounding Greenland),
-Coral reef shelf (Queensland, Australia),
-Shelf of a large river (Around Nile Delta),
-Shelf with dendritic valleys (At the Mouth of Hudson River)
-Shelf along young mountain ranges (Shelves between Hawaiian Islands).
Width :

• The average width of continental shelves is between 70 – 80 km.

• The shelves are almost absent or very narrow along some of the margins like the coasts of Chile,
the west coast of Sumatra, etc. [Ocean – Continent Convergence and Ocean – Ocean
Convergence].
• It is up to 120 km wide along the eastern coast of USA. On the contrary, the Siberian shelf in the
Arctic Ocean, the largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km in width.

Depth :

The depth of the shelves also varies. It may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas while in some areas
it is as deep as 600 m.
Importance of continent shelves

• Marine food comes almost entirely from continental shelves;

• They provide the richest fishing grounds;
• They are potential sites for economic minerals [20% of the world production of petroleum and gas
comes from shelves. Polymetallic nodules (manganese nodules; concentric layers of iron and
manganese hydroxides) etc. are good sources of various mineral ores like manganese, iron
copper, gold etc.]
Continental Slope :

• The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins.
• It begins where the bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off into a steep slope.
• The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5°.
• The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m.
• The seaward edge of the continental slope loses gradient at this depth and gives rise to continental
rise.
• The continental slope boundary indicates the end of the continents.
• Canyons and trenches are observed in this region.
Continental Rise :

• The continental slope gradually loses its steepness with depth.

• When the slope reaches a level of between 0.5° and 1°, it is referred to as the continental rise.
• With increasing depth the rise becomes virtually flat and merges with the abyssal plain.
Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain :

• Deep sea planes are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins.
• These are the flattest and smoothest regions of the world because of terrigenous [denoting marine
sediment eroded from the land] and shallow water sediments that buries the irregular topography.
• It covers nearly 40% of the ocean floor.
• The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 m.
• These plains are covered with fine-grained sediments like clay and silt.
Minor Ocean Relief Features :

Oceanic Deeps or Trenches :

• The trenches are relatively steep sided, narrow basins (Depressions). These areas are the deepest
parts of the oceans.
• They are of tectonic origin and are formed during ocean – ocean convergence and ocean continent
convergence.
• They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
• The trenches lie along the fringes of the deep-sea plain at the bases of continental slopes and
along island arcs.
• The trenches run parallel to the bordering fold mountains or the island chains.
• The trenches are very common in the Pacific Ocean and form an almost continuous ring along the
western and eastern margins of the Pacific.
• The Mariana Trench off the Guam Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest trench with, a depth
of more than 11 kilometres.
• They are associated with active volcanoes and strong earthquakes (Deep Focus Earthquakes like
in Japan). This makes them very significant in the study of plate movements.
• As many as 57 deeps have been explored so far; of which 32 are in the Pacific Ocean; 19 in the
Atlantic Ocean and 6 in the Indian Ocean.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges :

• A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large depression.

[Divergent Boundary]
• The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above the ocean’s
surface.
• Running for a total length of 75,000 km, these ridges form the largest mountain systems on earth.
• These ridges are either broad, like a plateau, gently sloping or in the form of steep-sided narrow
mountains.
• These oceanic ridge systems are of tectonic origin and provide evidence in support of the theory of
Plate Tectonics.
• Iceland, a part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge, is an example.
Abyssal Hills :

• Seamount: It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor that does not reach the
surface of the ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin. These can be 3,000-4,500 m tall.
• The Emperor seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands [Hotspot] in the Pacific Ocean, is a
good example.
• Guyots: The flat topped mountains (seamounts) are known as guyots.
• Seamounts and guyots are very common in the Pacific Ocean where they are estimated to number
around 10,000.

Submarine Canyons :

CANYON: a deep gorge, especially one with a river flowing through it

GORGE: a steep, narrow valley or ravine
VALLEY: a low area between hills or mountains or a depression, typically with a river or stream
flowing through it.
Atoll :

• These are low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding a central
depression.
• It may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or sometimes form enclosing a body of fresh, brackish, or
highly saline water.

Reef :

• A reef is a predominantly organic deposit made by living or dead organisms that forms a mound or
rocky elevation like a ridge.
• Coral reefs are a characteristic feature of the Pacific Ocean where they are associated with
seamounts and guyots.
• The largest reef in the world is found off the Queensland coast of Australia. [We will study coral
reefs in future posts]
• Since the reefs may extend above the surface, they are generally dangerous for navigation.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Oceanology
[Marginal Seas of the World]
Contents :

• Major and Minor Ocean Relief Features

• Marginal Seas of the World
• Ocean Currents
• Vertical and Horizontal Temperature Distribution of the Oceans
• Ocean Salinity
• Tides
• Coral Reefs
Marginal Seas :

• In Oceanography, a marginal sea is a sea partially enclosed by islands, archipelagos, or

peninsulas.
• Some of the major marginal seas include the Arabian Sea, Baltic Sea, Bay of Bengal, Bering
Sea, Black Sea, Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and all four
of the Siberian Seas (Barents, Kara, Laptev, and East Siberian).
• The primary differences between marginal seas and open oceans are associated with depth and
proximity to landmasses.
• Marginal Seas, which are generally shallower than open oceans, are more influenced by
human activities, river runoff, climate, and water circulation.
Marginal Seas of the world :

Marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean :

• Barents Sea
• The Irish Sea

Marginal seas of the Atlantic Ocean :

• Argentine Sea
• Caribbean Sea
• English Channel
• Gulf of Mexico
• Hudson Bay
• Irish Sea
• Labrador Sea
• Mediterranean Sea
• North Sea
• Norwegian Sea
• Scotia Sea
Marginal seas of the Indian Ocean :
• Andaman Sea
• Arabian Sea
• Bay of Bengal
• Java Sea
• Persian Gulf
• Red Sea
• Sea of Zanj

Marginal seas of the Mediterranean Sea :

• Adriatic Sea
• Aegean Sea
Marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean :

• Bering Sea
• Celebes Sea
• Coral Sea
• East China Sea
• Philippine Sea
• Sea of Japan
• Sea of Okhotsk
• South China Sea (another important conflict zone)
• Tasman Sea (between Australia and New Zealand)
• Yellow Sea (by the Korean Peninsula)

Other Seas :

• The Caribbean Sea is sometimes defined as a marginal sea, sometimes as a Mediterranean Sea.
• The Caspian Sea is also sometimes defined as a marginal sea, and also the Dead Sea.
Bays, Gulfs, and Straits

Bays

• A Bay is a small body of water that is set off from a larger body of water generally where the land
curves inward.

• In simple words, bay is a water body surrounded on three sides by land with the fourth side
(mouth) wide open towards oceans. (In Gulfs, the mouth is narrow).

• A bay is usually smaller and less enclosed than a gulf.

• Example: The Bay of Pigs (Cuba), Hudson Bay (Canada), Bay of Bengal etc.

• An example of a bay at a river’s mouth is New York Bay, at the mouth of the Hudson River (Hudson
Estuary).
Gulfs

• A Gulf is a large body of water, sometimes with a narrow mouth, that is almost completely
surrounded by land. The world’s largest gulf is the Gulf of Mexico.

• Examples of other gulfs include the Gulf of California, Gulf of Aden (between the Red Sea and the
Arabian Sea), and the Persian Gulf (between Saudi Arabia and Iran).

• The Persian Gulf is important with respect to world energy because petroleum is transported
through its waters in oil tankers.
Straits

• A Strait is a narrow passageway of water, usually between continents or islands, or between two
larger bodies of water.

• The Strait of Gibraltar is probably the world’s most famous strait. It connects the Atlantic Ocean on
its west with the Mediterranean Sea on its east.

• Two other well-known straits are the Strait of Bosporus and the Strait of Hormuz.

• The Strait of Bosporus connects the Black Sea (from the north) and the Sea of Marmara (from the
south), and splits northwestern Turkey.

• The Strait of Hormuz is located at the southeastern end of the Persian Gulf. It is a narrow waterway
that can be (and has been) controlled to prevent ships from sailing through the gulf.
Choke Point

• When a body of water such as a strait is capable of being blocked or even closed in order to
control transportation routes, the body is called a “choke point.”
• Historically, the Strait of Gibraltar has been one of the world’s most important choke points.
• However, the Strait of Hormuz has become an important choke point in recent years because of
increasing Middle East tensions.
• The Strait is surrounded by the United Arab Emirates and Oman (on one side) and Iran (on the
other side).
Isthmus

• Isthmus is the land-equivalent of a strait. i.e., a narrow strip of land connecting two larger land
masses.
• Example: Isthmus of Panama and Isthmus of Suez.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Oceanology
[Ocean Currents]
Contents :

• Major and Minor Ocean Relief Features

• Marginal Seas of the World
• Ocean Currents
• Vertical and Horizontal Temperature Distribution of the Oceans
• Ocean Salinity
• Tides
• Coral Reefs
Ocean currents are the most important ocean movements because of their influence on climatology of
various regions.

Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular volume of water in a definite
path and direction.

Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely:

• Primary Forces that initiate the movement of water;

• Secondary Forces that influence the currents to flow.
The Primary Forces that influence the currents are:

• Heating [Solar Energy] : Heating by solar energy causes the water to expand. That is why, near
the equator the ocean water is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle latitudes.
• Wind : Friction between the wind and the water surface affects the movement of the water body in
its course.
• Gravity : Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and create gradient variation.
• Coriolis Force : Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

The Secondary Forces that influence the currents are:

• Temperature Difference : Cold-water ocean currents occur when the cold water at the poles sinks
and slowly moves towards the equator.
• Salinity Difference : Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity and in the same
way, cold water is denser than warm water.
Types of Ocean Currents :

Based on Depth :

The ocean currents may be classified based on their depth as surface currents and deep water currents:
• Surface Currents constitute about 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean, these waters are the upper 400
m of the ocean;
• Deep Water Currents make up the other 90 per cent of the ocean water. These waters move around the
ocean basins due to variations in the density and gravity.

Based on Temperature :

Ocean currents are classified based on temperature: as cold currents and warm currents:
• Cold currents bring cold water into warm water areas [from high latitudes to low latitudes]. These currents
are usually found on the west coast of the continents (currents flow in clockwise direction in northern
hemisphere and in anti-clockwise direction in southern hemisphere) in the low and middle latitudes
(true in both hemispheres) and on the east coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere;
• Warm currents bring warm water into cold water areas[low to high latitudes] and are usually observed on
the east coast of continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres). In the northern
hemisphere they are found on the west coasts of continents in high latitudes.

Note : The general movement of the currents in the northern hemisphere is clockwise and in the southern
hemisphere, anti-clockwise.
Effects of Ocean Currents
• Desert Formation : Canaries Current are responsible for formation of the Sahara Desert in Africa

• Rains

• Moderating Effect : North Atlantic Drift brings warmness to England. Canary cold current brings cooling effect
to Spain, Portugal etc.

• Fishing : Grand Banks around Newfoundland, Canada and North-Eastern Coast of Japan.

• Drizzle : Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents create foggy weather where precipitation occurs in the form
of drizzle [Newfoundland].

• Climate

• Tropical Cyclones

• Navigation : Currents are strongest near the surface and may attain speeds over five knots (1 knot = ~1.8
km). [At depths, currents are generally slow with speeds less than 0.5 knots].
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Oceanology
[Vertical and Horizontal Temperature Distribution of
the Oceans]
Contents :

• Major and Minor Ocean Relief Features

• Marginal Seas of the World
• Ocean Currents
• Vertical and Horizontal Temperature Distribution of the Oceans
• Ocean Salinity
• Tides
• Coral Reefs
Temperature Distribution of Oceans :

The study of the temperature of the oceans is important for determining the :

• Movement of large volumes of water (vertical and horizontal ocean currents),

• Type and distribution of marine organisms at various depths of oceans,
• Climate of coastal lands, etc.
Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution of Oceans :

• Insolation: The average daily duration of insolation and its intensity.

