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3
 22EC401 CONTROL ENGINEERING

Department : ECE
Batch/Year : 2023-2027/II
Created by : Mr. A. Sivakumar AP/ECE
Ms. K. Jeevitha AP/ECE

4
Table of Contents
1. Course Objectives
2. Pre Requisites (Course Names with Code)
3. Syllabus (With Subject Code, Name, LTPC details)
4. Course outcomes
5. CO - PO/PSO Mapping
6. Lecture Plan
7. Activity based learning
8. Lecture Notes
9. Assignments
10. Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)
11. Part B Q & A (with K level and CO)
12. Supportive online Certification courses
13. Real time Application in day to day life and Industry
14. Contents beyond the Syllabus
15. Assessment Schedule
16. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books
17. Mini Project suggestions

5
 1. Course Objectives

To understand the transfer function models of mechanical

and electrical systems.

To develop adequate knowledge in the time response of

systems and steady stat error analysis.

To analyse the open loop and closed loop frequency response

of linear systems.

To introduce stability analysis and design of compensators of

linear systems.

To introduce state variable representation of physical

systems.

6
 2.Pre Requisites
(Course Names with Code)

22MA201 Transforms and Numerical Methods

22EC201 Electron Devices and Circuit Theory

7
 3. SYLLABUS

22EC401 CONTROL ENGINEERING LTPC 3024

UNIT I MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Basic elements in control systems: Open and closed loop systems –
Mathematical model and Electrical analogy of mechanical systems –
Transfer function – Block diagram reduction techniques – Signal flow
graphs - Applications of Control system.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Determine the transfer function of the given closed loop system
using MATLAB
2. Implement unity and non-unity feedback system using MATLAB.

UNIT II TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Time response: Time domain specifications – Types of test input – I and
II order system response – Error coefficients – Generalized error series –
Steady state error – Effects of P, PI, PID modes of feedback control
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
3. Estimate the unit step response of the given transfer function and
determine its time domain parameters using MATLAB.
4. Determine the steady state error of the given transfer function using
MATLAB.
5. Simulate P, PD, PI, PID controller and verify by using hardware
UNIT III FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS
Frequency response analysis – Bode plot – Polar plot. Determination of
closed loop response from open loop response –M and N circles.
Correlation between frequency domain and time domain specifications.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
6. Perform stability analysis of a given transfer function using gain and
phase margins estimated by the Bode plot using MATLAB.
7. Estimate the relative stability of a given transfer function using gain
and phase margins estimated by the Polar plot using MATLAB.

8
UNIT IV STABILITY AND COMPENSATOR DESIGN
Characteristics equation – Routh Hurwitz criterion- Root locus
construction – Effect of Lag, lead and lag-lead compensation on
frequency response - Design of Lag, lead and lag lead compensator
using bode plots.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
8. Sketch the root locus of the given transfer function and locate the
closed loop poles for different values of open loop gain (K) using
MATLAB.

UNIT V STATE VARIABLE AND STATE SPACE

MODELLING
Concept of state variables – State models for linear and time invariant
Systems – Solution of state and output equation in controllable canonical
form – Concepts of controllability and observability.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
9. Construct the State space model for the classical transfer function
using MATLAB.
10. Perform analytical study of water flow measurement using flow
meter

9
 4. Course outcomes

Upon completion of the course, the student should be able to:

CO1: Develop mathematical model of linear mechanical

and electrical systems

CO2: Model the time response analysis of first and second

order systems

CO3: Analyze the frequency response of open and closed

loop systems

CO4: Design the compensators for Linear Systems

CO5: Analyze stability methods for Linear Systems

CO6: Examine the state variables, controllability and

observability of linear and time invariant systems

10
CO
5.CO- PO/PSO Mapping

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES(PO) PSO*

PO11
PO10

PO12

PSO1

PSO2

PSO3
PO6
PO1

PO2

PO3

PO4

PO5

PO7

PO9
P08
CO6 CO5 CO4 CO3 CO2 CO1

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

*Program Specific Outcome

11
 6. Lecture Plan
UNIT V STATE VARIABLE AND STATE SPACE MODELLING

Proposed

Taxonom
pertainin

Delivery
Mode of
Periods

y level
Actual
No. of

Date

g CO
S.No

date
Topic

Chalk
Concept of state
1 1 CO6 K2 and
variables
Board
Chalk
State models for
2 1 CO6 K2 and
linear Systems
Board

Chalk
State models for time
3 1 CO6 K2 and
invariant Systems
Board

Solution of state and

Chalk
output equation in
4 1 CO6 K3 and
controllable canonical
Board
form
Chalk
Problems in Solution
5 1 CO6 K3 and
to state equation Board
Concepts of Chalk
6 Controllability and 1 CO6 K2 and
Observability Board

Problems in Chalk
7 Controllability using 1 CO6 K2 and
Kalman’s Method Board

Problems in Chalk
8 Observability using 1 CO6 K2 and
Kalman’s Method Board
Problems in
Chalk
Controllability and
9 1 CO6 K2 and
Observability using
Board
Gilberts Method

12 12
 7 Activity based learning
Activity 1- Match the following
1. |QC| = 0 - a. Fs <= 2 fm
2. Order of A matrix is 3 - b. One of the output variable
3. Physical variable - c. Not controllable
4. Phase variable - d. 3 State Variable
5. Sampling Theorem - e. Energy storing elements

Activity 2- Circle the Key Word with help of the given statements
1. It is one of the method to find the controllability
2. State Model consists of state equation and ________ equation
3. In electrical system it is one the state variable
4. It is applicable to Non linear and Time variant system
5. If |Qo| 0 then the system is completely ________________

S T A T E M O D E L

A K Z P L Q V G X E

N I P C I O X I E S

D T N M W G H L Y R

O B S E R V A B L E

U C T E R N L E M T

T T E R I F A R N B

P C A P A C I T E R

U A B L K I C N M J

T E C L J O P E Z Q

Answers: Match : 1-c, 2-d, 3-e, 4-b, 5-a

Circle the word : Gilbert, Output, Capacitor, Statemodel, observable

13 13
 8 Lecture Notes
UNIT 5 STATE VARIABLE AND STATE SPACE MODELLING

INTRODUCTION

In conventional control method, transfer function are used to characterize the input-
output relationships of systems.

 It is applicable only to Linear time invariant systems.

 The conventional control system is limited to single input and single output system.

 The method describes only the relationship between input and output of system,
but does not provide any information regarding the internal state of the system.

 The transfer function describes only the zero state response of a system.

The above drawbacks in transfer function modeling can be overcome by an other

method of modeling known as state variable Analysis Approach.

STATE SPACE REPRESENTATION

State space representation of a given system consists of two equations.

(i) State Equation

(ii) (ii)Output Equation

Both above equations must be represented as function of state variables and input. Let
as consider modern control system as shown in figure.

Fig.5.1 State Space representation of control system

14 14
State:

The state is a condition of a system at any time instant ‘t’.

State Variable:

A set of variables which describes the sate of the system at any time instant are
called State Variable.

The state model of linear time invariant system is

ሶ = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡)
𝑋(𝑡) ---(5.1)

𝑌(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐷𝑈(𝑡) ---(5.2)

Where, X(t) = State vector

U(t) = Input vector

A = System matrix

B = Input matrix

Y(t) = Output vector

C = Output matrix

D =Transition matrix

Relationship between the state equation and Transfer function

Let, ሶ = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡)

𝑋(𝑡) ---(5.3)

𝑌(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐷𝑈(𝑡) ---(5.4)

Taking Laplace transform on both sides in equation (5.3) & (5.4)

𝑠𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐴𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐵𝑈(𝑠)

𝑋(𝑠) 𝑠 − 𝐴 =𝐵𝑈(𝑠)

Multiply s with Identity matrix I and rearrange the above equation

𝑋(𝑠) 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =𝐵𝑈(𝑠) ---(5.5)

15 15
 𝐵𝑈(𝑠)
𝑋 𝑠 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑋 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
𝐵𝑈 𝑠 ---(5.6)

From equation (5.4)

𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐶𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐷𝑈 𝑠 ---(5.7)

Substitute (5.6) in (5.7)

−1
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐶 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝐵𝑈 𝑠 + 𝐷𝑈 𝑠

𝑌 𝑠
𝑈(𝑠)
= 𝐶 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
𝐵+𝐷 ---(5.8)

Problems:

0 1
1.Obtain the transfer function model for the following state model system. A= ,
−6 −5
1
B= ,C= 1 0 , D=[0].
0

Solution:

𝑌 𝑠 −1
= 𝐶 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝐵+𝐷
𝑈(𝑠)

Step 1: To Find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑠 0 0 1 𝑠 −1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = - =
0 𝑠 −6 −5 6 𝑠+5

Step 2: To Find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1

−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑇
𝑠+5 −6
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)=
1 𝑠
𝑠+5 1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
−6 𝑠
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠 𝑠 + 5 + 6
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 6

−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 1 𝑠+5 1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = = 2
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑠 + 5𝑠 + 6 −6 𝑠

16 16
Step 3: To find Transfer function

𝑌 𝑠 −1
= 𝐶 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝐵+𝐷
𝑈(𝑠)

1 𝑠+5 1 1
=1 0 +[0]
𝑠2 +5𝑠+6 −6 𝑠 0

𝑠+5 1
𝑠2 +5𝑠+6 𝑠2 +5𝑠+6 1
=1 0 −6 𝑠 0
𝑠2 +5𝑠+6 𝑠2 +5𝑠+6

𝑠+5 1 1
=
𝑠2 + 5𝑠 + 6 𝑠 + 5𝑠 + 6 0
2

𝑌(𝑠) 𝑠+5
= 2
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + 5𝑠 + 6

2.Obtain the transfer function model for the following state model system.