• Heat Loss: The loss of energy by reflection, scattering, evaporation and radiation.
• Albedo: The albedo of the sea (depending on the angle of sun rays).
• The Physical Characteristics of the Sea Surface: Boiling point of the sea water is increased in the case of
higher salinity and vice versa [Salinity increased == Boiling point increased == Evaporation decreased].
• The Presence of Submarine Ridges and Sills [Marginal Seas]
• The Shape of the Ocean: The latitudinally extensive seas in low latitude regions have warmer surface water
than longitudinally extensive sea [Mediterranean Sea records higher temperature than the longitudinally
extensive Gulf of California].
• The Enclosed Seas (Marginal Seas – Gulf, Bay etc.) in the low latitudes record relatively higher
temperature than the open seas; whereas the enclosed seas in the high latitudes have lower temperature
than the open seas.
• Local Weather Conditions such as Cyclones.
• Unequal Distribution of Land and Water: The oceans in the Northern Hemisphere receive more heat due to
their contact with larger extent of land than the oceans in the Southern Hemisphere.
• Prevalent Winds enerate horizontal and sometimes vertical ocean currents: The winds blowing from the
land towards the oceans (off-shore winds-moving away from the shore) drive warm surface water away from
the coast resulting in the upwelling of cold water from below (This happens near Peruvian Coast in normal
years. El-Nino).
• Contrary to this, the onshore winds (winds flowing from oceans into continents) pile up warm water near
the coast and this raises the temperature (This happens near the Peruvian coast during El Nino event)(In
normal years, North-Eastern Australia and Western Indonesian islands see this kind of warm ocean waters
due to Walker Cell or Walker Circulation).
• Ocean Currents: Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while the cold currents
decrease the temperature in warm ocean areas. Gulf stream (warm current) raises the temperature near
the eastern coast of North America and the West Coast of Europe while the Labrador current (cold current)
lowers the temperature near the north-east coast of North America (Near Newfoundland).

All these factors influence the temperature of the ocean currents locally.
Vertical Temperature Distribution of Oceans :

• Photic or Euphotic Zone extends from the upper surface to ~200 m. The photic zone receives adequate
solar insolation.
• Aphotic Zone extends from 200 m to the ocean bottom; this zone does not receive adequate sunrays.

Note : The boundary region, from where there is a rapid decrease of temperature, is called the thermocline.
Horizontal Temperature Distribution of Oceans :

• The average temperature of surface water of the oceans is about 27°C and it gradually decreases from the
equator towards the poles.
• The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing latitude is generally 0.5°C per latitude.
• The horizontal temperature distribution is shown by isothermal lines, i.e., lines joining places of equal
temperature.
• Isotherms are closely spaced when the temperature difference is high and vice versa.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Oceanology
[Ocean Salinity]
Contents :

• Major and Minor Ocean Relief Features

• Marginal Seas of the World
• Ocean Currents
• Vertical and Horizontal Temperature Distribution of the Oceans
• Ocean Salinity
• Tides
• Coral Reefs
Ocean Salinity :

• Salinity is the term used to define the total content of dissolved salts in sea water.
• It is calculated as the amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of seawater.
• It is usually expressed as parts per thousand or ppt.

Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity :

• The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depend mainly on evaporation and
precipitation.
• Surface Salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the fresh water flow from rivers,
and in polar regions by the processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
• Wind, also influences salinity of an area by transferring water to other areas.
• The Ocean Currents contribute to the salinity variations.
• Salinity, temperature and density of water are interrelated. Hence, any change in the
temperature or density influences the salinity of an area.
Horizontal Distribution of Salinity :

The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33 and 37.
Vertical Distribution of Salinity :

• Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes depends upon the location of the sea.
• Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of water to ice or evaporation, or decreased by the
input of fresh waters, such as from the rivers.
• Salinity at depth is very much fixed, because there is no way that water is ‘lost’, or the salt is
‘added.’ There is a marked difference in the salinity between the surface zones and the deep zones
of the oceans.
• The lower salinity water rests above the higher salinity dense water.
• Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called the halocline
(compare this with thermocline), where salinity increases sharply.
• Other factors being constant, increasing salinity of seawater causes its density to increase. High
salinity seawater, generally, sinks below the lower salinity water. This leads to stratification by
salinity.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
Oceanology
[Tides]
Contents :

• Major and Minor Ocean Relief Features

• Marginal Seas of the World
• Ocean Currents
• Vertical and Horizontal Temperature Distribution of the Oceans
• Ocean Salinity
• Tides
• Coral Reefs
Tides :

• The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of the
sun and the moon, is called a tide.
• Movement of water caused by meteorological effects (winds and atmospheric pressure changes)
are called surges (storm surge during cyclones).
• The study of tides is very complex, spatially and temporally, as it has great variations in frequency,
magnitude and height.
• The moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s gravitational pull, are
the major causes for the occurrence of tides.
• Another factor is centrifugal force which acts opposite to gravitational pull of earth.
• Tides occur due to a balance between all these forces.
Tidal Bulge :
Types of Tides :

Tides Based on Frequency :

• Semi-Diurnal Tide : It is the most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides
each day [Actually it varies between 3 tides to 4 tides –– 3 tides in rare cases but 4 is normal]. The
successive high or low tides are approximately of the same height.

• Diurnal Tide : There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day. The successive high
and low tides are approximately of the same height.

• Mixed Tide : Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides. These tides generally
occur along the west coast of North America and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean.
Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth Positions :

Spring Tides :
• The position of both the sun and the moon in relation to the earth has direct bearing on tide height.
• When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide will be higher.
• These are called spring tides and they occur twice a month, one on full moon period and another
during new moon period.

Neap Tides :
• Normally, there is a seven day interval between the spring tides and neap tides.
• At this time the sun and moon are at right angles to each other and the forces of the sun and moon
tend to counteract one another.
• The Moon’s attraction, though more than twice as strong as the sun’s, is diminished by the
counteracting force of the sun’s gravitational pull.
• Like spring tides, these tides also occur twice a month.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Oceanology
[Coral Reefs]
Contents :

• Major and Minor Ocean Relief Features

• Marginal Seas of the World
• Ocean Currents
• Vertical and Horizontal Temperature Distribution of the Oceans
• Ocean Salinity
• Tides
• Coral Reefs
Coral Reef :

• Coral reefs are built by and made up of thousands of tiny animals—coral “polyps”—that are related to
anemones and jellyfish.

• Polyps are shallow water organisms which have a soft body covered by a calcareous skeleton. The
polyps extract calcium salts from sea water to form these hard skeletons.

• The polyps live in colonies fastened to the rocky sea floor.

• The tubular skeletons grow upwards and outwards as a cemented calcareous rocky mass, collectively called
corals.

• When the coral polyps die, they shed their skeleton [coral] on which new polyps grow.

• The cycle is repeated for over millions of years leading to accumulation of layers of corals [shallow rock
created by these depositions is called Reef].

• These layers at different stages give rise to various marine landforms. One such important landform is called
Coral Reef.
 Coral Reef Relief Features :

Fringing reef, barrier reef and atoll (coral islands are formed on atolls) are the most important relief
features.

Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs) :

• Fringing reefs are reefs that grow directly from a shore. They are located very close to land, and often form a
shallow lagoon between the beach and the main body of the reef.
• A fringing reef runs as a narrow belt [1-2 km wide]. This type of reef grows from the deep sea bottom with the
seaward side sloping steeply into the deep sea. Coral polyps do not extend outwards because of sudden and
large increase in depth.
• The fringing reef is by far the most common of the three major types of coral reefs, with numerous examples
in all major regions of coral reef development.

Eg-New Hebrides Society islands off Australia and off the southern coast of Florida.
Barrier Reefs :

• Barrier reefs are extensive linear reef complexes that parallel a shore, and are separated from it by lagoon.

• This is the largest (in size, not distribution) of the three reefs, runs for hundreds of kilometres and is several
kilometres wide. It extends as a broken, irregular ring around the coast or an island, running almost parallel to
it.

• Barrier reefs are far less common than fringing reefs or atolls, although examples can be found in the tropical
Atlantic as well as the Pacific.

• The 1200-mile long Great Barrier Reef off the NE coast of Australia is the world’s largest example of this reef
type.

• The GBR is not actually a single reef as the name implies, but rather a very large complex consisting of many
reefs.
Atolls :

An atoll is a roughly circular (annular) oceanic reef system surrounding a large (and often deep) central
lagoon.

The lagoon has a depth 80-150 metres and may be joined with sea water through a number of channels cutting
across the reef.

Atolls are located at great distances from deep see platforms, where the submarine features may help in
formation of atolls, such as a submerged island or a volcanic cone which may reach a level suitable for coral
growth.The Indian Ocean also contains numerous atoll formations. Examples are found in the Maldives and
Chagos island groups, the Seychelles, and in the Cocos Island group.

An atoll may have any one of the following three forms-

• True Atoll—a circular reef enclosing a lagoon with no island;

• An Atoll surrounding a lagoon with an island;
• A Coral Island or an Atoll Island which is, in fact, an atoll reef, built by the process of erosion and deposition of
waves with island crowns formed on them.
Development Of Major Coral Reef Types :

Step 1: A fringing reef forms first, and starts growing in the shallow waters close to a tropical island.

Step 2: Over time, the island subsides and the reef grows outwards, and the distance between the
land and the reef increases. The fringing reef develops into a barrier reef.

Step 3: If the island completely subsides, all that is left is the reef. The reef retains the approximate
shape of the island it grew around, forming a ring enclosing a lagoon.
Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth :

• Stable Climatic Conditions: Corals are highly susceptible to quick changes. They grow in regions
where climate is significantly stable for a long period of time.

• Perpetually Warm Waters: Corals thrive in tropical waters [30°N and 30°S latitudes, the
temperature of water is around 20°C] where diurnal and annual temperature ranges are very
narrow.
• [Explain why coral reefs are absent on west coast of tropical continents? Because of Cold Ocean
Currents – corals like warm waters and hate cold waters]

• Shallow Waters: Coral require fairly good amount of sunlight to survive. The ideal depths for coral
growth are 45 m to 55 m below sea surface, where there is abundant sunlight available.

• Clear Salt Waters: Clear salt water is suitable for coral growth, while both fresh water and highly
saline water are harmful.
• Abundant Plankton: Adequate supply of oxygen and microscopic marine food, called plankton
[phytoplankton], is essential for growth. As the plankton is more abundant on the seaward side,
corals grow rapidly on the seaward side.

• Little or No Pollution: Corals are highly fragile and are vulnerable to climate change and pollution
and even a minute increase in marine pollution can be catastrophic.
Corals and Zooxanthellae :

Many invertebrates, vertebrates, and plants live in close association with corals, with tight resource
coupling and recycling, allowing coral reefs to have extremely high productivity and biodiversity, such
that they are referred to as ‘the Tropical Rainforests of the Oceans’.

• Scleractinian Corals build skeletons of calcium carbonate sequestered from the water.
• Scleractinian Corals come under Phylum Cnidaria, and they receive their nutrient and energy
resources in two ways.

Having a symbiotic relationship with a single cell algae known as ZOOXANTHELLAE.

Zooxanthellae are autorophic [prepare their own food] microalgaes belonging to various taxa in
the Phylum Dinoflagellata.

Coral == Phylum Cnidaria.

Zooxanthellae == Phylum Dinoflagellata.
Symbiotic Relationship Between Corals And Zooxanthellae :

Zooxanthellae live symbiotically within the coral polyp tissues and assist the coral in nutrient
production through its photosynthetic activities.

These activities provide the coral with fixed carbon compounds for energy, enhance calcification,
and mediate elemental nutrient flux.

The host coral polyp in return provides its zooxanthellae with a protected environment to live
within, and a steady supply of carbon dioxide for its photosynthetic processes.

The symbiotic relationship allows the slow growing corals to compete with the faster growing
multicellular algaes. The corals can feed by day through photosynthesis and by night through
predation.

The tissues of corals themselves are actually not the beautiful colors of the coral reef, but are
instead clear. The corals receive their coloration from the ZOOXANTHELLAE living within their
tissues.
Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching :
Ecological Causes of Coral Bleaching :

• Temperature : Anomalously low and high sea temperatures can induce coral bleaching.

• Acidification : Acidification has reduced corals calcifying ability.

• Sub Aerial Exposure : Exposure to high or low temperatures, increased solar radiation, desiccation, and sea
water dilution by heavy rains could all play a role in zooxanthellae loss, but could also very well lead to coral
death.

• Fresh Water Dilution : Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm-generated precipitation and runoff has been
demonstrated to cause coral reef bleaching.

• Xenobiotics : When corals are exposed to high concentrations of chemical contaminants like copper,
herbicides and oil, coral bleaching happens.

• Epizootics : Pathogen induced bleaching

The Third Global Coral Bleaching :

• The third global coral bleaching is in progress (2015-16) — after events in 1998 and 2010.
• The present one is the longest and most severe so far.
• The longest and most severe El Niño ever is the main cause.

Consequences of Global Coral Bleaching :

• Coral reef ecosystems are less than 0.1% of the ocean area but provide food and shelter to 25% of
all marine species.
• They support fish stocks on which some 500 million people are dependent globally.
• Mass Bleaching can turn a coral dominated reef to an algae dominated one in the space of a few
months — a process that can take decades or longer to reverse.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Indian Geography
[Salient Features of Indian and World Geography]
Contents :

• Geographical Extent and Frontiers

• Indian Rock System
• The Himalayan Ranges and the Himalayas
• Major Passes
• Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra Plains
• Peninsular Plateaus
• Indian Coastlines
• Indian Islands
• Indian Drainage
• Indian Monsoons
• Western Disturbances
• Indian Climate
• Indian Vegetation
• Indian Soil
Geographical Extent and Frontiers
Locational Extent:

8° 4′ N to 37° 6′ N Latitude and 68° 7′ E to 97° 25′ E Longitude.

Points to Remember :
• The Southernmost point of the country is the Pygmalion Point or Indira Point is located at 6°
45′ N latitude.
• North-South Extent from Indira Col in Kashmir to Kanniyakumari is 3,214 km.
• East-West Width from the Rann of Kachachh to [Kibithu] Arunachal Pradesh is 2,933 km.
• With an Area of 32,87,263 sq km, India is the seventh largest country of the world.
• India accounts for about 2.4 per cent of the total surface area of the world.
• The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country dividing it into two latitudinal
halves.
• The area to the North of Tropic of Cancer is nearly twice the area which lies to the South of it.
• South of 22° North Latitude, the country tapers off over 800 km into the Indian Ocean as a
Peninsula.
India’s Frontiers :

• Data from Ministry Of Home Affairs (Department Of Border Management)

• India has 15106.7 Km of land border running through 92 districts in 17 States and a coastline
of 7516.6 Km [6100 km of mainland coastline + coastline of 1197 Indian islands] touching 13
States and Union Territories (UTs).

• Barring Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Delhi, Haryana and Telangana, all other
States in the country have one or more international borders or a coastline and can be regarded as
frontline States from the point of view of border management.

• India’s longest border is with Bangladesh while the shortest border is with Afghanistan.
Border with China :

Five Indian States, namely Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh touch the Indian boundary with China.

The Sino-Indian border is generally divided into three sectors namely : (i) The Western Sector, (ii) The
Middle Sector, and (iii) The Eastern Sector.

• The Western Sector : Separates Jammu and Kashmir State of India from the Sinkiang (Xinjiang)
province of China.

The territorial dispute in the western sector is over Aksai Chin. India claims it as part of
erstwhile Kashmir, while China claims it is part of Xinjiang.

The dispute is said to be due to the failure of the British empire as it failed to demarcate a legal
border between both countries. During the British rule in India two borderlines were proposed –
Johnson’s line and McDonald line in 1865 and 1893 respectively.
 The Johnson’s line shows Aksai Chin in Ladakh i.e. under India’s control whereas McDonald
Line places it under China’s control. India considers Johnson Line as a rightful national border
with China, while on the other hand, China considers the McDonald Line as the correct border with
India.

• The Middle Sector : Two Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand touch this border.

• The Eastern Sector : The 1,140 km long boundary [Mc Mahon Line] between India and China runs
from the eastern limit of Bhutan to a point near Diphu pass (Talu Pass) at the trijunction of India,
Tibet and Myanmar.

Note : Mc Mahon Line after Sir Henry Mc Mahon, then foreign secretary of British India, who
negotiated the boundary agreement between Great Britain and Tibet at Shimla accord in 1913-14.
What is the McMahon Line?

The McMahon Line serves as the de facto boundary between China and India in the Eastern
Sector.

It specifically represents the boundary between Arunachal Pradesh and Tibet, from Bhutan in the
west to Myanmar in the East.

China has historically disputed the boundary and claims the state of Arunachal Pradesh as part of the
Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR).

The McMahon Line was drawn during the Simla Convention of 1914, officially described as the
Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet.

China was represented at the convention by the Government of the Republic of China, which was
in power in the mainland from 1912 to 1949, when its leaders were driven to the island of Taiwan
during the civil war that established the communists in Beijing and led to the proclamation of the
People’s Republic.
The McMahon Line delimited the respective spheres of influence of Tibet and British India in the
Eastern Himalayan region in what is today India’s Northeast and Northern Myanmar.

The border in this region was undefined prior to the signing of the convention.

Simla Convention-1913-14 :

The convention attempted to settle the question of Tibet’s sovereignty and avoid further territorial
disputes in the region.

The Tibetan Government in Lhasa was represented by its plenipotentiary Paljor Dorje Shatra, and
Britain by Sir Arthur Henry McMahon, foreign secretary of British India at Delhi. The Chinese
plenipotentiary was Ivan Chen.

The treaty divided the Buddhist region into “Outer Tibet” and “Inner Tibet” – the former would
“remain in the hands of the Tibetan Government at Lhasa under Chinese suzerainty”, though China
was not allowed to interfere in its affairs. The latter would be under the direct jurisdiction of the newly
formed Republic of China.
In its annexes, it also determined the border between China proper and Tibet as well as Tibet and
British India.

The latter of these newly decided boundaries would later be called the McMahon Line after McMahon,
the chief British negotiator.

While a draft convention was agreed upon by all three countries on April 27, 1914, China
immediately repudiated it.

The final convention was only signed by McMahon on behalf of the British government and Shatra on
behalf of Lhasa.

Ivan Chen did not consent to the convention, arguing that Tibet had no independent authority to enter
into international agreements.
What has the status of the McMahon line been since 1914?

While there were disputes regarding the McMahon line from the very beginning, after the
communists took power in 1949, they pulled China out of all international agreements and the
so-called “unequal treaties” that had been imposed on it during its “century of humiliation”, and
demanded a renegotiation of all its borders.

During the 1962 Sino-Indian War, China was able to quickly overpower India and make deep inroads
into Indian territory across the McMahon Line.

However, its forces retreated to pre-war positions after the unilateral ceasefire was announced on
November 21.
India-China Border Issue:

-India-China-relations dates back to more than 2,000 years ago. There have been cultural and
economic ties between the two countries since ancient times.

-Relations between contemporary China and India have been characterized by border disputes,
resulting in military conflicts like — the Sino-Indian War of 1962, the Chola incident in 1967, the
1987 Sino-Indian and the 2020 India-China Skirmish [Galwan Valley Clash : 15-16 June,2020].

-Relations between India and China have come under “severe stress” time and again in the last
decade due to multiple border stand-offs along the Line of Actual Control.
Border with Nepal :

-Five states of India, namely Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim touch
the Nepalese border with India. The border is a porous one with unrestricted movement of goods and
people between Indian and Nepal.

-Major portion of Indo-Nepalese border runs in the East-West direction almost along the foothill of the
Shiwalik Range.

Border with Bhutan :

-Quite peaceful border and there is no boundary dispute between the two countries.

Border with Pakistan :

-The Indo-Pakistan boundary is the result of partition of the country in 1947 under the Radcliffe
Award of which Sir Cyril Radcliffe was the Chairman.
-Jammu and Kashmir, Sir Creek are the major disputed regions.
Border with Bangladesh :

• India’s 4,096 km long border with Bangladesh is the longest.

• This boundary has been determined under the Radcliffe Award which divided the erstwhile
province of Bengal into two parts.

Border with Myanmar :

• This boundary runs roughly along the watershed between the Brahmaputra and Ayeyarwady
[Irrawaddy].
• It passes through thickly forested regions, with Mizo Hills, Manipur and Nagaland on the Indian
side and Chin Hills, Naga Hills and Kachin state on the Myanmar side.

Border with Sri Lanka :

• India and Sri Lanka are separated from each other by a narrow and shallow sea called Palk Strait.
• Dhanushkodi on the Tamil Nadu coast in India is only 32 km away from Talaimanar in Jaffna
peninsula in Sri Lanka. These two points are joined by a group of islets forming Adam’s Bridge.
Indian Rock System :
• The Archaean Rock System :
-Archaean Gneisses and Schists
-Dharwar System

• The Purana Rock System :

-Cuddapah System
-Vindhya System

• The Dravidian Rock System :

-Carboniferous Rocks

• The Aryan Rock System :

-Gondwana System [Indian Coal-Deccan]
-Tertiary System [Formation of Himalayas]
The Archaean Rock System :

-Archaean Gneisses and Schists [4 Billion Years] :

Gneiss == Mineral composition varies from granite to gabbro.

Schists == Mostly crystalline, include mica, talc, hornblende, chlorite, etc.

These rocks are:

• Oldest Rocks [Pre-Cambrian era] [Formed about 4 billion years ago].

• Rocks formed due to solidification of molten magma – the earth’s surface was very hot then.
• Known as the ‘Basement Complex’ [They are the oldest and forms the base for new layers]
• Azoic or Unfossiliferous
• Foliated (consisting of thin sheets),
• Thoroughly Crystalline (because they are volcanic in origin),
• Plutonic Intrusions (volcanic rocks found deep inside).
 -Dharwar System [4 – 1 Billion Years] :

• Formation period ranges from 4 billion years ago to – 1 billion years ago.
• Highly metamorphosed sedimentary rock-system. [Formed due to metamorphosis of
sediments of Archaean gneisses and schists].
• They are the oldest metamorphosed rocks.
• Found in abundance in the Dharwar district of Karnataka.
• Economically the most important rocks because they possess valuable minerals like high
grade iron-ore, manganese, copper, lead, gold, etc.
The Purana Rock System :

Includes two divisions:

• The Cuddapah System

• The Vindhyan System

-The Cuddapah System :

• Unfossiliferous clay, slates, sandstones and limestones was deposited in synclinal basins
[Depression between two folds {Fold mountain}].
• Outcrops best observed in Cuddapah District of Andhra Pradesh.
• These rocks contain ores of iron, manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, etc.
• They contain large deposits of cement grade limestones.
 - The Vindhyan System (1300-600 million years) :

• This system derives its name from the Great Vindhyan Mountains.
• The system comprises of Ancient Sedimentary Rocks (4000 m thick) superimposed on the
Archaean base.
• Mostly Unfossiliferous.
• Large area of this belt is covered by the Deccan Trap.
• The Vindhayan System have diamond bearing regions from which Panna and Golconda
diamonds have been mined.
• It is devoid of metalliferous minerals but provides large quantities of durable stones,
ornamental stones, limestone, pure glass making sand etc.
The Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic) :

• Formed about 600 – 300 Million Years Ago.

• Found in the Extra Peninsular Region (Himalayas and Ganga plain) and are very rare in
Peninsular India. [The name ‘Dravidian’ doesn’t mean they are found in South India]
• Abundant Fossils.
• The Rocks of Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous periods are fall under
Dravidian system. (All these are not important, only Carboniferous is important)

Carboniferous Rocks (350 Million Years) :

• The Carboniferous rocks (350 Million Years) comprise mainly of limestone, shale and quartzite.
• Mount Everest is composed of Upper Carboniferous Limestones.
• Coal Formation started in the Carboniferous Age.
• Carboniferous in Geology means Coal Bearing. [Most of the coal found in India is not of
Carboniferous Period; High Quality Coal of Great Lakes Region-USA, U.K and Ruhr Region,
Germany is Carboniferous Coal].
The Aryan Rock System :

-Upper Carboniferous to the Recent.

Gondwana System :

• The Gondwana System [derives its name Gonds, the most primitive people of Telangana and
Andhra Pradesh]
• They are deposits laid down in synclinal troughs on ancient plateau surface.
• As the sediments accumulated, the loaded troughs subsided.
• Fresh water and sediments accumulated in these trough and terrestrial plants and animals thrived.
• This happened since Permian period (250 million years ago).

Note : Gondwana rocks contain nearly 98 per cent of India’s coal reserves. Gondwana Coal is much
younger than the Carboniferous coal and hence it’s carbon content is low.
Deccan Trap :

• Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the Peninsular India from the end of the Cretaceous till the
beginning of the Eocene gave rise to Deccan Traps.

• Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq km.

• These volcanic deposits have flat top and steep sides and therefore called ‘trap’ meaning a ‘stair’
or ‘step’ in Swedish.

• The process of weathering and erosion (denudation) since millions of years has reduced the
Deccan Trap to almost half of its original size.

• Present Deccan Trap covers about 5 lakh sq km mainly in parts of Kuchchh, Saurashtra,
Maharashtra, the Malwa plateau and northern Karnataka.
• Thickness of the Deccan Traps is 3,000 metres along the west which is reduced to 600-800 metres
towards the south, 800 metres in Kuchchh and only 150 metres at the eastern limit.
• The weathering of these rocks for a long time has given birth to black cotton soil known as ‘Regur’.
Tertiary System :

• Eocene to Pliocene about 60 to 7 million years ago.

• The tertiary is the most significant period in India’s geological history because the Himalayas were
born and India’s present form came into being in this period.
Major Physical Divisions of India
• The Himalayas (Young Fold Mountains)

• The Indo-Gangetic Plain (Monotonous topography – featureless topography)

• The Peninsular Plateau (one of the most stable landmasses; one of the oldest plateaus of the
world)

• The Coastal Plains (Sediments due to fluvial action)

• The Indian Islands :

Coral Islands == Coral Reef built up on Atolls – Lakshadweep

Tectonic Islands == Andaman and Nicobar Islands – Interaction between Indian Plate and
Eurasian plate
• The Himalayas :

Includes the Himalayas, Purvanchal and their extensions Arakan Yoma (Myanmar) and Andaman
and Nicobar Islands (but we will consider these as islands only).
It is the youngest and highly unstable landmass of India. [Continent – Continent Convergence]
Tectonic movements are very common.