−3 1 1
A= , B= ,C= 1 1 , D=[0].
0 −1 1

Solution:

𝑌 𝑠 −1
= 𝐶 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝐵+𝐷
𝑈(𝑠)

Step 1: To Find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑠 0 −3 1 𝑠+3 −1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = - =
0 𝑠 0 −1 0 𝑠+1

Step 2: To Find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1

−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)

𝑠+1 1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
0 𝑠+3
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 3 = 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 3

17 17
 −1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 1 𝑠+1 1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = = 2
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 3 0 𝑠+3

Step 3: To find Transfer function

𝑌 𝑠 −1
= 𝐶 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝐵+𝐷
𝑈(𝑠)

1 𝑠+1 1 1
=1 1 +[0]
𝑠2 +4𝑠+3 0 𝑠+3 1

𝑠+1 1
𝑠2 +4𝑠+3 𝑠2 +4𝑠+3 1
=1 1 𝑠+3
0 1
𝑠2 +4𝑠+3

𝑠+1 1 𝑠+3 1
= + 2
𝑠2 + 4𝑠 + 3 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 3 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 3 1
2

𝑠+1 𝑠+4 1
=
𝑠2 + 4𝑠 + 3 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 3 1
2

𝑌(𝑠) 2𝑠 + 5
= 2
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 3

3.A system is represented by the state equation 𝑋ሶ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈, 𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 =

0 1 0 0
0 −1 1 , B= 0 , C = 1 0 0 . Determine the transfer function.
0 −1 −10 10
Solution:

Step 1: To find

𝑠 0 0 0 1 0 s −1 0
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 0 𝑠 0 - 0 −1 1 = 0 s+1 −1
0 0 𝑠 0 −1 −10 0 1 s + 10
Step 2: To Find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1

−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)

18 18
 𝑇
𝑠+1 −1
−0 +0
1 𝑠 + 10
−1 0 𝑠 0 𝑠 −1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = − + −
𝑠 + 1 −1 0 𝑠 + 10 0 𝑠+1
−1 0 𝑠 0 𝑠 −1
+ − +
𝑠 + 1 −1 0 −1 0 𝑠+1
𝑇
𝑠 2 + 11𝑠 + 11 0 0
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 2
s + 10 𝑠 + 10𝑠 −𝑠
1 s 𝑠2 + 1

𝑠 2 + 11𝑠 + 11 s + 10 1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 0 𝑠 2 + 10𝑠 𝑠
2
0 −𝑠 𝑠 +1

−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

1 𝑠 2 + 11𝑠 + 11 s + 10 1
= 3 0 𝑠 2 + 10𝑠 𝑠
𝑠 + 11𝑠 2 + 11𝑠 2
0 −𝑠 𝑠 +1

Step 3: To find Transfer function

𝑌 𝑠 −1
= 𝐶 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝐵+𝐷
𝑈(𝑠)

𝑠2 +11𝑠+11 𝑠+10 1
𝑠3 +11𝑠2 +11𝑠 𝑠3 +11𝑠2 +11𝑠 𝑠3 +11𝑠2 +11𝑠 0
𝑠2 +10𝑠 𝑠
=1 0 0 0 0
𝑠 +11𝑠2 +11𝑠
3 𝑠3 +11𝑠2 +11𝑠
−𝑠 𝑠2 +1 10
0 𝑠3 +11𝑠2 +11𝑠 𝑠 +11𝑠2 +11𝑠
3

0
𝑠 2 + 11𝑠 + 11 𝑠 + 10 1
= 0
𝑠 3 + 11𝑠 2 + 11𝑠 𝑠 + 11𝑠 2 + 11𝑠
3 𝑠 3 + 11𝑠 2 + 11𝑠 10

𝑌(𝑠) 10
= 3
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + 11𝑠 2 + 11𝑠

19 19
4.The state space representation of a system is given below

𝑋1ሶ −2 1 0 𝑥1 0 𝑥1
𝑋2 = 0 −3 1 𝑥2 + 0 u; y = 0
ሶ 1 0 𝑥2 . Obtain the transfer function.
𝑋3ሶ −3 −4 −5 𝑥3 1 𝑥3

Solution:

We already know that 𝑋ሶ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑋 + 𝐷𝑈

−2 1 0 0
Therefore A= 0 −3 1 , B= 0 and C= 0 1 0
−3 −4 −5 1

Step 1: To find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑠 0 0 −2 1 0 s + 2 −1 0
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 0 𝑠 0- 0 −3 1 = 0 s + 3 −1
0 0 𝑠 −3 −4 −5 3 4 s+5

Step 2: To Find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1

−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)

𝑇
𝑠 + 3 −1 0 −1 0 𝑠+3
− +
4 𝑠+5 3 𝑠+5 3 4
−1 0 𝑠+2 0 𝑠 + 2 −1
− + −
4 𝑠+5 3 𝑠+5 3 4
−1 0 𝑠+2 0 𝑠 + 2 −1
+ − +
𝑠 + 3 −1 0 −1 0 𝑠+3
𝑇
𝑠 2 + 8𝑠 + 19 −3 −3s − 9
s+5 𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 + 10 −4𝑠 − 11
3s + 9 𝑠+2 𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 6

𝑠 2 + 8𝑠 + 19 𝑠+5 1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = −3 𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 + 10 𝑠+2
−3s − 9 −4𝑠 − 11 𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 6

20 20
 s + 2 −1 0
To find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 0 s+3 −1
3 4 s+5

= (s+2) (s+3)(s+5)+4 +3

𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =𝑠 3 +10𝑠 2 +35s+41

−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

1 𝑠 2 + 8𝑠 + 19 𝑠+5 1
= 3 −3 𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 + 10 𝑠+2
𝑠 +10𝑠 2 + 35𝑠 + 41
−3s − 9 −4𝑠 − 11 𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 6

Step 3: To find Transfer function

𝑌 𝑠 −1
= 𝐶 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝐵+𝐷
𝑈(𝑠)

𝑠2 +8𝑠+19 𝑠+5 1
𝑠3 +10𝑠2 +35𝑠+41 𝑠3 +10𝑠2 +35𝑠+41 𝑠3 +10𝑠2 +35𝑠+41 0
−3 𝑠2 +7𝑠+10 𝑠+2
=0 1 0 0
𝑠 +10𝑠2 +35𝑠+41
3 𝑠3 +10𝑠2 +35𝑠+41 𝑠 +10𝑠2 +35𝑠+41
3
−3s−9 −4𝑠−11 𝑠2 +5𝑠+6 1
𝑠 +10𝑠2 +35𝑠+41
3 𝑠 +10𝑠2 +35𝑠+41
3 𝑠 +10𝑠2 +35𝑠+41
3

0
−3 𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 + 10 𝑠+2
= 0
𝑠 3 +10𝑠 2 + 35𝑠 + 41 𝑠 3 +10𝑠 2 + 35𝑠 + 41 𝑠 3 +10𝑠 2 + 35𝑠 + 41 1

𝑌 𝑠 𝑠+2
= 3
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 +10𝑠 2 + 35𝑠 + 41

21 21
 𝑥1ሶ 0 1 𝑥1 0
5.Obtain the Transfer function of the LTI system = + 𝑢;
𝑥2ሶ −2 −3 𝑥2 1

𝑥1
y = 1 0 𝑥 and also check the stability of the system.
2

Solution:

0 1 0
A= , B= and C= 1 0
−2 −3 1

𝑌 𝑠 −1
= 𝐶 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝐵+𝐷
𝑈(𝑠)

Step 1: To Find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑠 0 0 1 𝑠 −1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = - =
0 𝑠 −2 −3 2 𝑠+3

Step 2: To Find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1

−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑇
𝑠 + 3 −2
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)=
1 𝑠

𝑠+3 1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
−2 𝑠

𝑠 −1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = =𝑠 𝑠+3 +2
2 𝑠+3
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2

−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 1 𝑠+3 1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = = 2
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 −2 𝑠

22 22
Step 3: To find Transfer function

𝑌 𝑠 −1
= 𝐶 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝐵+𝐷
𝑈(𝑠)

1 𝑠+3 1 0
=1 0 +[0]
𝑠2 +3𝑠+2 −2 𝑠 1

𝑠+3 1
𝑠2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠2 +3𝑠+2 0
=1 0 −2 𝑠 1
2
𝑠 +3𝑠+2 2
𝑠 +3𝑠+2

𝑠+3 1 0
=
𝑠2 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 1
2

𝑌(𝑠) 1
= 2
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2

𝑌(𝑠) 1
The transfer of the given system is = 𝑠2 +3𝑠+2
𝑈(𝑠)

To check for Stability of the system

𝑠2: 𝟏 𝟐

𝑠1 : 3

𝑠1 : 2

From the first column of Routh Array, it is observed that all elements are positive. So

the system is stable.

23 23
STATE VARIABLE REPRESENTATION USING PHYSICAL
VARIABLES.

The state variables are the minimum number of variables associated with
all the initial conditions of the system

To obtain the state model for the given system, it is necessary to select
the state variables. Many a times, the physical quantities of the system itself are
selected as a state variables.

For electrical systems, the current through the inductors and the voltage
across the capacitors are selected to be the state variables. Then by any method of
network analysis, the equation must be written in terms of the selected state
variables, their derivatives and the input. The equation must be rearranged in the
standard form to obtain the required state model.

Procedure to obtain state equation

(i) Write KVL for the given electrical network.

(ii) Choose the current through the inductor and the voltage across the capacitor as
a state variable(𝑋1 , 𝑋2 … )

(iii) Choose the exciting source as the input u

(iv) Choose the voltage drop across the resistor as output y

(v) Substitute the state variables in KVL equations and rearrange equation to
obtain state model.

Problems
1. Obtain the state model of the given electrical network.

24 24
Solution:

There are two energy storage elements L and C. So the two state variables are
current through inductor i(t) and voltage across capacitor 𝑉0 𝑡 .

Therefore 𝑋1 (t) =i(t) and 𝑋2 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑡 .

And U(t) =𝑉𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

Apply KVL to the loop

𝑑𝑖 (𝑡)
𝑉𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 R + L + 𝑉0 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑖(𝑡)
Arrange it for 𝑑𝑡
,

𝑑 𝑖(𝑡) 1 𝑅 1 𝑑 𝑖(𝑡)
= 𝐿 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 − 𝐿 𝑖 𝑡 − 𝐿 𝑉0 𝑡 but = 𝑋ሶ 1 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑅 1 1
𝑥1ሶ 𝑡 = − 𝐿 𝑥1 (𝑡) − 𝐿 𝑥2 (𝑡) + 𝐿 𝑈 𝑡 ---(1)

1
𝑉0 𝑡 = Voltage across the capacitor= ‫𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝑖 ׬‬
𝐶

𝑑𝑉0 𝑡 1 𝑑𝑉0 𝑡
= 𝑖 t but = x2ሶ (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡

1
𝑥ሶ2 𝑡 = 𝐶 𝑥1 (𝑡) ---(2)

The equation (1) and (2) gives the required state equation

𝑅 1
𝑥1ሶ − − 𝐿 𝑥1 (𝑡) 1
= 1𝐿 + 𝐿 U(t)
𝑥2ሶ 0 𝑥2 (𝑡) 0
𝐶

ሶ = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡)
𝑋(𝑡)

While the output variable Y(t)=𝑉0 𝑡 = 𝑥2 (𝑡)

𝑥1 (𝑡)
Y(t)= 0 1 + 0 U(t)
𝑥2 (𝑡)

25 25
2.Obtained the state model of the given electrical network in the standard form

Solution:

U(t)= input = ei 𝑡

Y(t) = output =𝑒0 𝑡

State variables: 𝑥1 (𝑡)=i1 𝑡 , 𝑥2 (𝑡) =i2 𝑡 and 𝑥3 (𝑡) =𝑉c 𝑡

𝑑𝑖1 (t)
ei 𝑡 = 𝐿1 + 𝑉c 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖1 (t) 1 1
= ei 𝑡 − 𝑉 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿1 𝐿1 c

1 1
𝑥1ሶ 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑈 𝑡 − 𝐿 𝑥3 (𝑡) ---(1)
1 1

𝑑𝑖2 (t)
𝑉c 𝑡 = 𝐿2 + R 2 i2 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖2 (t) R2 1
= − i2 𝑡 + 𝑉c 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿2 𝐿2

R 1
𝑥ሶ2 𝑡 = − 𝐿 2 𝑥2 𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑥3 𝑡 ---(2)
2 2

𝑑𝑉c 𝑡
𝐶 = 𝑖1 (𝑡) − 𝑖2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉c 𝑡 1 1
= 𝑖1 (𝑡) − 𝑖2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝐶

1 1
𝑥3ሶ 𝑡 = 𝐶 𝑥1 (𝑡) − 𝐶 𝑥2 (𝑡) ---(3)

26 26
From (1),(2) and (3), we get
1
0 0 −𝐿 1
𝑥1ሶ 1 𝑥1 (𝑡)
R2 1 𝐿1
𝑥2ሶ = 0 − 𝐿2 𝐿2
𝑥2 (𝑡) +
0 U t
𝑥3ሶ 1 1 𝑥3 𝑡 0
− 0
𝐶 𝐶

ሶ = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡)
𝑋(𝑡)
𝑒0 𝑡 = R 2 𝑖2 (𝑡)
𝑌 𝑡 = R 2 𝑥2 (𝑡)

𝑥1 (𝑡)
Y(t) = 0 R 2 0 2 (𝑡)
𝑥 Where D=0.
𝑥3 𝑡
𝑌(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐷𝑈(𝑡)

STATE SPACE REPRESENTATION USING PHASE VARIABLE

The phase variables are those state variables which are obtained by
assuming one of the system as a state variable and other state variables are the
derivatives of the selected system variable. Most of the time, system variable used is
the output variable which is used to select the state variable.

Such set of phase variables are easily obtained if the differential equation
of the system is known or the system transfer function is available.

Method 1:

Consider the following 𝑛𝑡ℎ order linear differential equation relating the output y(t)
to the input u(t) of a system,

𝑛.+𝑎 𝑛−1. + 𝑎 𝑛−2. +……. +𝑎

𝑦 1 𝑦 1 𝑦 𝑛−2 𝑦ሷ ++𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦ሶ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑢 ---(5.9)

By Choosing the output y and their derivatives as state variables , we get,

𝑥1 = 𝑦

𝑥2 = 𝑦ሶ

27 27
 𝑥3 = 𝑦ሷ

𝑛−1. 𝑛.
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑦 ∴ 𝑥𝑛ሶ = 𝑦

On substituting the state variable in differential equation governing the system

equation (5.9), we get

𝑥𝑛ሶ + 𝑎1 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑎2 𝑥𝑛−1 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥3 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥1 = 𝑏𝑢

𝑥𝑛ሶ = −𝑎1 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑎2 𝑥𝑛−1 − ⋯ 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥3 − 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥2 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑢

The state equation of the system are

𝑥1ሶ = 𝑥2

𝑥ሶ2 = 𝑥3

𝑥𝑛−1
ሶ = 𝑥𝑛

𝑥𝑛ሶ = −𝑎1 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑎2 𝑥𝑛−1 − ⋯ 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥3 − 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥2 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑢

On arranging the above equation in matrix form we get,

𝑥1ሶ 0 1 0 … 0 0 𝑥1 0
𝑥2ሶ 0 0 1 … 0 0 𝑥2 0
⋮ = ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ … ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ + ⋮ [𝑢 ]
𝑥𝑛−1ሶ 0 0 0 … 0 1 𝑥𝑛−1 0
𝑥𝑛ሶ −𝑎0 −𝑎1 −𝑎2 … −𝑎𝑛−2 −𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥𝑛 𝑏0
𝑋ሶ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈

Here, the Matrix A has a very special form. It has all 1’s in the upper off-
diagonal, its last row is comprised of the negative coefficients of the original
differential equation and all other elements are zero. This form of matrix A is known
as Bush form or Companion form
𝑥1
𝑥2
𝑌 = [1 0 … 0 0] ⋮
𝑥𝑛−1
𝑥𝑛
𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋.

28 28
Method II

Consider the following 𝑛𝑡ℎ order linear differential equation relating the output y(t)
to the input u(t) of a system,

𝑛.
𝑦+𝑎1
𝑛−1.
𝑦 +……. +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦ሶ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑏0 𝑚.𝑢+𝑏1 𝑚−1.𝑢 +……. +𝑏𝑚−1 𝑢ሶ + 𝑏𝑚 𝑢

Let m=n=3,

∴ഺ
𝑦 + 𝑎1 𝑦ሷ + 𝑎2 𝑦ሶ + 𝑎3 𝑦 = 𝑏0 𝑢
ഺ + 𝑏1 𝑢ሷ + 𝑏2 𝑢ሶ + 𝑏3 𝑢 ---(5.10)

On taking the Laplace transform of equ(5.10) with zero initial conditions, we get
𝑠 3 𝑌 𝑠 + 𝑎1 𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 𝑎3 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑏0 𝑠 3 𝑈 𝑠 + 𝑏1 𝑠 2 𝑈 𝑠 + 𝑏2 𝑠𝑈 𝑠 + 𝑏3 𝑈(𝑠)
(𝑠 3 + 𝑎1 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 𝑠 + 𝑎3 )𝑌 𝑠 = ( 𝑏0 𝑠 3 +𝑏1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏2 𝑠 + 𝑏3 )𝑈(𝑠)

𝑌(𝑠) 𝑏0 𝑠3 +𝑏1 𝑠2 +𝑏2 𝑠+𝑏3

∴𝑈(𝑠) = 𝑠3 +𝑎1 𝑠2 +𝑎2 𝑠+𝑎3

𝑌(𝑠) 𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑌(𝑠)

Let, =
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑈(𝑠) 𝑋1 (𝑠)

𝑋1 (𝑠) 1
Where, = 𝑠3 +𝑎 2 +𝑎 𝑠+𝑎 ---(5.11)
𝑈(𝑠) 1 𝑠 2 3

𝑌(𝑠)
= 𝑏0 𝑠 3 + 𝑏1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏2 𝑠 + 𝑏3 ---(5.12)
𝑋1 (𝑠)

On cross multiplying the equ(5.11) we get,

𝑋1 𝑠 𝑠 3 + 𝑎1 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 𝑠 + 𝑎3 = 𝑈(𝑠)

𝑠 3 𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑎1 𝑠 2 𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑎3 𝑋1 𝑠 = 𝑈(𝑠) ---(5.13)

On taking the inverse Laplace transform of equ(5.13) we get,

𝑥ഺ1 + 𝑎1 𝑥1ሷ + 𝑎2 𝑥1ሶ + 𝑎3 𝑥1 = 𝑢 ---(5.14)

Let the state variable be 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥3

Where, 𝑥2 = 𝑥1ሶ

And 𝑥3 =𝑥1ሷ = 𝑥2ሶ ; 𝑥3ሶ = 𝑥ഺ1

29 29
On Substituting these variables in eqn(5.14) we get,
𝑥3ሶ + 𝑎1 𝑥3 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + 𝑎3 𝑥1 = 𝑢

𝑥3ሶ = −𝑎1 𝑥3 − 𝑎2 𝑥2 − 𝑎3 𝑥1 +u

The state equations are

𝑥1ሶ = 𝑥2

𝑥2ሶ = 𝑥3

𝑥3ሶ = −𝑎1 𝑥3 − 𝑎2 𝑥2 − 𝑎3 𝑥1 +u

On cross multiplying the eqn(5.12)

𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑏0 𝑠 3 𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑏1 𝑠 2 𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑏2 𝑠𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑏3 𝑋1 (𝑠) ---(5.15)

On taking the inverse laplace transform of equ(5.15) we get,

𝑦 = 𝑏0 𝑥ഺ1 + 𝑏1 𝑥1ሷ + 𝑏2 𝑥1ሶ + 𝑏3 𝑥1 ---(5.16)

On substituting the state variables in equ(5.16) we get,

𝑦 = 𝑏0 𝑥3ሶ + 𝑏1 𝑥3 + 𝑏2 𝑥2 + 𝑏3 𝑥1 ---(5.17)

Put 𝑥3ሶ = −𝑎1 𝑥3 − 𝑎2 𝑥2 − 𝑎3 𝑥1 +u in equ(5.17)

∴ 𝑦 = 𝑏0 (−𝑎1 𝑥3 − 𝑎2 𝑥2 − 𝑎3 𝑥1 +u) + 𝑏1 𝑥3 + 𝑏2 𝑥2 + 𝑏3 𝑥1

𝑦 = 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏0 𝑥1 + 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏0 𝑥2 + 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏0 𝑥3 + 𝑏0 u ---(5.18)

The above equation (5.18) is the state equation.

On arranging the state equation and output equation in matrix form, we get,

𝑥1ሶ 0 1 0 𝑥1 0
𝑥2ሶ = 0 0 1 𝑥2 + 0 u; ---(5.19)
𝑥3ሶ −𝑎3 −𝑎2 −𝑎1 𝑥3 1

𝑥1
y= 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏0 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏0 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏0 𝑥2 ---(5.20)
𝑥3

30 30
Advantages of phase variables

The state space model can be directly formed by inspection from the
differential equations governing the system.