• The Indo-Gangetic Plain :

Between Peninsular and Himalayan region.

Most youthful, monotonous [lack of change or variety] region prone to tectonic forces.

• The Peninsular Plateau :

Includes the entire South India, Central India, Aravalis, Rajmahal hills, Meghalaya plateau,
Kuchchh-Kathiawar region (Gujarat) etc..
It is the oldest and the most stable landmass of India.
• The Coastal Plains :

The Eastern Coastal Plains and the Western Coastal Plains.

Formed due to consolidation of sediments brought by rivers (Fluvial Deposits).
Highly stable just like peninsular plateau.

• The Indian Islands :

Two major groups – The Lakshadweep and, The Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Lakshadweep [Hotspot] are group of atolls occupied by coral reefs.
No significant volcanism or tectonic activity in recent past.
Highly vulnerable to sea-level rise.
Andaman and Nicobar islands – Continuation of Arakan Yoma. Has active volcanoes and is
tectonically active.
The Himalayas
Division of the Himalayas :

• The Shiwaliks or Outer Himalayas

• The Lesser or Middle Himalayas
• The Greater Himalayas
• The Trans-Himalayas – Tibetan Himalayas.
• The Eastern Hills – Purvanchal: A chain of hills in North-East
India.
The Shiwaliks or Outer Himalayas :

• Located in between the Great Plains and Lesser Himalayas.

• The altitude varies from 600 to 1500 metres.
• Runs for a distance of 2,400 km from the Potwar Plateau to the Brahmaputra valley.
• The southern slopes are steep while the northern slopes are gentle.
• The width of the Shiwaliks varies from 50 km in Himachal Pradesh to less than 15 km in
Arunachal Pradesh.

The Shiwaliks are known by different names in different areas :

Jammu Region Hills : Jammu

Dafla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi Hills : Arunachal Pradesh
The Dhang Range, Dundwa Range : Uttarakhand
Churia Ghat Hills : Nepal
Formation of Duns (Duars) :
• Shiwalik Hills were formed by the accumulation of conglomerates (sand, stone, silt, gravel, debris
etc.).

• These conglomerates, in the initial stages of deposition, obstructed the courses of the rivers
draining from the higher reaches of the Himalayas and formed temporary lakes.

• With passage of time, these temporary lakes accumulated more and more conglomerates. The
conglomerates were well settled at the bottom of the lakes.

• When the rivers were able to cut their courses through the lakes filled with conglomerate
deposits, the lakes were drained away leaving behind plains called ‘duns’ or ‘doons’ in the West
and ‘Duars’ in the East.

• Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand is the eest example [75 km long and 15-20 km wide]
• Kotah, Patli Kothri, Chumbi, Kyarda, Chaukhamba, Udhampur and Kotli are other important duns.
The Middle or the Lesser Himalaya :

• In between the Shiwaliks in the South and the Greater Himalayas in the North.
• Runs almost parallel to both the ranges.
• It is also called the Himachal or Lower Himalaya.
• Lower Himalayan ranges are 60-80 km wide and about 2400 km in length.
• Elevations vary from 3,500 to 4,500 m above sea level.
• In Uttarakhand, the Middle Himalayas are marked by the Mussoorie and the Nag Tibba
Ranges.
• The Mahabharat Lekh, in southern Nepal is a continuation of the Mussoorie Range
• To East of the Kosi River, the Sapt Kosi, Sikkim, Bhutan, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills represent the
lower Himalayas.
• The Middle Himalayan Ranges are more friendly to human contact.

Note : Majority of the Himalayan hill resorts like Shimla, Mussoorie, Ranikhet, Nainital, Almora
and Darjeeling, etc. are located here.
Important ranges of Lesser Himalayas :

The Pir Panjal Range : Jammu and Kashmir (They are to the south of Kashmir Valley)

The Dhaola Dhar Range : Himachal Pradesh

The Mussoorie Range and The Nag Tiba Range : Uttarakhand

Mahabharat Lekh : Nepal

The Great Himalaya :

• Also known as Inner Himalaya, Central Himalaya or Himadri.

• Average elevation of 6,100 m above sea level and an average width of about 25 km.
• It is mainly formed of the central crystallines (granites and gneisses) overlain by
metamorphosed sediments [limestone]. {Rock System}
• Terminates abruptly at the syntaxial bends. One in the Nanga Parbat in north-west and the other
in the Namcha Barwa in the north-east.
• This mountain range boasts of the tallest peaks of the world, most of which remain under
perpetual snow.
The Trans Himalayas :

• The Himalayan ranges immediately north of the Great Himalayan range.

• Also called the Tibetan Himalaya because most of it lies in Tibet.
• The Zaskar, the Ladakh, the Kailash and the Karakoram are the main ranges.
• It stretches for a distance of about 1,000 km in east-west direction.
• Average elevation is 3000 m above mean sea level.
• The average width of this region is 40 km at the extremities and about 225 km in the central part.
• The Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is an important range which is in The Zaskar Range.
• North of the Zaskar Range and running parallel to it is the Ladakh Range. Only a few peaks of this
range attain heights of over 6000 metres.
• The Kailas Range (Gangdise in Chinese) in western Tibet is an offshoot of the Ladakh Range.
The highest peak is Mount Kailash (6714 m). River Indus originates from the northern slopes of
the Kailas range.
• The Northern most range of the Trans-Himalayan Ranges in India is the Great Karakoram
Range also known as the Krishnagiri range.
• Karakoram Range extends eastwards from the Pamir for about 800 km. It is a range with lofty
peaks [elevation 5,500 m and above]. It is the abode of some of the greatest glaciers of the world
outside the polar regions.
• Some of the peaks are more than 8,000 metre above sea level.
• K2 (8,611 m)[Godwin Austen or Qogir] is the second highest peak in the world and the highest
peak in the Indian Union.
• The Ladakh Plateau lies to the North-East of the Karakoram Range. It has been dissected into a
number of plains and mountains [Soda Plains, Aksai Chin, Lingzi Tang, Depsang Plains and
Chang Chenmo]
The Purvanchal or Eastern Hills :

• The Eastern Hills or The Purvanchal are the southward extension of Himalayas running along the
North-Eastern edge of India.
• At the Dihang Gorge, the Himalayas take a sudden southward bend and form a series of
comparatively low hills which are collectively called as the Purvanchal.
• Purvanchal hills are convex to the west.
• They run along the India-Myanmar Border extending from Arunachal Pradesh in the north to
Mizoram in the south.
• Patkai Bum Hills are made up of strong sandstone; elevation varying from 2,000 m to 3,000
m; merges into Naga Hills where Saramati (3,826 m) is the highest peak.

• Patkai Bum and Naga Hills form the watershed between India and Myanmar.

• South of Naga Hills are the Manipur Hills which are generally less than 2,500 metres in
elevation.

• The Barail Range separates Naga Hills from Manipur Hills.

• Further south the Barail Range swings to west into Jaintia, Khasi and Garo Hills which are an
eastward continuation of the Indian peninsular block. They are separated from the main block by
Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers.

• South of the Manipur Hills are the Mizo Hills (previously known as the Lushai hills) which
have an elevation of less than 1,500 metres. The highest point is the Blue Mountain (2,157 m)
in the south.
Major Passes of the Himalayas :

Passes of the Western Himalayas : J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand

Jammu and Kashmir :

• Mintaka Pass : Kashmir and China-Trijunction of India-China and Afghanistan border

• Parpik Pass : Kashmir and China
• Khunjerab Pass : Kashmir and China
• Aghil Pass : Ladakh region of India with the Xinjiang (Sinkiang) Province of China
• Banihal Pass : Jammu and Srinagar-The road from Jammu to Srinagar transversed Banihal Pass
until 1956 when Jawahar Tunnel was constructed under the pass.
• Chang-La : Ladakh with Tibet
• Khardung La : Near Leh in the Ladakh Range-The world’s highest motorable road passes
through this pass
• Lanak La : India and China (Akasai-Chin area of Jammu and Kashmir)
• Burzil Pass : Kashmir Valley with the Deosai plains of Ladakh
• Pir-Panjal pass : Across the Pir Panjal range
• Qara Tag La : Indo-China borer across the Karakoram Range
• Imis La : Ladakh region of India and Tibet in China
• Pensi La : Vital link between the Kashmir Valley and Kargil
• Zoji La : Important road link between Srinagar on one side and Kargil and Leh on the other side

Himachal Pradesh :

• Bara Lacha La : Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir

• Debsa Pass : Link between Kullu and Spiti districts
• Rohtang Pass : Road link between Kullu, Lahul and Spiti Valleys
• Shipki La : Himachal Pradesh and Tibet

Uttarakhand :

• Lipu Lekh : Trijunction of Uttarakhand (India), Tibet (China) and Nepal borders-This pass is used
by pilgrims to Kailash-Mansarowar.
• Mana Pass : Uttarakhand with Tibet
• Mangsha Dhura : Uttarakhand with Tibet
• Niti Pass : Uttarakhand with Tibet
• Muling La : Uttarakhand with Tibet

Passes of the Eastern Himalayas : Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh

Sikkim :

• Nathu La : Sikkim with Tibet

• Jelep La : Sikkim-Bhutan Border

Arunachal Pradesh :

• Bom Di La : Arunachal Pradesh with Bhutan

• Dihang Pass : Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar.
• Yonggyap Pass : Arunachal Pradesh with Tibet
• Dipher Pass : Trijunction of India, China and Myanmar
• Kumjawng Pass : Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar
• Hpungan Pass : Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar
• Chankan Pass : Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar
The Indo-Gangetic Plain
Formation of Indo – Gangetic – Brahmaputra Trough :

• The rivers which were previously flowing into Tethys Sea (Before Indian Plate collided with
Eurasian Plate) deposited huge amount of sediments in the Tethys Geosyncline. [Geosyncline –
a huge depression]

• Himalayas are formed out of these sediments which were uplifted, folded and compressed due to
Northern movement of Indian Plate.

• Northern movement of Indian Plate also created a trough to the south of Himalayas.

• During the recent times (since few million years), depositional work of three major river systems
viz., the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra have become predominant.

• Hence this arcuate (curved) plain is also known as Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain.

Geomorphological Features of Indo – Gangetic – Brahmaputra Plain

-Northern Most Strip : Bhabar Zone : Densely Forested, Pebbles, Sand-Water Percolates [Water
Disappears] : Rivers descending from the Himalayas deposit their load along the foothills in the form
of alluvial fans. These alluvial fans have merged together to build up the bhabar belt.

-South of Northern Bhabar Zone : Terai Zone : Water Re-Appears, 10 kms wide, swampy tall
trees, grasses. Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly forested narrow tract to the south of
Bhabar running parallel to it. [Jim Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand and Kaziranga National Park
in Assam lie in Terai region]

-South of Terai Zone : Built-Up Zone : Dense Population, High and Compact Ground, Rich
Agricultural Fields

-The Bhangar : The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river beds forming terraces higher than
the flood plain. The terraces are often impregnated with calcareous concretions known as
‘KANKAR’. ‘The Barind Plains’ in the deltaic region of Bengal and the ‘Bhur formations’ in the
middle Ganga and Yamuna doab are regional variations of Bhangar.
-The Khadar : The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river
banks. A new layer of alluvium is deposited by river flood almost every year. This makes them the
most fertile soils of Ganges.

-Reh or Kollar : Reh or Kollar comprises saline efflorescences of drier areas in Haryana. Reh areas
have spread in recent times with increase in irrigation (capillary action brings salts to the surface).
Regional Divisions of the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plains [Great Plains] :

• Sindh Plain
• Rajasthan Plain.
• Punjab Plain.
• Ganga Plain.
• Brahmaputra Plain.
• Ganga – Brahmaputra Delta
The Peninsular Plateau
• Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau : Eastern Rajasthan
• Central Highland [Madhya Bharat Pathar or Madhya Bharat Plateau.]
• Bundelkhand Upland : Uttar Pradesh and four districts of Madhya Pradesh
• Malwa Plateau : Based on the Vindhyan Hills, bounded by the Aravali Range in the West and
Madhya Bharat Pathar to the North and Bundelkhand to the East.
• Baghelkhand : North of the Maikal Range is the Baghelkhand. It is bounded by the Son river on
the North.
• Chotanagpur Plateau : Chotanagpur plateau represents the North-Eastern projection of the
Indian Peninsula. It lies mostly in Jharkhand, Northern part of Chhatisgarh and Purulia district of
West Bengal.
• Meghalaya Plateau : The peninsular plateau extends further east beyond the Rajmahal hills to
from Meghalaya or the Shillong plateau. Garo-Rajmahal Gap separates this plateau from the
main block. The western, central and the eastern parts of the plateau are known as the Garo Hills
(900 m), the Khasi-Jaintia Hills (1,500 m) and the Mikir Hills (700 m). Shillong (1,961 m) is the
highest point of the plateau.
• Deccan Plateau : It is bounded by the Satpura and the Vindhya in the North-West, the Mahadev
and the Maikal in the North, the Western Ghats in the West and the Eastern Ghats in the East.
Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau :

Most of the hills in the peninsular region are of the relict type (residual hills).

They are the remnants of the hills and horsts formed many million years ago (horst: uplifted block;
graben: subsided block).

The plateaus of the Peninsular region are separated from one another by these hill ranges and
various river valleys.

Significance of the Peninsular Plateau :

• Huge deposits of iron, manganese, copper, bauxite, chromium, mica, gold, etc.
• 98 per cent of the Gondwana coal deposits of India are found in the Peninsular Plateau.
• Some hilly regions in south India are suitable for the cultivation of plantation crops like tea,
coffee, rubber, etc..
• The plateau is also known for its hill resorts such as Udagamangalam (Ooty), Panchmarhi,
Kodaikanal, Mahabaleshwar, Khandala, Matheron, Mount Abu, etc.
The Coastal Plains
Coastline of India (Indian Coastline) :

• East Coast of India : Lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It extends from the
Ganga delta to Kanniyakumari.

Regional Names of The East Coast of India :

• In Orissa (Odisha) it is known as Utkal Coast.

• From the southern limit of the Utkal plain, stretch the Andhra Coast.
• In the south of the Andhra plain is the Tamil Nadu Coast.
• The Tamil Nadu coast and parts of Andhra coast together are known as Coramandal Coast
or Payan Ghat
• West Coast of India : The west coast strip extends from the Gulf of Cambay (Gulf of Khambhat)
in the north to Cape Comorin (Kanniyakumari).

Starting from North to South, it is divided into :

(i) The Konkan Coast : Maharashtra coast and Goa coast

(ii) The Karnataka Coast

(iii) The Kerala Coast : Kerala and Karnataka coast

Note : Coastlines of Emergence and Submergence

The East Coast of India, especially its south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast), appears to be a coast
of emergence.
The West Coast of India, on the other hand, is both emergent and submergent.
The Islands
The major islands groups of India are Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and
Lakshadweep Islands in Arabian Sea.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands : Renamed- Sri Vijayapuram

• Composed of 265 big and small islands [203 Andaman islands + 62 Nicobar Islands]

Andaman Islands :

• The Andaman Islands are divided into three main islands i.e. North, Middle and South.

• Port Blair, the capital of Andaman-Nicobar Islands lies in the South Andaman.

• Saddle Peak (737 m) in North Andaman is the highest peak.

Note : The Ross Island was renamed as Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Dweep, the Neil Island
as Shaheed Dweep and the Havelock Island as Swaraj Dweep
Passages and Channels:

-Duncan Passage : Separates Little Andaman from South Andaman.

-Ten Degree Channel : Separates The Great Andaman group of Islands in the North from the
Nicobar group in the south.

Nicobar Islands :

The Great Nicobar-Largest and the Southernmost Island and is very close to Sumatra island of
Indonesia.

The Car Nicobar- Northernmost.

THE BARREN AND NARCONDAM ISLANDS : North of Port Blair-Volcanic Islands [These are the
only active volcanoes in India][There are no active volcanoes in main land India].
The Lakshadweep Islands :

In the Arabian Sea, there are three types of islands :

• Amindivi Islands (consisting of six main islands of Amini, Keltan, Chetlat, Kadmat, Bitra and
Perumul Par). [Northern Most]

• Laccadive Islands (consisting of five major islands of Androth, Kalpeni, Kavaratti, Pitti and
Suheli Par)

• Minicoy Island. [Southern Most]

Note : At present these islands are collectively known as Lakshadweep.

Indian Drainage
Drainage Systems Based on Origin :

• The Himalayan Rivers: Perennial rivers: Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and their
tributaries.
• The Peninsular Rivers: Non-Perennial rivers: Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the
Cauvery, the Narmada and the Tapi and their tributaries.

Drainage Systems Based on the Type of Drainage :

The river systems of India can be classified into four groups viz.

• Himalayan rivers, Deccan rivers and Coastal rivers that drain into the sea.
• Rivers of the inland drainage basin (endorheic basin) : Streams like the Sambhar in western
Rajasthan are mainly seasonal in character, draining into the inland basins and salt lakes. In the
Rann of Kutch, the only river that flows through the salt desert is the Luni.
Drainage Systems Based on Orientation to the Sea :

• The Bay of Bengal Drainage (Rivers that drain into Bay of Bengal)(East flowing rivers).
• Arabian sea drainage (Rivers that drain into Arabian sea)(West flowing rivers).
• The rivers Narmada (India’s holiest river) and Tapti flow almost parallel to each other but empty
themselves in opposite directions (West flowing). The two rivers make the valley rich in alluvial
soil and teak forests cover much of the land.
Major River System or Drainage Systems in India :

Himalayan River Systems :

• Ganga River System
• Brahmaputra River System
• Indus River System

Peninsular River Systems :

• Godavari River System
• Krishna River System
• Cauvery River System
• Mahanadi River System

West Flowing Peninsular River Systems :

• Narmada River System
• Tapti River System
Ganga-Brahmaputra River System :
Ganga River System :

• The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttar Kashi District of
Uttarakhand at an elevation of 7,010 m.

• Alaknanda River joins Bhagirathi at Devaprayag.

• From Devapryag the river is called as Ganga.

• It is joined by the Yamuna at Allahabad.

• Near Rajmahal Hills it turns to the South-East.

• At Farraka, it bifurcates into Bhagirathi-Hugli in West Bengal and Padma-Meghna in

Bangladesh (it ceases to be known as the Ganga after Farraka).
• Brahmaputra (or the Jamuna as it is known here) joins Padma-Meghna

• The total length of the Ganga river from its source to its mouth (measured along the Hugli) is
2,525 km.

-Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga : Yamuna, Chambal, Banas, Sind, Betwa, Ken, Son,
Damodar [Sorrow of Bengal]

-Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga : Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghra, Gandak, Burhi Gandak,
Bagmati, and Kosi [Sorrow of Bihar]

Brahmaputra River System : Already Discussed

Indus River System :

The Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra comprise the Himalayan river systems.

The Himalayan Rivers existed even before the formation of Himalayas i.e. before the collision of
Indian Plate with the Eurasian plate. {Antecedent Drainage}

Major Rivers of Indus River System and their Sources :

• Indus : Glaciers of Kailash Range (Close to Manasarovar Lake)

• Jhelum : Verinag
• Chenab : Bara Lacha Pass
• Ravi : Near Rohtang Pass
• Beas : Near Rohtang Pass
• Satluj : Manasarovar-Rakas Taal/Lake
Indus Water Treaty :

• The waters of the Indus river system are shared by India and Pakistan according to the Indus
Water Treaty signed between the two countries on 19th September, 1960.

• According to this treaty, India can utilize only 20 per cent of its total discharge of water.
Indian Monsoons
The term monsoon has been derived from the Arabic word mausin or from the Malayan word monsin
meaning ‘season’.

Monsoons are seasonal winds (Rhythmic wind movements)(Periodic Winds) which reverse their
direction with the change of season.

The monsoon is a double system of seasonal winds – They flow from sea to land during the summer
and from land to sea during winter.

Factors responsible for south-west monsoon formation :

• Intense heating of Tibetan Plateau during Summer Months.

• Permanent High Pressure Cell [Mascarene High] in the South Indian Ocean (east to north-east of
Madagascar in summer).
• Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ).
• Tropical Easterly Jet (African Easterly Jet).
• Inter Tropical Convergence Zone.
Mechanism of Indian Monsoons :

Classical Theory :

-In the tenth century, Al Masudi, an Arab explorer, gave an account of the reversal of ocean currents
and the monsoon winds over the north Indian Ocean.

-In seventeenth century, Sir Edmund Halley explained the monsoon as resulting from thermal
contrasts between continents and oceans due to their differential heating.

Modern Theories :

-Besides differential heating, the development of monsoon is influenced by the shape of the
continents, orography (mountains), and the conditions of air circulation in the upper
troposphere {jet streams}.
Indian Monsoons – Modern theory: Air Mass Theory

• According to this theory, the monsoon is simply a modification of the planetary winds of the
tropics.

• The theory is based on the migration of ITCZ based on seasons.

• The southeast trade winds in the southern hemisphere and the northeast trade winds in the
northern hemisphere meet each other near the equator.

• The meeting place of these winds is known as the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

• The location of ITCZ shifts north and south of equator with the change of season.

• The seasonal shift of the ITCZ has given the concept of Northern Inter-Tropical Convergence
Zone (NITCZ) in summer (July – rainy season) and Southern Inter-Tropical Convergence
Zone (SITCZ) in winter (Jan – dry season).
Indian Monsoons – Modern theory: Jet Stream Theory

Jet stream Theory is the latest theory regarding the origin of the monsoons and has earned
worldwide acceptance from the meteorologists.

Sub-Tropical Jet Stream plays a significant role in both hindering the monsoon winds as well as in
quick onset of monsoons.

STJ – Sub-Tropical Jet Stream :

• Sub-Tropical Jet stream is a narrow band of fast moving air flowing from West to East
[Westerlies].

• STJ in Northern Hemisphere flows between 25° to 35° N in the upper troposphere at a height
of about 12-14 km

Note : Polar Jet Stream has no influence on Indian Monsoons.

Western Disturbances
The arrival of these temperate storms [remnants of temperate cyclones] [western
disturbances] causes precipitation leading to an abrupt decrease in air temperature over North-
West India.

The weather becomes clear after the western disturbances passes away.
Western Disturbances also bring heavy snowfall in the Himalayan Region and a cold wave to north
Indian plains.
Indian Climate
India’s climate closely resembles the climate that of a tropical country although its northern part
(north of tropic of cancer) is situated in the temperate belt.

Stamp’s Classification of Climatic Regions of India

Stamp used 18°C isotherm of mean monthly temperature for January to divide the country into two
broad climatic regions :

-Temperate or Continental Zone in the North

• The Himalayan region (heavy rainfall)
• The north-western region (moderate rainfall)
• The arid low land
• The region of moderate rainfall
• The transitional zone

-Tropical Zone in the South

Indian Vegetation
Forests – Natural Vegetation of India – Classification of Natural Vegetation of India: Moist Tropical,
Dry Tropical, Montane Sub-tropical, Montane Temperate, Alpine Forests.

Classification of Natural Vegetation of India :

India’s vegetation can be divided into 5 main types and 16 sub-types as given below-

A. Moist Tropical Forests :

• Tropical Wet Evergreen

• Tropical Semi-Evergreen
• Tropical Moist Deciduous
• Littoral and Swamp
B. Dry Tropical Forests :

• Tropical Dry Evergreen

• Tropical Dry Deciduous
• Tropical Thorn

C. Montane Sub-tropical Forests :

• Sub-tropical broad leaved hill

• Sub-tropical moist hill (pine)
• Sub-tropical dry evergreen

D. Montane Temperate Forests :

• Montane Wet Temperate

• Himalayan Moist Temperate
• Himalayan Dry Temperate
E. Alpine Forests :

Sub-Alpine
Moist Alpine scrub
Dry Alpine scrub
Indian Soil
Soil is the thin top layer on the earth’s crust comprising rock particles mixed with
organic matter.

• Pedology is the study of soils in their natural environment.

• Pedogenesis is the natural process of soil formation that includes a variety of

processes such as weathering, leaching, calcification etc.

The soil is classified on the basis of the proportion of particles of various

sizes :

-If soil contains greater proportion of big particles it is called sandy soil.
-If the proportion of fine particles is relatively higher, then it is called clayey soil.
GENERAL STUDIES-GS-1,5

GEOGRAPHY
[ASSAM-INDIA-WORLD]
 Economic Geography

-Distribution of Key Natural Resources Across the World

-Factors Responsible for Primary, Secondary and Tertiary
Industries]
Natural Resources :
• Iron and Steel
• Coal [Important-Assam Perspective]
• Petroleum and Mineral Oil [Important-Assam Perspective]
• Natural Gas [Important-Assam Perspective]
• Manganese
• Gold and Silver
• Copper, Nickle and Chromite
• Bauxite, Lead, Zinc, Tungsten, Pyrites
• Uranium and Thorium
• Diamond and Graphite
• Mica, Lime Stone
• Critical Minerals
• Major and Minor Minerals
Iron and Steel
Iron and Steel :

Factors that influence the location of Iron and Steel industry :

• Raw Materials – iron ore, coal, limestone, etc.