The phase variable provides a link between the transfer design approach
and the time domain design approach.

Disadvantages of phase variable

The phase variables are not physical variables of the system and therefore
are not available for measurement and control purpose.

Problems:

Finding the state model from transfer function.

1. Obtain the state model of the system whose transfer function is given by

𝑌 𝑠 10
= 3
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 +4𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1

Solution:

𝑌 𝑠 10
Given = 𝑠3 +4𝑠2 +2𝑠+1
𝑈(𝑠)

𝑌 𝑠 𝑠 3 +4𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1 =10U(s)
𝑠 3 𝑌 𝑠 +4𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 1𝑌 𝑠 = 10𝑈 𝑠

Step 1:

Taking Inverse Laplace transform on both sides

𝑦ഺ + 4𝑦ሷ + 2𝑦ሶ + 𝑦 = 10𝑢 ---(1)

Step 2:

Assigning state variable

𝑦 = 𝑥1
𝑦ሶ = 𝑥2
𝑦ሷ = 𝑥3 ൪ ---(2)
𝑦ഺ = 𝑥3ሶ

31 31
Step 3 :

Substituting (2)in (1)

𝑥3ሶ + 4𝑥3 + 2𝑥2 +𝑥1 =10𝑢 ---(3)

Step 4:

Write state equation.

𝑥1 = 𝑦

𝑥2 = 𝑥1ሶ = 𝑦ሶ and 𝑥3 = 𝑥2ሶ = 𝑦ሷ

The state equation are

𝑥1ሶ = 𝑥2

𝑥2ሶ = 𝑥3
𝑥3ሶ = 10𝑢 − 𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 4𝑥3

The output equation is

Y=𝑥1
Step 5 :
Writing State Model Matrix
𝑥1ሶ 0 1 0 𝑥1 0
𝑥2ሶ = 0 0 1 𝑥2 + 0 u;
𝑥3ሶ −1 −2 −4 𝑥3 10
𝑥1
y= 1 0 0 𝑥2
𝑥3

𝑌 𝑠
2. Obtain the state model of the system whose transfer function is given by =
𝑈(𝑠)

5
𝑠2 +6𝑠+7

Solution:

𝑌 𝑠 5
Given = 𝑠2 +6𝑠+7
𝑈(𝑠)

32 32
𝑌 𝑠 𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 7 =5U(s)
𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 + 6𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 7𝑌 𝑠 = 5𝑈 𝑠

Step 1:

Taking Inverse Laplace transform on both sides

𝑦ሷ + 6𝑦ሶ + 7𝑦 = 5𝑢 ---(1)

Step 2:

Assigning state variable

𝑥1 = 𝑦
𝑥1ሶ = 𝑦ሶ = 𝑥2 ൩ ----(2)
𝑥2ሶ = 𝑦ሷ

Step 3 :

Substituting (2)in (1)

𝑥1ሶ = 𝑥2

𝑥2ሶ = 5𝑢 + 6𝑥2 +7𝑥1 ---(3)

𝑥1ሶ 0 1 𝑥1 0
= + u
𝑥2ሶ 7 6 𝑥2 5

Output equation and output matrix:

Y=𝑥1
𝑥1
1 0 𝑥
2

3.Construct a state model for a system characterized by the differential equation

𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+6 +11 𝑑𝑡 + 6𝑦 + 𝑢 = 0
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 2

Solution:

Let us choose y and their derivative as state variables. The system is governed by
third order differential equation and so the number of state variables are three.

33 33
Solution:

Let us choose y and their derivative as state variables. The system is governed by
third order differential equation and so the number of state variables are three.

The state variables 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 and 𝑥3 are related to phase variables as follows,

𝑥1 = 𝑦

𝑑𝑦
𝑥2 = = 𝑥1ሶ
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑦
𝑥3 = = 𝑥2ሶ
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑3 𝑦
𝑥3ሶ =
𝑑𝑡 3

Substitute all the above equation in the given equation,

𝑥3ሶ + 6𝑥3 + 11𝑥2 + 6𝑥1 + 𝑢 = 0
𝑥3ሶ = −6𝑥3 − 11𝑥2 − 6𝑥1 − 𝑢

The state equations are

𝑥1ሶ = 𝑥2
𝑥2ሶ = 𝑥3
𝑥3ሶ = −6𝑥3 − 11𝑥2 − 6𝑥1 − 𝑢

On arranging the state equation in matrix form we get,

𝑥1ሶ 0 1 0 𝑥1 0
𝑥2ሶ = 0 0 1 𝑥2 + 0 𝑢
𝑥3ሶ −6 −11 −6 𝑥3 −1

Here y = output
𝑦 = 𝑥1

𝑥1
𝑥
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 1 0 0 2
𝑥3

34 34
4.Obtain the state space model for LTI system whose transfer system is given by
−2𝑠+1
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑠3 +5𝑠2 +3𝑠+1.

Solution:

𝐶 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
= 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐻 𝑠 = 1
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)

𝐶 𝑠 −2𝑠 + 1
= 3
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 +5𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 1 − 2𝑠 + 1

−2𝑠 + 1
=
𝑠 3 +5𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 2

Let C(s)=Y(s) and R(s)=U(s)

𝑌 𝑠 −2𝑠 + 1
= 3
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 +5𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 2

𝑌 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠 𝑋 𝑠
= .
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑋(𝑠) 𝑈(𝑠)

𝑌 𝑠 1
= −2𝑠 + 1 . 3
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 +5𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 2

𝑋 𝑠 1
∴ = 3
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 +5𝑠 + 𝑠 + 2
2

𝑋 𝑠 𝑠 3 +5𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 2 = U s
𝑋 𝑠 𝑠 3 +5𝑠 2 𝑋(𝑠) + 𝑠𝑋(𝑠) + 2𝑋(𝑠) = U s

Taking Inverse Laplace Transform of the above equation

𝑥ഺ + 5𝑥ሷ + 𝑥ሶ + 2𝑥 = 𝑢 ---(1)

Assigning the state variables

𝑥1 = 𝑥

𝑥1ሶ = 𝑥ሶ = 𝑥2
𝑥2ሶ = 𝑥1ሷ = 𝑥3 ቏ −− −(2)
𝑥3ሶ = 𝑥ഺ1

35 35
Substitute eqn(2) in eqn(1)
𝑥3ሶ + 5𝑥3 + 𝑥2 + 2𝑥1 = u
𝑥3ሶ = −2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 + u

Writing the state equations:

𝑥1ሶ = 𝑥2
𝑥2ሶ = 𝑥3
𝑥3ሶ = −2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 + u

Writing State Model Matrix

𝑥1ሶ 0 1 0 𝑥1 0
𝑥2ሶ = 0 0 1 𝑥2 + 0 u;
𝑥3ሶ −2 −1 −5 𝑥3 1

𝑌 𝑠
= −2𝑠 + 1
𝑋(𝑠)
𝑌 𝑠 = −2𝑠 + 1 X(s)
−2𝑠X s + X(s)

Take Inverse Laplace Transform

𝑦 = −2 𝑥ሶ + 𝑥 ---(3)

Substitute eqn(2) in eqn(3)

𝑦 = −2𝑥2 + 𝑥1

Writing Output Matrix

𝑥1
The output equation is 𝑦 = 1 −2 0 𝑥2
𝑥3

36 36
CONCEPTS OF CONTROLLABILITY AND OBSERVABILITY
CONTROLABILITY

The controllability verifies the usefulness of a state variable. In the

controllability test, whether the state variable can be controlled to achieve the
desired output. The choice of state variables is arbitrary while forming the state
model. After determining the state model, the controllability of the state variable is
verified. If the state variable is not controllable then we have to go for another state
variable.

Definition of controllability

A system is said to be completely controllable if it is possible to transfer

the state system state from any initial state X(𝑡0 ) to any other desired state X(𝑡𝑑 ) in
specified finite time by a control vector U(t).

The controllability of a state model can be tested by Kalman’s test or Gilbert’s test

Gilbert’s method of testing Controllability

Case(i): When the system matrix has distinct Eigen values

In this case the system matrix can be diagonalized and the state model can be
converted to canonical form.

Consider the state model of the system,

ሶ = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡)
𝑋(𝑡)

𝑌(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐷𝑈(𝑡)

The state model can be converted to canonical form by transformation, X=MZ,

where M is the modal matrix and Z is the transformed state variable vector.

The transformed state model is given by

𝑍ሶ = ∧ 𝑍 + 𝐵𝑈
෨
ሚ + 𝐷𝑈
𝑌 = 𝐶𝑍

37 37
Where , ∧=𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀
𝐵෨ = 𝑀−1 𝐵
𝐶ሚ = 𝐶𝑀

In this case the necessary and sufficient condition for complete

controllability is that, the matrix 𝑩
෩ must have no rows with all zeros. If

any row of the matrix 𝑩

෩ is zero then the corresponding state variable is

uncontrollable.

Case(ii): When the system matrix has repeated Eigen values

In this case the system matrix cannot be diagonalized and the state model can be
converted to Jordan canonical form.

Consider the state model of the system,

𝑋ሶ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈
𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋 + 𝐷𝑈

The state model can be converted to canonical form by transformation, X=MZ,

where M is the modal matrix and Z is the transformed state variable vector.

The transformed state model is given by

𝑍ሶ = 𝐽𝑍 + 𝐵𝑈
෨
ሚ + 𝐷𝑈
𝑌 = 𝐶𝑍

Where , J=𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀
𝐵෨ = 𝑀−1 𝐵
𝐶ሚ = 𝐶𝑀

In this case the system is completely controllable if the elements

of any row of 𝑩
෩ that correspond to the last row of each Jordan block are

not all zeros and the rows corresponding to other state variables must not
have all zeros.

38 38
Kalman’s method of testing controllability :

Consider a system with the state equation, 𝑋ሶ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈 . For this system

composite matrix 𝑄𝑐 can be formed such that,

𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵 … . 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵 ---(5.21)

Where n is the order of the system.(n is equal to the number of state variables)

In this case, the system is completely state controllable if the

rank of the composite matrix 𝑸𝒄 is n.

The rank of the matrix is n, if the determinant of (n x n) composite matrix

𝑄𝑐 is non zero. i.e, if 𝑄𝑐 ≠ 0, then rank of 𝑄𝑐 =n and the system is completely
state controllable.