• Transportation and other Infrastructure – road, rail, ports etc.
• Investment and Entrepreneurship = banking facilities, human capital for managerial roles.
• Labour – unskilled to semi-skilled workforce for manual operations, skilled workforce for technical
operations.
• Market – construction industry, automobile industry etc.
• Government Policy – Development agenda, land acquisition, ease of doing business = labor laws,
unambiguous and fair taxation policy, least government interference, less red tapeism, quick
environmental clearance
Commonly found impurities in Iron Ore :

• Silicon
Found in small quantities.
Slightly raises the Strength and Hardness of Steel.
Acts as a de-oxidizing Agent ==> small quantities is good. [Oxides decrease the strength of Iron]

• Sulphur
A very harmful element.
Forms Iron Sulphide which is a very brittle
Greatly reducing the Strength of Steel ==> very bad.

• Phosphorous
Combines with Iron to form a Phosphide.
It increases the hardness and Tensile strength of Steel.
It SERIOUSLY affects the ductility and resistance to shock or impact ==> bad.
• Lead
Added to all classes of Steel to improve the machinability of the Steel.
It improves tool life ==> small quantities is good.

• Manganese
A powerful and most effective de-oxidant.
Has a good effect on Sulphur ==> small quantities is good.

• Tin
It forms a low melting point brittle film round the grain boundaries making the Steel practically
useless ==> very bad.
• Oxygen

Has a bad influence on the properties of steel ==> very bad. [Oxides make Iron and steel weak]
Of the impurities, some are beneficial when present in small quantities while the others are
harmful no matter what their proportion is.

So, the unwanted impurities must be removed and this is done by smelting iron ore in a blast
furnace.

Note : Smelting is a process of converting ore to metal by removing impurities.

Types of Iron Ore :

Haematite :
• Reddish; best quality; 70 per cent metallic content.
• Found in Dharwad and Cuddapah rock systems of the peninsular India.
• 80 per cent of haematite reserves are in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh.
• In the western section, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa has this kind of ore.

Magnetite :
• Black Ore; 60 to 70 per cent metallic content.
• Dharward and Cuddapah systems.
• Magnetic quality.
• Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Limonite :
• Inferior ores; yellowish in colour; 40 to 60 per cent iron metal.
• Damuda series in Raniganj coal field, Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh and
Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh.
• Advantage == open cast mines == easy and cheap mining.

Siderite :
• ‘Iron carbonate’; inferior quality; less than 40 per cent iron.
• Contains many impurities ; mining is not economically variable.
• However, it is self-fluxing due to presence of lime.
Iron Ore Distribution Across the World :

Iron Ore in China – Manchuria, Sinkiang, Si-kiang, Shandog Peninsula

Iron Ore in Europe – Ruhr, South Whales, Krivoy Rog, Bilbao, Lorraine

Iron ore in Africa – Transvaal, Liberia

Iron ore in Russia, Kazakhstan – Ural region, Magnitogorsk

Iron Ore in North America – Great Lakes [Mesabi Region], Labrador

Iron Ore in South America – Carajas, Itabira, Minas Geriais

Iron Ore in Australia – Pilbara Region, Koolyanobbing, Iron Duke, Iron Knob
Iron Ore Distribution Across India :

Haematite :

• Odisha 33%
• Jharkhand 26%
• Chhattisgarh 18%
• Rest in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra, MP, Rajasthan, UP

Magnetite :

• Karnataka 73%
• Andhra Pradesh 14%
• Rajasthan 5%
• Tamil Nadu 4.9%
• Rest in Assam, Bihar, Goa, Jharkhand, Kerala, Maharashta, Meghalaya and Nagaland
Coal
Coal :

• Also called Black Gold.

• Found in Sedimentary Strata [Layers of Soil].
• Contains Carbon, Volatile Matter, Moisture and Ash [in some cases Sulphur and phosphorous]
• Mostly used for Power Generation and Metallurgy.
• Coal reserves are six times greater than oil and petroleum reserves.

Carboniferous Coal : Most of the world’s coal was formed in Carboniferous age [350 million
years ago][Best quality coal].
Coal Distribution Across the World :
Coal Distribution Across India :

Distribution of Coal in India :

• Gondwana Coal Fields [250 million years old] : Gondwana coal makes up to 98 per
cent of the total reserves and 99 per cent of the production of coal in India. Satpuras, denudation
[weathering + erosion] has exposed coal bearing Gondwana strata.

Distribution of Gondwana Coal in India : First coal mine was opened in 1774 at Raniganj in
West Bengal.India is now the third largest coal producer in the world after China and the USA.
• Tertiary Coal Fields [15 – 60 million years old] :

• Tertiary Coal : 15 to 60 million years old.

• Coal generally has low carbon and high percentage of moisture and Sulphur.[It takes few
hundred million years for the carbon content to improve].
• Important areas of Tertiary coal include parts of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh,
Nagaland, Himalayan foothills of Darjeeling in West Bengal, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Kerala,etc.

Tertiary Coalfields in Assam :

• Makum, Nazira, Mikir Hills, Dilli-Jeypore and Lakhuni.

• Makum coalfield in Sibsagar district is the most developed field.
• Assam coals contain very low ash and high coking qualities but the sulphur content is high, as
a result of which this coal is not suitable for metallurgical purposes.
• But these coals are best suited for hydrogenation process and are used for making liquid
fuels.
Petroleum and Mineral Oil
Petra == Rock; Oleum == Oil.
Petroleum or Mineral oil is obtained from sedimentary rocks of the earth.
Petroleum fuels on burning gives little smoke and leaves no ash. So they are better than coal.

Constituents of Petroleum and Mineral Oil :

• 90 to 95 per cent Hydrocarbons.

• 5 – 10% organic compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and traces of organometallic
compounds.

Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil :

All sedimentary rocks do not contain oil.

An oil reservoir must have three prerequisite conditions :

• Porosity [tiny gaps in soil] so as to accommodate sufficiently large amounts of oil;

• Permeability [allowing liquids or gases to pass through it] to discharge oil and/or gas when
well has been drilled;
• The porous sandstone beds or fissured limestone containing oil should be capped below by
impervious beds [not allowing fluid to pass through].
Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil in India :
• 1 lakh sq km or 42 per cent of India covered with sedimentary rocks.
• 10 lakh sq km form marine basins of Mesozoic and Tertiary times.
• Total continental shelf of probable oil bearing rocks amounts to 2 lakh sq km.
• The total sedimentary area including both on shore and offshore comprises 27 basins.
• Mumbai High, the Khambhat Gulf and the Assam are the most productive areas.
On-shore Oil Production In India :

• Brahmaputra Valley of North-East India.

• Barmer Area of Rajasthan.
• Gujarat Coast in Western India.
• Cauvery On-shore basin in Tamil Nadu.
• Andhra Pradesh has both on-shore and offshore oil reserves.

Assam Oilfields :

• Oldest oil producing state in India

• The main oil bearing strata extend for a distance of 320 km in upper Assam along the
Brahmaputra valley.
• Oilfields of Assam are relatively inaccessible and are distantly located from the main consuming
areas.
• Oil from Assam is therefore, refined mostly in the refineries located at Digboi, Guwahati,
Bongaigaon, and Barauni.
• The Digboi Field : Oldest oil field of India - Tipam hills, Dibrugarh district

• The Naharkatiya Field : 32 km South-West of Digboi - Left Bank of Burhi Dihing River

• The Moran-Hugrijan Field : 40 km South-West of Naharkatiya

Off-Shore Production in India :

Western Coast
• Mumbai High, Bassein and Aliabet.
• Mumbai High: 1974; rock strata of Miocene age.
• Sagar Samrat, Bassein: south of Mumbai High.
• Aliabet: Aliabet island in the Gulf of Khambhat.

Eastern Coast
• The basin and delta regions of the Godawari, the Krishna and the Cauvery rivers hold great
potential for oil and gas production.
• The Rawa field in Krishna-Godawari off-shore basin is an important one.
• The Narimanam and Kovilappal oilfields in the Cauvery on-shore basin are also important.
Petroleum Refining :

• India’s first oil refinery started working way back in 1901 at Digboi in Assam.
• 1954: Another refinery at Tarapur (Mumbai).
• When aRefinery hub and refining capacity exceeds the demand, the excess refined oil and other
petroleum products are exported.
• Oil from wells is transported to nearest refineries through pipelines.

Note : Assam has 4 Oil Refinaries : Digboi [Estb-1901], Noonmati [Estb-1st January, 1962],
Bongaigaon [Estb-1974] and Numaligarh [Estb-1999]

Crude Oil Pipelines :

• Salaya-Mathura Pipeline (SMPL)

• Paradip-Haldia-Barauni Pipeline (PHBPL)
• Mundra-Panipat Pipeline (MPPL)
Petroleum Product Pipelines :
• Guwahati-Siliguri Pipeline (GSPL)
• Koyali-Ahmedabad Pipeline (KAPL)
• Barauni-Kanpur Pipeline (BKPL)
• Panipat-Delhi Pipeline (PDPL)
• Panipat-Rewari Pipeline (PRPL)
• Chennai – Trichy – Madurai Product Pipeline (CTMPL)
• Chennai-Bangalore Pipeline
• Naharkatia-Nunmati-Barauni Pipeline == First pipeline constructed in India
• Mumbai High-Mumbai-Ankleshwar-Koyali Pipeline.
• Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) Gas Pipeline == World’s largest underground pipeline
• Jamnagar-Loni LPG Pipeline == Longest LPG pipeline in the World
• Kochi-Mangalore-Bangalore pipeline
• Vishakhapatnam Secunderabad pipeline
• Mangalore-Chennai pipeline
• Vijayawada-Vishakhapatnam pipeline
Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil-World Wide :

• Oilfields in Saudi Arabia :

Saudi Arabia has the second largest proven oil reserves (Venezuela has the largest
proven oil reserves).
Approximately 20 percent of the world’s proven reserves.

Important Oil Fields : Al-Ghawar, Saffaniyah [Offshore Field-Persian Gulf] [It is the
third largest oil field in the world and the largest offshore.]

• Oilfields in Venezuela & Brazil : Most of these reserves are located in the
Orinoco Belt.
Oil Market Benchmarks :

Benchmark crude oil is used as a reference price for other types of oil-based securities and
oil. Investors use it to compare and evaluate other types of crude oil.

Brent Blend: A North Sea crude that is the pricing benchmark for over 75% of the world's
exported crude oil.

West Texas Intermediate (WTI): A U.S. crude from Texas, Louisiana, and North Dakota.

Dubai Crude: A crude from the Gulf region of the Middle East.

Other well-known oil blends include: OPEC Reference Basket, Tapis Crude, Western
Canadian Select, Bonny Light, and Urals Oil.
Natural Gas
Consists primarily of Methane and Propane, but Butane, Pentane, and Hexane are also present.

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) == Mixture of Butane and Propane.

Classification :

• Oil + Gas == Associated Gas – Wet Gas

• Only Gas [No Oil] == Non-Associated Gas – Dry Gas

• Hydrogen Sulphide [H2S] [in Gas] == Sour Gas

• Coalbed Methane [Lack of H2S] == Sweet Gas

Note : Natural Gas is usually bought and sold not by volume but by calorific value.
In practice, purchases of natural gas are usually denoted as MMBTUs (Millions of British
Thermal Unit (BTU or Btu)) = ~1,000 cubic feet of Natural Gas.
Distribution of Natural Gas-World Wide :
Distribution of Natural Gas-India :
KG basin, Assam, Gulf of Khambhat, Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, Barmer in Rajasthan etc.
Petroleum and Gas Value Chain :
Conventional and Unconventional Gas Reservoirs :

• Conventional reservoirs of oil and natural gas are found in permeable sandstone.
• Unconventional Gas Reservoirs occur in relatively impermeable sandstones, in joints and
fractures or absorbed into the matrix of shales [Shale is a Sedimentary Rock], and in coal.

• Given current economic conditions and state of technology, they are more expensive to exploit.
• Example: Tight gas, shale gas, and coalbed methane.
Others
• Metallic Minerals - These minerals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
Examples of metallic minerals include gold, silver, copper, iron, zinc, lead, nickel,
chromium, and aluminum.

• Non-Metallic Minerals – Mica, Limestone, Dolomite, Asbestos, Magnesite,

Kyanite, Sillimanite and Gypsum.
Manganese
Manganese Ore Distribution in India :

• India processes second largest reserves in the world after Zimbabwe; 430 million tonnes
• India is the world’s fifth largest producer after China, Gabon, South Africa and Australia.
• Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are the major
manganese ore producing states.
• Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh together produce more than half of India’s manganese

Manganese Ore Distribution in the World :

Gold
Gold Reserves in India :

• Gold usually occurs in auriferous [(of rocks or minerals) containing gold] rocks.
• It is also found in sands of several rivers.
• Gold is also known as international currency.

Resources in terms of the metal ore (primary) are located in

• Bihar (45 per cent)
• Rajasthan (23 per cent)
• Karnataka (22 per cent)
• West Bengal (3 per cent)
• Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh (2 per cent each)

Gold Distribution Across the World :

Countries with significant deposits: South Africa, Australia, Indonesia, Canada, Ghana, Chile, China,
USA, Russia etc.
Silver
Silver Distribution – India & World :

The chief ore minerals of silver are agentite, stephanite, pyrargyrite and proustite.

India is not a major producer of silver in the world.

• Zawar Mines in Udaipur district of Rajasthan is the major producer of silver [smelting of
Galena Ore in Hindustan Zinc Smelter].
• The Tundoo Lead Smelter in Dhanbad district of Jharkhand is another major silver producer.
• Some silver is produced by Kolar Gold Fields and Hutti Gold Mines.
• The Hindustan Copper Ltd. at Maubhandar smelter in Singhbhum district of Jhakhand obtains
silver from copper slimes.
• Silver is also produced by Vizag Zinc Smelter in Andhra Pradesh from the lead concentrates.
Chromite
Chromite Ore Distribution In India :

-Chromite is an Oxide of Iron and Chromium = Combination of Chromium, Iron and Oxygen.

• Reserves of Chromite in India is estimated at 203 MT.

• 93 per cent of the resources are in ODISHA [Sukinda valley in Cuttack and Jajapur]
• Minor Deposits are spread over Manipur, Nagaland, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, TN &
AP.
Chromite Ore Distribution In the World :
Copper
Copper :

• Copper is a good conductor of heat and electricity and is ductile [able to be drawn out into a
thin wire].
• It is an important metal used by automobile and defense industries.
• Alloyed with cromite, iron and nickel to make stainless steel.
• Alloyed with nickel to make ‘morel metal’.
• Alloyed with aluminium to make ‘duralumin’.
• When alloyed with zinc it is known as ‘brass’ and with tin as ‘bronze’.

Iron + Nickel + Copper + Chromite == Stainless Steel.

Copper + Nickel == Morel Metal.
Copper + Aluminium == Duralumin.
Copper + Zinc == Brass.
Copper + Tin == Bronze.
Copper Reserves in India :

• Total-46 million tonnes.

Distribution (in %):

• Rajasthan (50%)
• Madhya Pradesh (24%)
• Jharkhand (19%)
• Rest- Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka etc. (7%)
Copper Reserves in the World :
Bauxite
Bauxite Distribution in India :

• Odisha alone accounts for 52 per cent

• Andhra Pradesh 18 per cent
• Gujarat 7 per cent
• Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra 5 per cent each
• Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand 4 per cent.
• Major bauxite resources are in the east coast in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
• India manages to export small quantities of bauxite.
• Major importers are Italy (60%), U.K. (25%), Germany (9%) and Japan (4%).
Bauxite Distribution in the World :
Lead and Zinc
Lead and Zinc- Distribution in India :

• Rajasthan is endowed with the largest resources of lead-zinc ore (88.61 per cent),
• Andhra Pradesh (3.31 per cent),
• Madhya Pradesh (2.16 per cent),
• Bihar (1.67 per cent)
• Maharashtra 9 (1.35 per cent).
• Almost the entire production comes from Rajasthan.
Lead and Zinc- Distribution in the World :
Uranium and Thorium
Distribution of Uranium Across the World :

• Largest viable deposits are found in Australia, Kazakhstan, and Canada.

• Olympic Dam and the Ranger Mine in Southern Australia are important mines in Australia.
• High-grade deposits are only found in the Athabasca Basin Region of Canada.
• Cigar Lake, McArthur River Basin in Canada are other important uranium mining sites.
• The Chu-Sarysu Basin in central Kazakhstan alone accounts for over half of the country’s known
uranium resources.
Distribution of Uranium in India :
Distribution of Thorium Across the World :

• Thorium is several times more abundant in Earth’s crust than all isotopes of uranium combined
and thorium-232 is several hundred times more abundant than uranium-235.
• United States, Australia, and India have particularly large reserves of thorium.
• India and Australia are believed to possess more than half of world’s thorium reserves.
Distribution of Thorium in India :
India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme :
Diamond and Graphite
Diamonds in India
The Vindhayan system have diamond bearing regions from which Panna and Golconda diamonds
have been mined.

• Panna Belt in Madhya Pradesh

• Wajrakarur Kimberlite Pipe in Anantapur District in Andhra Pradesh
• Gravels of the Krishna River Basin in Andhra Pradesh.

Diamonds Across the World

• The leading producers of natural diamond are Russia, Botswana, Canada, Australia, South
Africa, Russia and Zaire [Congo].
• Other important producers include Namibia, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, Venezuela, Brazil etc.
• The US is the largest producer of synthetic industrial diamonds
• Russia holds what is believed to be the world’s largest and richest diamond resources.
• Botswana is the leading diamond-producing country in terms of value, and the second largest in
terms of volume. The two important ones are Orapa and Jwaneng, two of the most prolific diamond
mines in the world.
Total Indian Graphite Resources :

• Arunachal Pradesh (43%),

• Jammu & Kashmir (37%),
• Jharkhand (6%),
• Tamil Nadu (5%) and
• Odisha (3%)

Total World Graphite Resources :

• China (more than 50%)

• India (20%)
• Brazil
Mica
• India is the largest exporter of mica.

• Certain grades of Indian mica are and will remain vital to the world’s electrical industries.

• Major exports are carried out through Kolkata and Vishakhapatnam ports.

• Important importers of Indian Mica are Japan (19%), the USA (17%), the U.K, etc.
Limestone
Limestone rocks are composed of either calcium carbonate, the double carbonate of calcium and
magnesium, or mixture of both.

Limestone also contains small quantities of silica, alumina, iron oxides, phosphorus and
sulphur.

Limestone deposits are of sedimentary origin and exist in all the geological sequences from Pre-
Cambrian to Recent except in Gondwana.

75 per cent Limestone is used in cement industry, 16 per cent in iron and steel industry [It acts as flux]
and 4 per cent in the chemical industries.

Rest of the limestone is used in paper, sugar, fertilizers, etc.

Dolomite
• Limestone with more than 10 per cent of magnesium is called dolomite.

• When the percentage rises to 45, it is true dolomite.

• Dolomite is mainly used as blast furnace flux, as a source of magnesium salts and in fertilizer and
glass industries.

• Iron and Steel industry is the chief consumer of dolomite [90 per cent] followed by fertilizer, ferro-
alloys and glass.

• Dolomite is widely distributed in the all parts of the country.

Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Karnataka are the main
producing states and contribute more than 90 per cent of the total production.

Orissa and Chhattisgarh together account for about 57 per cent dolomite of India.
Asbestos
• Two States of Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh produce almost the whole of
asbestos of India.

• Rajasthan is the largest producer. Important occurrences are known in Udaipur,

Dungarpur, Alwar, Ajmer and Pali districts.

• In Andhra Pradesh, asbestos of fine quality occurs in Pulivendla taluk of

Cuddapah district.

• In Karnataka, the main deposits occur in Hassan, Mandya, Shimoga, Mysore

and Chikmaglur districts.
Magnesite
• Major deposits of magnesite are found in Uttaranchal, Tamil Nadu and
Rajasthan.

• Tamil Nadu is the largest producer [three-fourth] of magnesite in India.

• Tamil Nadu has one of the largest deposits of magnesite in the world and the
largest in India are found at Chalk Hills near Salem town.
Kyanite
• Kyanite occurs in metamorphic aluminous rocks.

• It is primarily used in metallurgical, ceramic, refractory, glass, cement

industries due to its ability to stand high temperatures.

• It is also used in making sparking plugs in automobiles.

• India has the largest deposits of kyanite in the world. All the three grades of
kyanite are found here. Kyanite grades depend on aluminium content. Greater
the aluminium content, greater the quality.

• Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Karnataka produce practically the whole of kyanite

of India.
Sillimanite
• The main concentration of Sillimanite is found in Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Kerala,
Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal.

• Orissa is the largest producer of sillimanite in India. Ganjam district is an

important sillimanite producing district.

• Kerala is the second largest producing state. The beach sands of Kerala contain 5
to 6 per cent of sillimanite.
Gypsum
• Gypsum is a hydrated sulphate of calcium.
• It is a white opaque or transparent mineral.
• It occurs in sedimentary formations such as limestones, sandstones and
shales.
• It is mainly used in making ammonia sulphate fertilizer and in cement industry.
• It makes upto 4-5 per cent of cement.

• Rajasthan is by far the largest producer of gypsum in India [99 per cent of the
total production of India].
Critical Minerals
A critical mineral is a metallic or non-metallic element crucial for modern
technologies, economies, and national security, with the potential risk of disruptions to
its supply chains. It includes both primary and processed minerals.

A mineral is critical when the risk of supply shortage and associated economic
impact is (relatively) higher than other raw materials.

Countries create their own critical minerals list based on strategic needs.
India’s net import dependency of Critical mineral :
Lithium : Chile [part of the Lithium Triangle], Russia, China, Ireland, Belgium

List of Critical Minerals of India :

These 30 critical minerals are Antimony, Beryllium, Bismuth, Cobalt, Copper, Gallium, Germanium,
Graphite, Hafnium, Indium, Lithium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Nickel, PGE, Phosphorous, Potash, REE,
Rhenium, Silicon, Strontium, Tantalum, Tellurium, Tin, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Zirconium,
Selenium and Cadmium.

The committee also recommended the creation of the Centre of Excellence for Critical Minerals
(CECM) under the Ministry of Mines.

This proposed Centre will periodically update the list of critical minerals for India.
Private Mining of Critical Minerals :

GoI amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act of 1957, allowing private
players to mine six critical minerals — lithium, titanium, beryllium, zirconium, niobium, and tantalum.

These six minerals have been removed from the country’s atomic minerals lists to allow private players
to mine them.

1. Lithium :

Global Reserves and Production :

Countries with largest reserves: 1st Bolivia > 2nd Argentina > 3rd Chile > 4th US > Australia > China.

54% of the world’s lithium reserves are in three South American countries: Argentina, Bolivia, and
Chile. The area is referred to as the ‘Lithium Triangle’.

Top Producers: 1st Australia > 2nd Chile > 3rd China > 4th Aregentina > 5th Zimbabwe
2. Titanium :

Ores: The most abundant titanium ore is ilmenite. Other titanium ores include rutile and titanite.

Ilmenite: It is an iron-black, heavy, metallic oxide mineral. It is composed of iron and titanium oxide. It
is commonly found in igneous rocks.

Rutile: It has a distinctive reddish-brown colour and a higher titanium dioxide content than ilmenite. It
occurs in igneous and metamorphic rocks and is often found in association with ilmenite.

Titanite: It is a calcium titanium silicate mineral. It is green, yellowish-green, brown, or black in colour.
It is commonly found in metamorphic and igneous rocks.

Top Producers of Titanium: 1st China > 2nd Russia > 3rd Japan > 4th Kazakhstan > 5th Ukraine

Uses: nuclear applications, defence, aerospace, marine, and construction industries, high-performance
alloys, electrical goods, medical implants, and jewellery.
3. Zirconium :

Zirconium is a greyish-white metal.

Properties: soft, malleable, lustrous, ductile, and corrosion-resistant.

Occurrence: zircon mineral (zirconium silicate) commonly found in beach sands.

Baddeleyite (pure zirconium dioxide) is the only other important zirconium mineral.

Top Producers: 1st Australia > 2nd South Africa > 3rd China > 4th Ukraine > 5th Mozambique

Uses: Nuclear applications, aerospace and defence industries, production of superalloys, capacitors,
medical implants, ceramics, and zircon Gemstones.
4. Beryllium :

Beryllium is a steel-grey metal with chemical properties resembling those of aluminium.

Properties: light, high melting point, excellent thermal conductivity, low density and brittle.

Occurrence: It does not occur freely in nature. It is primarily extracted from beryl and bertrandite
minerals. Beryl forms gemstones, such as emeralds and aquamarine.

Top Producers of Beryllium: 1st United States > 2nd China > 3rd Mozambique > 4th Brazil > 5th
Russia.

Uses: Nuclear applications, aerospace and defence industries, production of alloys and
semiconductors (due to its ability to improve the electrical performance of semiconductors).

Beryllium is transparent to X-rays, making it an ideal material for X-ray windows.

5. Niobium :

Niobium is a grey metal that looks like steel or, when polished, like platinum.

Properties: It is soft, ductile, corrosion-resistant, and superconductive (at low temperatures).

Occurrence: It is primarily obtained from the minerals columbite-tantalite (coltan) and pyrochlore.

Top Producers of Niobium: 1st Brazil > 2nd Canada > 3rd Rwanda > 4th Nigeria > 5th Mozambique.

Uses: Nuclear applications, alloys, electronic components, orthopaedic and dental implants, etc.
6. Tantalum :

Tantalum is bright, silver-grey metal.

Properties: It is very hard and has high density, high melting point, and corrosion resistance.

Occurrence: It is obtained from the mineral columbite-tantalite (coltan).

Columbite-tantalite is a black-to-brownish-black mineral that contains both niobium and tantalum.