The advantage in Kalman’s test is that the calculation are simpler. But
disadvantage in Kalmam’s test is that, we cant find the state variable which is
uncontrollable. But in Gilbert’s method we can find the uncontrollable state variable
which is the state variable corresponding to the row of 𝐵෨ which has all zeros.

Condition for complete state controllability in the s-plane:

A necessary and sufficient condition for complete state controllability is

that no cancellation of poles and zeros occur in the transfer function of the system.
If the cancellation occurs the system cannot be controlled in the direction of
cancelled mode.
OBSERVABILITY

In observability test we can find whether the state variable is observable

or measureable. The concept of observability is useful in solving the problem of
reconstructing unmeasurable state variables from measurable ones in the minimum
possible length of time. In state feedback control the estimation of unmeasurable
state variables is essential in order to construct the control signal.

39 39
Definition of observability

A system is said to be completely observable if every state X(t) can be

completely identified by measurements of the output Y(t) over a finite interval.

The observability of a system can be tested by either Gilbert’s method or Kalman’s

method.

Gilbert’s method of testing controllability

Consider the state model of the system,

𝑋ሶ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈; 𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋 + 𝐷𝑈

The state model can be converted to canonical or Jordan canonical form by

transformation, X=MZ, where M is the modal matrix and Z is the transformed state
variable vector.

The transformed state model is given by

𝑍ሶ = ∧ 𝑍 + 𝐵𝑈
෨ ሶ ෨
𝑍 = 𝐽𝑍 + 𝐵𝑈
ሚ +𝐷
𝑌 = 𝐶𝑍 𝑂𝑟 ሚ + 𝐷𝑈
𝑌 = 𝐶𝑍

Where , ∧=𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀; if Eigen values are distinct.

J=𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀; if Eigen values are multiplicity.

𝐵෨ = 𝑀−1 𝐵
𝐶ሚ = 𝐶𝑀

The necessary and sufficient condition for complete observability

is that none of the columns of the matrix 𝑪
෩ be zero. If any of the columns

of 𝑪
෩ all zeros then the corresponding state variable is not observable.

Kalman’s test for Observability

Consider the state model of the system,

𝑋ሶ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈; 𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋 + 𝐷𝑈

40 40
For this system, a composite matrix, 𝑄𝑜 can be formed such that,

𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )3 𝐶 𝑇 … . (𝐴𝑇 )𝑛−1 𝐶 𝑇 ---(5.22)

Where n is the order of the system.(n is equal to the number of state variables)

In this case, the system is completely observable if the rank of

the composite matrix 𝑸𝒐 is n.

The rank of the matrix is n, if the determinant of (n x n) composite matrix

𝑄𝑜 is non zero. i.e, if 𝑄𝑜 ≠ 0, then rank of 𝑄𝑜 =n and the system is completely
observable.

The disadvantage in Kalman’s test is that, the non observable state

variables cannot be determined.

Condition for complete state controllability in the s-plane:

A necessary and sufficient condition for complete state observability is that

no cancellation of poles and zeros occur in the transfer function of the system. If the
cancellation occurs, the cancelled mode cannot be observed in the output.

Problems:

𝑌(𝑠) 3
1. A system is Characterized by if = 𝑠3 +5𝑠2 +11𝑠+6. Identify the first state on the
𝑈(𝑠)

output and determine whether or not the system is completely observable and
controllable.

Solution:

𝑌(𝑠) 3
Given that = 𝑠3 +5𝑠2 +11𝑠+6
𝑈(𝑠)

𝑌 𝑠 𝑠 3 +5𝑠 2 + 11𝑠 + 6 =3U(s)

𝑠 3 𝑌 𝑠 +5𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 + 11𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 6𝑌 𝑠 = 3𝑈 𝑠

Step 1:

Taking Inverse Laplace transform on both sides

𝑦ഺ + 5𝑦ሷ + 11𝑦ሶ + 6𝑦 = 3𝑢 ---(1)

41 41
Step 2: Assigning state variable

𝑦 = 𝑥1
𝑥1ሶ = 𝑦ሶ = 𝑥2
𝑥2ሶ = 𝑦ሷ = 𝑥3 ൪ ---(2)
𝑦ഺ = 𝑥3ሶ

Step 3 :

Substituting (2)in (1)

𝑥3ሶ + 5𝑥3 + 11𝑥2 +6𝑥1 =3𝑢 ---(3)

Step 4: Write state equation.

The state equation are

𝑥1ሶ = 𝑥2

𝑥2ሶ = 𝑥3
𝑥3ሶ = 3𝑢 − 6𝑥1 − 11𝑥2 − 5𝑥3

The output equation is

Y=𝑥1

Step 5 : Writing State Model Matrix

𝑥1ሶ 0 1 0 𝑥1 0
𝑥2 ሶ = 0 0 1 𝑥2 + 0 u;
𝑥3ሶ −6 −11 −5 𝑥3 3

𝑥1
y= 1 0 0 𝑥2
𝑥3

Step 6: Finding A,B and C

0 1 0 0
A= 0 0 1 , B= 0 and C = 1 0 0
−6 −11 −5 3

42 42
Step 7: Checking for Controllability

𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵 … . 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵 ,

here n=3, ∴ 𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵

Finding AB

0 1 0 0
AB= 0 0 1 0
−6 −11 −5 3

0
= 3
−15

Finding 𝐴2 𝐵

0 1 0 0
𝐴2 𝐵=A(AB)= 0 0 1 3
−6 −11 −5 −15

3 3
= −15 = −15
−33 + 75 42

0 0 3
2
𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 = 0 3 −15
3 −15 42

0 0 3
𝑄𝑐 = 0 3 −15
3 −15 42
= 0 − 0 + 3(0 − 9)
= −27 → 𝑄𝑐 ≠ 0

Hence the system is controllable.

Step 8: Checking for observability

𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )3 𝐶 𝑇 … . (𝐴𝑇 )𝑛−1 𝐶 𝑇

Here n=3. hence𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇

43 43
 1 0 0 −6
C=1 0 𝑇 𝑇
0 , 𝐶 = 0 and 𝐴 = 1 0 −11
0 0 1 −5
Finding 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇

0 0 −6 1
𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 = 1 0 −11 0
0 1 −5 0

1
𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 = 0
0

0 0 −6 0
𝑇 2 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
(𝐴 ) 𝐶 = 𝐴 (𝐴 𝐶 ) = 1 0 −11 1
0 1 −5 0

0
(𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇 = 0
1

1 1 0
𝑄𝑜 = 0 0 0 =1
0 0 1
𝑄𝑜 ≠0

Hence the system is observable.

𝑥1ሶ 0 1 0 𝑥1 0
2. Consider the system with state equation 𝑥2ሶ = 0 0 1 𝑥2 + 0 u;
𝑥3 ሶ −6 −11 −6 𝑥3 1

Check the controllability of the system.

Solution:

0 1 0 0
Given that A= 0 0 1 and B= 0
−6 −11 −6 1

44 44
𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵 … . 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵 ,

here n=3, ∴ 𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵

Finding AB

0 1 0 0
AB= 0 0 1 0
−6 −11 −6 1

0
= 1
−6

Finding 𝐴2 𝐵

0 1 0 0
𝐴2 𝐵=A(AB)= 0 0 1 1
−6 −11 −6 −6

1 1
= −6 = −6
−11 + 36 25

0 0 1
2
𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 = 0 1 −6
1 −6 25

0 0 1
𝑄𝑐 = 0 1 −6
1 −6 25
= 0 − 0 + 1(1 − 0)
= 1 → 𝑄𝑐 ≠ 0

Therefore the system is completely controllable.

45 45
 𝑥1ሶ 0 0 1 𝑥1 0
3. Consider the system with state equation 𝑥2 = −2 −3 0 𝑥2 + 2 u;
ሶ
𝑥3ሶ 0 2 −3 𝑥3 0

𝑥1
Y= 1 0 0 𝑥2 . Determine whether the system is completely controllable and
𝑥3
observable.

Solution:

0 0 1 0
Given that A= −2 −3 0 ; B= 2 ; C= 1 0 0
0 2 −3 0

Checking for Controllability:

𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵 … . 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵 ,

here n=3, ∴ 𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵

Finding AB

0 0 1 0
AB= −2 −3 0 2
0 2 −3 0

0
= −6
4

Finding 𝐴2 𝐵

0 0 1 0
2
𝐴 𝐵=A(AB)= −2 −3 0 −6
0 2 −3 4

4 4
= 18 = 18
−12 − 12 −24

46 46
 0 0 4
𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵 = 2 −6 18
0 4 −24

0 0 4
𝑄𝑐 = 2 −6 18
0 4 −24
= 0 − 0 + 4(8 − 0)
= 32 → 𝑄𝑐 ≠ 0

Therefore the system is completely state controllable.

Checking for observability:

𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )3 𝐶 𝑇 … . (𝐴𝑇 )𝑛−1 𝐶 𝑇

Here n=3. hence𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇

1 0 −2 0
C=1 0 0 , 𝐶 𝑇 = 0 and 𝐴𝑇 = 0 −3 2
0 1 0 −3

Finding 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇

0 −2 0 1
𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 = 0 −3 2 0
1 0 −3 0

0
𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 = 0
1

Finding (𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇

0 −2 0 0
(𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 ) = 0 −3 2 0
1 0 −3 1

0
(𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇 = 2
−3

47 47
 1 0 0
𝑄𝑜 = 0 0 2 = 2
0 1 −3

𝑄𝑜 ≠ 0, the rank of 𝑄𝑜 =3

Hence the system is observable.

𝑥1ሶ 0 1 𝑥1 0
4. Consider the system with state equation = + u; Y= 1 0 X
𝑥2ሶ −2 −3 𝑥2 1

Check the controllability of the system.

Solution:

0 1 0
A= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 =
−2 −3 1

Checking for Controllability:

𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵 … . 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵 ,

here n=3, ∴ 𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵

Finding AB

0 1 0
AB=
−2 −3 1

1
=
−3
0 1
𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 =
1 −3
0 1
𝑄𝑐 = = −1 → 𝑄𝑐 ≠ 0
1 −3

Therefore the system is completely state controllable.