Top Producers: 1st Democratic Republic of Congo > 2nd Brazil > 3rd Rwanda > 4th Nigeria > 5th
China.

Uses: Nuclear applications, aerospace and defence industries, production of capacitors, medical
implants, super alloys, etc.
Why Private Mining is Allowed for These Critical Minerals ?

• Critical minerals are in high demand as countries move towards green transition and e-mobility.
• Allowing private players in the mining of critical metals will bring more capital and foster the use
of new and emerging technologies for exploration and mining processes.
• India currently is heavily dependent on imports of these minerals. So, the need to increase their
production is on high priority.

Lower Royalty Rates of Critical Minerals :

Cabinet has amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR
Act 1957) to specify royalty in rates of three critical minerals, namely, Lithium, Niobium, and Rare
Earth Elements (REEs).

Recently, through another amendment of MMDR Act 1957, GOI has removed six critical minerals,
including lithium and niobium, from the country’s atomic minerals lists to allow private players to mine
them.
These changes to the rules build on an earlier move to ease the issuing of mining leases and
composite licences for 24 critical minerals.

Rare Earth Elements (REEs) :

• REE are a group of 17 chemical elements.

• They comprise the 15 lanthanide elements, along with scandium and yttrium.

Strategic significance of critical minerals :

• Economic implications: Integral to the manufacturing sector, especially in the production of EVs,
renewable energy systems, and high-tech devices.
• National security and defense: It is essential for defense technologies, including weapon systems,
communication equipment, and surveillance.
• Diplomatic Leverage: Fostering partnerships and collaborations with mineral-producing nations.
For eg, the India-Australia Critical Minerals Investment Partnership.
Concerns associated with the mining of critical minerals :
• Radioactivity: These six critical minerals are also atomic minerals. So the processing of these
minerals may expose workers to radioactivity.

• Nuclear Waste Management: These minerals are used in nuclear applications and they are also
corrosion-resistant. So the waste generated after their use in nuclear applications must be safely
stored and isolated to prevent any potential environmental or health hazards.

• Environmental Impact: Mining activities of these minerals may disturb natural habitats, affect local
ecosystems, and potentially contribute to soil and water pollution.

• Ethical Sourcing: In some regions, mining practices have been associated with social and human
rights issues, including unethical labour practices and armed conflicts financed by the illegal trade of
minerals.

• High-Temperature Processing Challenges: These minerals are high-temperature resistant. So,

they require high-temperature processing which is energy-intensive and complex.
• Health Hazards: Inhaling the gases and fumes released during the mining and processing of these
minerals cause different diseases. For e.g., prolonged exposure to beryllium can cause a lung
disease called berylliosis.

• Infrastructure Gaps: Insufficient infrastructure for mining, processing, and refining critical minerals
poses a significant challenge leading to higher costs, delays, and environmental concerns.

• Dependence on Imports:
• India imports 80 percent of its lithium and 85 percent of its cobalt from China.
• China is the world’s largest producer of 16 critical minerals, responsible for approx 60-70% of
global production of cobalt and rare earth elements.

• Recycling and Waste Management: As per UNEP, less than 1% of the critical minerals used in
electronic waste are recycled.
Major and Minor Minerals
Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957

The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act) is the primary
legislation governing the mining sector in India.

• Major Minerals (Coal, Lignite, Atomic Minerals, Metallic and Non-metallic minerals such as Iron-
ore, bauxite, gold, precious stones, Copper, Lead, Zinc etc.)

-Regulation : Central govt make rules for regulating the grant of lease for mining.
-Approval : State govt grants mining lease for Coal and Lignite to those selected by the central
govt based on the competitive bidding.· For other major minerals, the State govts provide grant.
-Royalty : Fixed by the central govt and collected by the respective state governments.

• Minor Minerals (Building stones, gravel, ordinary clay, ordinary sand and any other mineral which
the Central Government can notify.)
Key Changes made through amendment in 2015:

The MMDR Act, 1957 was amended in 2015 to introduce auction-based mineral concession allocation
for transparency, create District Mineral Foundation (DMF) for the welfare of affected communities,
establish National Mineral Exploration Trust (NMET) to promote exploration, and impose stricter
penalties for illegal mining.

Note :

1. Assam has Constituted the District Mineral Foundation Trust as approved DMF Trust Deed in all
Districts of the State of Assam other than the districts in the Sixth Schedule Area under the
provisions of Section 9B of the Mines & Minerals (Development & Regulation) Amendment Act,
2015.

2. Pradhan Mantri Khanij Kshetra Kalyan Yojana (PMKKKY)-The DMF implements the PMKKKY, a
scheme launched by the Government of India to improve the condition of people affected by mining.
District Mineral Foundation (DMF) :

DMFs are non-profit trusts that were formed under the Mines and Minerals (Development and
Regulation) (MMDR) Amendment Act 2015 with an objective to work in the interest and benefits of
persons and areas affected by mining-related operations in a manner as may be prescribed by the
State Government.

Jurisdiction :

The operation of DMFs falls under the jurisdiction of the relevant State Government. The fund for
DMF is collected at the district level. In all states' DMF rules, some high-priority areas are identified
which are entitled to get at least 60 per cent of the DMF fund. The usage of the fund includes
important and critical concerns such as healthcare. Thus, DMF funds can be utilised to increase
and improve healthcare facilities, screening and testing facilities and other required
resources.
Key Changes made through amendment in 2021:

• Removal of restriction on end-use of minerals: The original act empowers the central
government to reserve any mine (other than coal, lignite, and atomic minerals) to be leased through
an auction for a particular end-use (such as iron ore mine for a steel plant). Such mines are known
as captive mines. The amendment provides that no mine will be reserved for particular end-use.

• Issue of composite licensing: Earlier, the private sector was required to separately apply for
Prospecting Licence, Reconnaissance permit (RP) and Mining Lease (ML). The amendment
empowered the government to provide a common composite licensing.

• Transfer of statutory clearances: Earlier the statutory clearances (including Environmental

clearances) do not get transferred to new lessee. The amendment Provides for transfer of statutory
clearances from existing lessee to new lessee upon expiry of lease period.
Key Changes made through amendment in 2023:

• Private Sector to Mine Atomic Minerals : The Act allows the private sector to mine six out of 12
atomic minerals such as lithium, beryllium, niobium, titanium, tantalum and zirconium.The Centre
will have powers to auction mining lease and composite licence for critical minerals such as gold,
silver, copper, zinc, lead, nickel etc..

• Auction for Exploration Licence : The exploration licence will be granted by the state government
through competitive bidding. The central government will prescribe details such as manner of
auction, terms and conditions, and bidding parameters for exploration licence through rules.

• Maximum Area in which Activities are Permitted : The Act allows activities under a single
exploration licence in an area up to 1,000 square kilometres.

• Incentive for exploration Licence : If the resources are proven after exploration, the state
government must conduct an auction for mining lease within six months of the submission of the
report by the exploration licencee. The licencee will receive a share in the auction value of the
mining lease for the mineral prospected by them.
 Social [Human] Geography

Changes in Critical Geographical Features and the effect of

these changes on flora and fauna
Critical geographical features among these are the ones that have a profound impact
on both nature as well as human life.Eg-Mountains, Rivers, Oceans, Glaciers, Ice-
Caps, etc.

Changes in Mountains and Their Reasons

• Gradual denudation and lowering of reliefs due to geomorphic processes such as weathering
and erosion by rivers, wind, groundwater, etc
• Endogenetic forces such as volcanism lead to the development of new volcanic mountains or
changes in old formations.
• Anthropogenic causes such as urbanization, tourism, agriculture, and other developmental
activities affect the morphology of mountains.
• Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides bring major structural and morphological
changes in mountainous regions.
Changes in Rivers and Their Reasons

• The Cycle of Erosion-of the river defines its ever-changing nature depicted through different
stages i.e, the young stage(small, swift river with vertical corrasion), mature stage(large volume
with lateral erosion), and old stage(senile, less volume with only deposition work).
• Headward Erosion leads to the retreat of slopes causing river captures as well as a reduction in
relief height.
• Climate change and Resultant Changes in Rivers.

Changes in Oceans and Their Reasons

Natural changes such as:

• Sea Floor Spreading along Mid Oceanic Ridge(Plate Tectonics).

• Creation of new oceans such as the Great African Rift Valley which is in the nascent stage in the
process of ocean formation.
Climate change results in changes such as:

• Ocean acidification lowering of ocean pH is a shift in ocean chemistry brought on by the ocean’s
uptake of carbon compounds from the atmosphere.

• Ocean Warming– According to IPCC since 1970, the world’s oceans have continued to warm,
absorbing more than 90% of the extra heat in the climate system.

• Sea level rise due to temperature rise( Thermal expansion of oceans), melting of glaciers, etc.
IPCC Sixth Assessment Report- Global mean sea level increased by 0.20m between 1901 and
2018.
Changes in Glaciers and Icecaps and Their Reasons

Climate Change

Climate change is the leading cause of changes in the mass of ice cover over the earth’s surface.
This process of climate change affecting ice cover is natural as is evident from the geological time
scale.

• Greenland Ice Sheet- Lost ice mass at an average rate of 278 billion tonnes every year between
2006 and 2015(IPCC report). Also, another phenomenon is called zombie ice, which does not
accumulate fresh snow even while continuing to be part of the parent ice sheet.
• Antarctica’s Melting Ice – For Ex: Doomsday Glacier also known as The Thwaites Glacier is
120 km wide at its widest point, moving quickly, and melting rapidly over time.
• Thawing of Permafrost Regions – Permafrost is a permanently frozen layer on or under Earth’s
surface. It consists of soil, gravel, and sand, usually bound together by ice. Permafrost usually
remains at or below 0°C (32ºF) for at least two years. Permafrost can be found on land and below
the ocean floor. According to a recent study, an additional 1.5 million square miles of permafrost
may eventually disappear for every 1.8°F (1°C) of warming.
Flora and Fauna :

The term “flora” refers to all plant life that is present in a certain area or time, usually only the native,
naturally occurring plants. Whereas, all of the animal life that is present in a certain area or time is
known as fauna.

Changes in Flora
The following are the various changes associated-

Grasslands
Grasslands make up 40% of the land area. These typically exist between mountainous and desert
climates. Only 10% of the world’s grasslands are protected, though.
Only 1% of the original tallgrass prairie remains today, while over 50% of all temperate grasslands
and 16% of tropical grasslands have been converted to agriculture or industrial purposes.

Forest
According to the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 (FRA 2020), representing almost 31% of
the world’s surface area, forests were reported to encompass 4.06 billion hectares in 2020.
Mangrove

Mangrove forests are fertile wetlands that grow in coastal intertidal zones. They are also known as
mangrove swamps, mangrove thickets, or mangals. Due to mangroves’ inability to survive
subfreezing temperatures, mangrove forests are primarily found in tropical and subtropical latitudes.

Around 80 different species of mangroves have been identified as existing on maritime beaches
throughout the world. Based on remote sensing and worldwide data for 2010, the Global Mangrove
Watch Initiative published a global baseline in 2018.

According to this, there are mangrove forests in 118 different countries and territories with a total
area of 137,600 km2 (53,100 sq mi) as of 2010.
Changes in Fauna

According to scientific research, Earth’s wildlife populations have decreased by an average of 69%
in just under 50 years.

The average size of the wildlife population has seen the steepest decline which is 94% in 48 years
in Latin America and the Caribbean, including the Amazon.

The sixth mass extinction, which is the biggest loss of life on Earth since the extinction of the
dinosaurs, is widely believed to be occurring right now, and many scientists feel that humans are to
blame.

Freshwater populations have decreased the most, according to the WWF, with an average
reduction of 83% between 1970 and 2018.

According to the IUCN Red List, amphibians are the species that are most in danger, followed by
corals and an ancient group of seed plants called cycads.
Effects of Changes in Fauna

Disruption in Ecosystems – If a species has a unique function in its ecosystem, it’s the extinction of
other species and the ecosystem itself.

Multiple Effects of Losing Apex Predators – Scientists claim that the loss of these species has
contributed to pandemics, fires, the invasive spread of species, the deterioration of ecosystem
services, and a drop in carbon sequestration.

Pollination is negatively impacted as approximately all blooming plants in the tropical rainforest are
pollinated by animals, as are 75% of the world’s food crops, which are either entirely or partially
pollinated by insects and other animals.

Losing the healing benefits of Nature – More than 25% of prescription drugs include compounds
that were found in plants or animals. The source of penicillin was a fungus.
Increased Human-Wildlife conflict due to habitat loss and deforestation. For ex: In reserves, 125
people were killed by tigers between 2019 and 2021. With 6 deaths, Maharashtra accounted for
almost half of these.

This also leads to other Impacts such as damage to crops, increased cruelty towards animals, the
economic burden on farmers, etc.

Destruction of Livelihood – According to a study for the U.N., the continued loss of species could
cost the world 18 percent of global economic output by 2050.