48 48
5.Find the state space model for LTI system whose transfer system is given by

𝑌(𝑠) 𝑠3 +5𝑠2 +6𝑠+1

= 𝑠3 +4𝑠2 +3𝑠+3. Also Check for controllability and observability
𝑅(𝑠)

Solution:

𝑌 𝑠 𝑠 3 +5𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 1
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 3 +4𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 3

𝑌 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠 𝑋 𝑠
= .
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑋(𝑠) 𝑈(𝑠)

𝑌 𝑠 1
= 𝑠 3 +5𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 1. 3
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 +4𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 3

𝑋 𝑠 1
∴ = 3
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 +4𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 3
2

𝑋 𝑠 𝑠 3 +4𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 3 = U s
𝑋 𝑠 𝑠 3 +4𝑠 2 𝑋(𝑠) + 3𝑠𝑋(𝑠) + 3𝑋(𝑠) = U s

Taking Inverse Laplace Transform of the above equation

𝑥ഺ + 4𝑥ሷ + 3𝑥ሶ + 3𝑥 = 𝑢 ---(1)

Assigning the state variables

𝑥1 = 𝑥

𝑥1ሶ = 𝑥ሶ = 𝑥2
𝑥2ሶ = 𝑥1ሷ = 𝑥3 ቏ −− −(2)
𝑥3ሶ = 𝑥ഺ1

Substitute eqn(2) in eqn(1)

𝑥3ሶ + 4𝑥3 + 3𝑥2 + 3𝑥1 = u
𝑥3ሶ = −3𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 − 4𝑥3 + u

Writing the state equations:

𝑥1ሶ = 𝑥2
𝑥2ሶ = 𝑥3

𝑥3ሶ = −3𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 − 4𝑥3 + u ---(3)

49 49
Writing State Model Matrix

𝑥1ሶ 0 1 0 𝑥1 0
𝑥2ሶ = 0 0 1 𝑥2 + 0 u;
𝑥3ሶ −3 −3 −4 𝑥3 1

𝑌 𝑠
= 𝑠 3 +5𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 1
𝑋(𝑠)
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑠 3 +5𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 1 X(s)
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑠 3 X s + 5𝑠 2 X s + 6X s + X(s)

Take Inverse Laplace Transform

𝑦 = 𝑥ഺ + 5𝑥ሷ + 6𝑥ሶ + 𝑥 ---(4)

Substitute eqn(2) in eqn(4)

𝑦 = 𝑥3ሶ + 5𝑥3 + 6𝑥2 + 𝑥1

Substitute eqn(3) in above equation

𝑦 = −3𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 − 4𝑥3 + u + 5𝑥3 + 6𝑥2 + 𝑥1
𝑦 = −2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + u

Writing output Matrix

𝑥1
The output equation is 𝑦 = −2 3 1 2 +u
𝑥
𝑥3

Finding A,B and C

0 1 0 0
A= 0 0 1 , B= 0 and C = −2 3 1
−3 −3 −4 1

50 50
Checking for Controllability

𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵 … . 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵 ,

here n=3, ∴ 𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵

Finding AB

0 1 0 0
AB= 0 0 1 0
−3 −3 −4 1

0
= 1
−4

Finding 𝐴2 𝐵

0 1 0 0
𝐴2 𝐵=A(AB)= 0 0 1 1
−3 −3 −4 −4

1 1
= −4 = −4
−3 + 16 13

0 0 1
2
𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 = 0 1 −4
1 −4 13

0 0 1
𝑄𝑐 = 0 1 −4
1 −4 13
= 0 − 0 + 1(0 − 1)
= −1 → 𝑄𝑐 ≠ 0

Hence the system is controllable.

Checking for observability

𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )3 𝐶 𝑇 … . (𝐴𝑇 )𝑛−1 𝐶 𝑇

Here n=3. hence𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇

51 51
 −2 0 0 −3
C=1 0 0 , 𝐶 𝑇
= 3 and 𝐴𝑇
= 1 0 −3
1 0 1 −4

Finding 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇

0 0 −3 −2
𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 = 1 0 −3 3
0 1 −4 1

−3
𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 = −5
−1

0 0 −3 −3
𝑇 2 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
(𝐴 ) 𝐶 = 𝐴 (𝐴 𝐶 ) = 1 0 −3 −5
0 1 −4 −1

3
(𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇 = 0
−1

0 −3 3
𝑄𝑜 = 0 −5 0 = 15
1 −1 −1
𝑄𝑜 ≠ 0

Hence the system is observable.

𝑥1ሶ 0 1 0 𝑥1 0
6.Consider the system with state equation 𝑥2ሶ = 0 0 1 𝑥2 + 0 u;
𝑥3ሶ −6 −11 −6 𝑥3 1

Estimate the controllability and observability using Gilbert’s test.

Solution:

For this, it is necessary to express A in canonical form. Find eigen values of A.

λ −1 0
λ𝐼 − 𝐴 = 0 λ −1 = 0
6 11 λ + 6
λ3 + 6λ2 + 11λ + 6 = 0

52 52
 λ+1 λ+2 λ+3 = 0
∴ λ 1 = −1, λ 2 = −2, λ 3 = −3

As the matrix A is in phase variable form, the modal matrix is,

1 1 1 1 1 1
∴𝑀= λ1 λ2 λ 3 = −1 −2 −3
λ 12 λ 22 λ 32 1 4 9

𝑇
−6 6 −2 −6 −5 −1
−5 8 −3 6 8 2
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑀 3 2.5 0.5
𝑀−1 = = −1 2 −1 = −2 −3 −1 = −3 −4 −1
𝑀 −2 −2
1 1.5 0.5

To check Controllability

3 2.5 0.5 0 0.5

𝐵෨ = 𝑀−1 𝐵 = −3 −4 −1 0 = −1
1 1.5 0.5 1 0.5

As none of the elements of 𝐵෨ are zero, the system is completely state controllable.

To check Observability
1 1 1
ሚ
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑀 = 1 0 0 −1 −2 −3 = 1 1 1
1 4 9
As none of the elements of 𝐶ሚ are zero, the system is completely state Observable

0 1 0 0
7. Evaluate the observability of the system with A= 0 0 1 , B= 0 and
0 −2 −3 1
C= 3 4 1 using Gilbert’s test and Kalman’s method.

Solution: Gilbert’s method

For Gilbert’s test, find the eigen values

λ −1 0
λ𝐼 − 𝐴 = 0 λ −1 = 0
0 2 λ+3

53 53
 λ3 + 3λ2 + 2λ = 0
λ (λ2 + 3λ + 2) = 0
λ (λ + 1)(λ + 2) = 0
∴ λ 1 = 0, λ 2 = −1, λ 3 = −2

As the matrix A is in phase variable form, the modal matrix is,

1 1 1 1 1 1
∴𝑀= λ 1 λ2 λ 3 = −1 −2 −3
λ 12 λ 22 λ 32 1 4 9

When the modal is transformed to canonical form,

1 1 1
𝐶ሚ = 𝐶𝑀 = 3 4 1 0 −1 −2 = 3 0 −1
0 1 4
As there is one zero elements of 𝐶 , the system is not completely Observable.
ሚ
Kalman’s method:

The order of the system is n=3

𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )3 𝐶 𝑇 … . (𝐴𝑇 )𝑛−1 𝐶 𝑇

Here n=3. hence𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇

3 0 0 0
C=3 4 𝑇 𝑇
1 , 𝐶 = 4 and 𝐴 = 1 0 −2
1 0 1 −3

Finding 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇

0 0 0 −2
𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 = 1 0 −2 3
0 1 −3 1

0
𝑇 𝑇
𝐴 𝐶 = 1
1

0 0 0 0
(𝐴𝑇 )2 𝐶 𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 (𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 ) = 1 0 −2 1
0 1 −3 1

54 54
 0
𝑇 2 𝑇
(𝐴 ) 𝐶 = −2
−2

3 0 0
𝑄𝑜 = 4 1 −2 = 0
1 1 −2
𝑄𝑜 = 0

Hence a nonzero determinant existing in 𝑄𝑜 is having order less than 3.

∴ 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑜𝑓𝑄𝑜 ≠ 3 ≠ 𝑛

Hence the system is not completely observable.

55 55
SOLUTION TO THE STATE EQUATIONS

There are two types of state equations

 Homogeneous state equation.

 Non-Homogeneous state equation.

Homogeneous state equation.

If A is a constant matrix and input control forces are zero, then the
equation take the form,

𝑋ሶ 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡)

Solution of Homogeneous State Equation

𝑋ሶ 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑋0 ---(5.23)

Where 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 is the state transition matrix and denoted as ɸ(t)

Non-Homogeneous state equation

If A is a constant matrix and input control forces are non-zero, then

𝑋ሶ 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑡 + BU(t)

Solution of Homogeneous State Equation

𝑡
𝑋 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝐴𝑡 𝑋0 + ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝐴 𝑡−𝜏
𝐵𝑢 𝑡 𝑑 𝜏 ---(5.24)

Properties of state transition matrix

1. ɸ(0)=𝑒 𝐴×0 = 1(unit matrix)

2. ɸ(t)=𝑒 𝐴𝑡 =(𝑒 −𝐴𝑡 )−1 =(ɸ(−t))−1 or ɸ−1 𝑡 = ɸ(−t)

3. ɸ(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )=𝑒 𝐴(𝑡1 +𝑡2 ) = 𝑒 𝐴𝑡1 . 𝑒 𝐴𝑡2 = ɸ(𝑡1 ). ɸ(𝑡2 )= ɸ(𝑡2 ). ɸ(𝑡1 )

56 56
Problems:

1. Obtained the state transition matrix for the state model whose system matrix A is

1 1
given by
0 1

Solution:

1 1
A=
0 1
𝑒 𝐴𝑡 = ɸ(t)=𝐿−1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1

Step 1: To Find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑠 0 1 1 𝑠−1 −1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = - =
0 𝑠 0 1 0 𝑠−1

Step 2 :To find sI − A −1

−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑇
𝑠−1 0
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)=
1 𝑠−1
𝑠−1 1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
0 𝑠−1
𝑠−1 1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = = (𝑠 − 1) 𝑠 − 1 + 0
0 𝑠−1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = (𝑠 − 1)2

1 1
−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 1 𝑠−1 1 𝑠 − 1 (𝑠 − 1)2
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = = =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 (𝑠 − 1)2 0 𝑠−1 1
0
𝑠−1

1 1
𝑠 − 1 (𝑠 − 1)2
𝑒 𝐴𝑡 = ɸ(t)=𝐿−1
1
0
𝑠−1

57 57
 𝑡
𝑒 𝐴𝑡 = ɸ(t)= 𝑒 𝑡𝑒 𝑡
0 𝑒𝑡

2.Solve the state equation for the system given below

𝑥1ሶ 0 1 𝑥1 0 𝑥1
= + 𝑢; y = 1 0 𝑥2 and obtain the time response x(t) for a
𝑥2ሶ −2 −3 𝑥2 1

unit step input. Assume zero initial conditions.

Solution:

0 1 0
A= , B= and C= 1 0
−2 −3 1
X(t)=𝐿−1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
𝑋(0) + 𝐿−1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
𝐵𝑈(𝑠)

Step 1: To Find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑠 0 0 1 𝑠 −1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = - =
0 𝑠 −2 −3 2 𝑠+3

Step 2: To Find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1

−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑇
𝑠 + 3 −2
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)=
1 𝑠

𝑠+3 1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
−2 𝑠

𝑠 −1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = =𝑠 𝑠+3 +2
2 𝑠+3
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2

𝑠+3 1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 1 𝑠+3 1 2 2
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
= = 2 = 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 −2 𝑠 −2 𝑠
2 2
𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2

58 58
 1
For step input , 𝑈 𝑠 = 𝑠

For zero initial conditions,

X(t)=𝐿−1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
𝐵𝑈(𝑠)

Substitute 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
, B and U(s) in above equation.

𝑠+3 1
𝑠2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠2 +3𝑠+2 0 1
X(t)=𝐿−1 −2 𝑠 1 𝑠
𝑠2 +3𝑠+2 𝑠2 +3𝑠+2

1
𝐿−1 𝑠2 + 3𝑠 + 2 1
𝑠 𝑠
2
𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2

1
𝑠
𝐿−1 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2
1
𝑠𝑠
𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2

1 1 𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐶1
+ +
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2) 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠 (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)
𝐿−1 = 𝐿−1 = 𝐿−1
1 1 𝐴 2 𝐵2
+
𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)

By Partial fraction expansion , we get 𝐴1 =0.5, 𝐵1 =-0.5 𝐶1 = 0.5, 𝐴2 = 1, 𝐵2 = −1

0.5 −0.5 0.5

+ +
𝑠 (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)
𝐿−1
1 −1
+
(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)
−𝑡
𝑋(𝑡) = 0.5 − 0.5𝑒 + 0.5𝑒 −2𝑡
𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −2𝑡

59 59
3.Solve the state equation for the system given below

𝑥1ሶ 0 1 𝑥1 0 𝑥1 (0) 0
= + 𝑢 with = and Find the state transition matrix
𝑥2ሶ −2 −3 𝑥2 2 𝑥2 (0) 1
and then find the state response i.e., x(t) >0

Solution:

0 1 0
A= , B= and C= 1 0
−2 −3 1
X(t)=𝐿−1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
𝑋(0) + 𝐿−1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
𝐵𝑈(𝑠)

𝐿−1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥.

Step 1: To Find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑠 0 0 1 𝑠 −1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = - =
0 𝑠 −2 −3 2 𝑠+3

Step 2: To Find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1

−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑇
𝑠 + 3 −2
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)=
1 𝑠

𝑠+3 1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
−2 𝑠

𝑠 −1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = =𝑠 𝑠+3 +2
2 𝑠+3
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2

𝑠+3 1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 1 𝑠+3 1 2 2
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
= = 2 = 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 −2 𝑠 −2 𝑠
2 2
𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2

ɸ(t)=𝐿−1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1

60 60
 −1
𝑠+3 1
ɸ(t)=𝐿−1 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2
−2 𝑠
𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2

By partial fraction expansion

−1
𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐴2 𝐵2
+ +
(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1)
ɸ(t)= 𝐿−1
𝐴3 𝐵3 𝐴4 𝐵4
+ +
(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1)

on solving, we get
𝐴1 = −0.5 & 𝐵1 = 2
𝐴2 = −1& 𝐵2 = 1
𝐴3 = 2 & 𝐵3 = −2
𝐴4 = 2 & 𝐵4 = −1

−1
−0.5 2 −1 1
+ +
(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1)
ɸ(t)= 𝐿−1
2 −2 2 −1
+ +
(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1)

Take inverse Laplace transform,

−2𝑡
ɸ(t)= −0.5𝑒 + 2𝑒 −𝑡 −𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡
2𝑒 −2𝑡 − 2𝑒 −𝑡 2𝑒 −2𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑡

To find the state response:

X(t)=𝐿−1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
𝑋(0) + 𝐿−1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
𝐵𝑈(𝑠)

𝑠+3 1
X(t)= −0.5𝑒
−2𝑡
+ 2𝑒 −𝑡
−𝑒 −2𝑡
+𝑒 −𝑡 0
+ 𝐿−1 𝑠2 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 0 1
2

2𝑒 −2𝑡
− 2𝑒 −𝑡 2𝑒 −2𝑡
− 𝑒 −𝑡 1 −2 𝑠 2 𝑠
2 2
𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2

61 61
 𝑠+3 1
X(t)= −0.5𝑒
−2𝑡
+ 2𝑒 −𝑡
−𝑒 −2𝑡
+𝑒 −𝑡 0 2
+ 𝐿−1 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠2 + 3𝑠 + 2 0 1
2𝑒 −2𝑡 − 2𝑒 −𝑡 2𝑒 −2𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑡 1 −2 𝑠 2 𝑠
𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2

2
−2𝑡 −𝑡
X(t)= −𝑒−2𝑡 + 𝑒−𝑡 +𝐿−1 𝑠2 + 3𝑠 + 2 1
2𝑒 −𝑒 2𝑠 𝑠
2
𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2

1
2×𝑠
−2𝑡 −𝑡 2
X(t)= −𝑒−2𝑡 + 𝑒−𝑡 +𝐿−1 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2
2𝑒 −𝑒 1
2𝑠 𝑠
𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2

2 2
−2𝑡 −𝑡 𝑠(𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2) −2𝑡 −𝑡 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
X(t)= −𝑒−2𝑡 + 𝑒−𝑡 + 𝐿−1 = −𝑒−2𝑡 + 𝑒−𝑡 + 𝐿−1
2𝑒 −𝑒 2𝑠 2𝑒 −𝑒 2𝑠
𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)

𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐶1
+ +
−2𝑡 −𝑡 𝑠 (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1)
= −𝑒−2𝑡 + 𝑒−𝑡 + 𝐿−1
2𝑒 −𝑒 𝐴2 𝐵2
+
(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1)

By Partial fraction expansion , we get 𝐴1 =1, 𝐵1 =1 𝐶1 = −2, 𝐴2 = −2, 𝐵2 = 2

1 1 −2
+ +
−𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝐿−1 𝑠 (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1)
2𝑒 −2𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑡 −2 2
+
(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1)
−2𝑡 −𝑡 −2𝑡 −𝑡
𝑋 𝑡 = −𝑒−2𝑡 + 𝑒−𝑡 + 1 + 𝑒−2𝑡 − 2𝑒−𝑡
2𝑒 −𝑒 −2𝑒 + 2𝑒

𝑒 −𝑡
𝑋 𝑡 = 1 −−𝑡
𝑒

62 62
STATE SPACE REPRESENTATION OF DISCRETE TIME SYSTEM

The state variable analysis techniques of continuous time system can be

extended to discrete time system. The discrete form of state space representation is quite
similar to the analogous form.

In the state variable formulation of discrete tike system, in general, a system

consists of m- inputs, p-outputs and n-state variables. The state space representation of
discrete time system may be visualized as shown in fig.

Let, State variables =𝑥1 k , 𝑥2 k , 𝑥3 k ….. 𝑥n k

Input variables =u1 k , u2 k , u3 k ….. um k

Output variables = y1 k , y2 k , y3 k ….. yp k

The different variables may be represented by the vectors as shown below

u1 k 𝑦1 k
u k 𝑦2 k
Input Vector, U(k)= 2 ; Output Vector, Y(k)= ;
⋮ ⋮
um k 𝑦𝑝 k

𝑥1 k
𝑥 k
State variable Vector, X(k)= 2 ;
⋮
𝑥𝑛 k

63 63
 𝑥1 (k + 1) = 𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑏11 𝑢1 + 𝑏12 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑏1𝑚 𝑢𝑚
𝑥2 (k + 1) = 𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑏21 𝑢1 + 𝑏22 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑏2𝑚 𝑢𝑚
⋮
𝑥3 (k + 1) = 𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛1 𝑢1 + 𝑏𝑛2 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛𝑚 𝑢𝑚

Where the coefficients 𝑎𝑖𝑗 and 𝑏𝑖𝑗 are constants.

In matrix form the above equation are expressed as follows,

𝑥ሶ 1 𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏11 𝑏12 … 𝑏1𝑚 𝑢1

𝑥ሶ 2 𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥2 𝑏21 𝑏22 … 𝑏2𝑚 𝑢2
= ⋮ + ⋮
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑥ሶ 𝑛 𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 𝑏𝑛1 𝑏𝑛2 … 𝑏𝑛𝑚 𝑢𝑚

The matrix equation can be written in the vector notation as

X k + 1 = 𝐴𝑋 k + 𝐵𝑈 k

where 𝑋(k)=state vector of order(n x 1)

U(k)=Input vector of order(m x 1)

A = System matrix of size n x n

B = Input matrix of size n x m

The output at any discrete time instant, k are functions of state variables
and inputs. Hence the output variables of linear time invariant system can be
expressed as a linear combination of state variables and inputs.
𝑦1 = 𝑐11 𝑥1 + 𝑐12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑐1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑑11 𝑢1 + 𝑑12 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑏1𝑚 𝑢𝑚
𝑦2 = 𝑐21 𝑥1 + 𝑐22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑐2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑑21 𝑢1 + 𝑑22 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑑2𝑚 𝑢𝑚
⋮
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑐𝑝1 𝑥1 + 𝑐𝑝2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑝𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑑𝑝1 𝑢1 + 𝑑𝑝2 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑝𝑚 𝑢𝑚

Where the coefficients 𝑐𝑖𝑗 and 𝑑𝑖𝑗 are constants.

64 64
In matrix form the above equation are expressed as follows,

𝑦1 𝑐11 𝑐12 … 𝑐1𝑛 𝑥1 𝑑11 𝑑12 … 𝑑1𝑚 𝑢1

𝑦2 𝑐21 𝑐22 … 𝑐2𝑛 𝑥2 𝑑21 𝑑22 … 𝑑2𝑚 𝑢2
⋮ = ⋮ ⋮ + ⋮ ⋮
𝑦𝑝 𝑐𝑝1 𝑐𝑝2 … 𝑐𝑝𝑛 𝑥𝑛 𝑑𝑝1 𝑑𝑝2 … 𝑑𝑝𝑚 𝑢𝑚

The matrix equation can be written in the vector notation as

𝑌(k) = 𝐶𝑋(k) + 𝐷𝑈(k)

Where 𝑋(k)=state vector of order(n x 1)

U(k)=Input vector of order(m x 1)

Y(k)=Output vector of order(p x 1)

C = Output matrix of order(p x n )

D = Transition matrix of order (p x m )

The state equation and output equation together called as state model of
the system. Hence the state model of discrete time system is given by the following
equation

X k + 1 = 𝐴𝑋 k + 𝐵𝑈 k --- State equation

𝑌(k) = 𝐶𝑋(k) + 𝐷𝑈(k) ---Output equation

65 65
SAMPLED DATA CONTROL SYSTEMS

When the signal or information at any or some points in a system is in

the form of discrete pulses, then the system is called discrete data system.

The control system becomes sampled data system in any one of the following
situations.

1. When the digital computer or microprocessor or digital device is employed as a

part of the control loop.

2. When the control components are used as time sharing basis.

3. When the control signals are transmitted by pulse modulation.

4. When the output or input of a component in the system is a digital or discrete

signal.

A sampled-Data control system using digital controller is shown in figure.

The input and output signal in a digital computer will be digital signals, but the error
signal to be modified by the controller and the control signal to drive the plant are
analog in nature. Hence a sampler and an analog to digital convertor(ADC) are
provided at the computer point. A digital to analog convertor(DAC) and a hold circuit
are provided at the computer output.

The sampler converts the continuous time-error signal into a sequence of

pulses and ADC produces a binary code for each sample. These codes are the input
data to the digital computer which process the binary codes and produces another

66 66
stream of binary code as output. The DAC and hold circuit converts the binary codes
to continuous time signal called control signal. This output control signal is used to
drive the plant.

Advantages of Digital Controllers

1. The digital controllers can perform large and complex computation with any
desired degree of accuracy at very high speed. In analog controllers the cost of
the controllers increases rapidly with the increase in complexity of computation
and desired accuracy.

2. The digital controllers are easily programmable and so they are more versatile.

3. Digital controllers have better resolution.

Advantages of sampled data control system

1. The sampled data systems are highly accurate, fast and flexible.

2. Use of time sharing concept of digital computer results in economical cost and
space.

3. Digital transducers used in the system have better resolution.

4. The digital components used in the system are less affected by the noise,
nonlinearities and transmission errors of noisy channel.

5. The sampled data system require low power instruments which can be built to
have high sensitivity.

6. Digital coded signals can be stored, transmitted, retransmitted, detected,

analyzed or processed as desired.

7. The system performance can be modified by compensation techniques.

67 67
Sampling Process

Sampling is the conversion of continuous time signal into a discrete time

signal by taking samples of the continuous time signal at discrete time instants.
Thus if f(t) is the input to the sampler as shown in fig , the output is f(kT) where T
1
is the sampling interval or sampling period. The reciprocal of T i.e., = 𝐹𝑠 is called
𝑇

the sampling rate. This type of sampling is called periodic sampling, since samples
are obtained uniformly at intervals of T seconds.

Sampling Theorem

A band limited continuous time signal with highest frequency(Bandwidth)

fm hertz, can be uniquely recovered from its samples provided that the sampling
rate 𝐹𝑠 is greater than or equal to 2fm samples per second.

68 68
 LINKS TO VIDEOS

UNIT V
https://www.youtube.com/hpeKrMG-WP0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BYvTEfNAi38

E-book References

Control System Engineering - I J Nagrath & M Gopal

Feedback Control Systems - Katsuhiko Ogata
Control System Engineering - A Nagoor Kani

70 69
 9 Assignments
UNIT V
S. Question K CO
No. level
Slow Learners
1 K3 CO6
Obtain the state space model for LTI system whose transfer system
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑠
is given by = (𝑠+10)(𝑠2 +4𝑠+16)
𝑈(𝑠)

2 Obtain the state space model for LTI system whose transfer system K3 CO6

2𝑠 3 +𝑠2 +𝑠+2
is given by 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑠3 +4𝑠2 +5𝑠+2

Medium Learners
3 CO6
Obtain the transfer function of the system defined by K3

𝑥1ሶ −1 1 0 𝑥1 0 𝑥1
𝑥2ሶ = 0 −1 1 𝑥2 + 0 u; Y= 1 0 0 𝑥2 .
𝑥3ሶ 0 0 −2 𝑥3 1 𝑥3
4 obtain the time response x(t) of the following system for a unit K3 CO6

𝑥1ሶ −1 −0.5 𝑥1 0.5 𝑥1

step input. = 𝑥 + 𝑢; y = 1 0 𝑥 and
𝑥2ሶ 1 0 2 0 2

Assume zero initial conditions.

Toppers
5 CO6
Is the following system completely state controllable and K2
completely observable?

𝑥1ሶ 0 1 0 𝑥1 0 𝑥1
𝑥2ሶ = 0 0 1 𝑥2 + 0 u; Y= 20 9 1 𝑥2 .
𝑥3ሶ −6 −11 −6 𝑥3 1 𝑥3

6 K3 CO6
𝑥1ሶ 2 0 0 𝑥1
Consider the system 2 = 0 2 0 𝑥2 . The output is given by
𝑥 ሶ
𝑥3ሶ 0 3 1 𝑥3

𝑥1
Y= 1 1 1 2 . Show that the system is not completely
𝑥
𝑥3
observable.
70
71
 10 TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-UNIT V
S. Question K CO
No. level
1 State sampling theorem K1 CO6

A continuous time signal can be completely represented in its

samples and recovered back if the sampling frequency Fs ≥ 2 Fmax
where Fs is the sampling frequency and Fmax is the maximum
frequency present in the signal.

2 What is periodic sampling? K1 CO6

Sampling of a signal at uniform equal intervals is called periodic

sampling
3 What are hold circuits & explain it K1 CO6

The function of the hold circuit is to reconstruct the signal which is

applied as input to the sampler. The simplest holding device holds the
signal between two consecutive instants at its preceded value till next
sampling instant is reached
4 What are the problems encountered in a practical hold K1 CO6

circuits?
Hold mode may drop occur, nonlinear variation during sampling
aperture, error in the periodicity of sampling.
5 What are the advantages of state space analysis? K1 CO6

It can be applied to non-linear as well as time varying systems. Any

type of input can be considered for designing the system. It can be
conveniently applied to multiple input multiple output systems. The
state variables selected need not necessarily be the physical
quantities of the system.
6 What are phase variables? K1 CO6

The phase variables are defined as the state variables which are
obtained from one of the system variables and its derivatives.

72 71
S. Question K CO
No. level
7 Define state variable. K1 CO6

The state of a dynamical system is a minimal set of variables(known

as state variables) such that the knowledge of these variables at t-t0
together with the knowledge of the inputs for t > t0 , completely
determines the behavior of the system for t > t0
8 Write the relationship between z-domain and s-domain. K1 CO6

All the poles lying in the left half of the S-plane, the system is stable
in S-domain. Corresponding in Z-domain all poles lie within the unit
circle.
9 What is sampled data control system? K1 CO6

When the signal or information at any or some points in a system is

in the form of discrete pulses, then the system is called discrete data
system or sampled data system.
10 What is Nyquist rate? K1 CO6

The Sampling frequency equal to twice the highest frequency of the

signal is called as Nyquist rate. fs=2fm.
11 Write the general form of state variable matrix. K1 CO6

The most general state-space representation of a linear system with

m inputs, p outputs and n state variables is written in the following
form:
dX/dt = AX + BU
Y = CX + DU
Where dX/dt = state vector of order n x 1.
U = input vector of order n x 1.
A = System matrix of order n x n.
B = Input matrix of order n x m
C = output matrix of order p x n
D = transmission matrix of order p x m.

73 72
S. Question K CO
No. level
12 What are the methods available for the stability analysis of K1 CO6

sampled data control system?

The following three methods are available for the stability analysis of
sampled data control system
Jury’s stability test.
Bilinear transformation.
Root locus technique.
13 What is the necessary condition to be satisfied for design K1 CO6

using state feedback?

The state feedback design requires arbitrary pole placements to
achieve the desire performance. The necessary and sufficient
condition to be satisfied for arbitrary pole placement is that the
system is completely state controllable.
14 What is controllability? K1 CO6

A system is said to be completely state controllable if it is possible to

transfer the system state from any initial state X(t0) at any other
desired state X(t), in specified finite time by a control vector U(t).
15 What is observability? K1 CO6

A system is said to be completely observable if every state X(t) can

be completely identified by measurements of the output Y(t) over a
finite time interval
16 Write the properties of state transition matrix. K1 CO6

The following are the properties of state transition matrix

e(0) = eAx0 = I (unit matrix).
e(t) = eAt = (e-At)-1 = [Φ(-t)]-1.
e(t1+t2) = eA(t1+t2) = Φ(t1) Φ(t2) = Φ(t2) Φ(t1).
17 What is similarity transformation? K1 CO6

The process of transforming a square matrix A to another similar

matrix B by a transformation P−1 AP = B is called similarity
transformation. The matrix P is called transformation matrix.

73 73
S. Question K CO
No. level
18 What is meant by diagonalization? K1 CO6

The process of converting the system matrix A into a diagonal matrix

by a similarity transformation using the modal matrix M is called
diagonalization.
19 What is modal matrix? K1 CO6

The modal matrix is a matrix used to diagonalize the system matrix.

It is also called diagonalization matrix.
If A = system matrix.
M = Modal matrix
And M−1 =inverse of modal matrix.
Then M−1 AM will be a diagonalized system matrix.
20 How the modal matrix is determined? K1 CO6

The modal matrix M can be formed from eigenvectors. Let m1, m2,
m3 …. mn be the eigen
vectors of the nth order system. Now the modal matrix M is obtained
by arranging all the eigenvectors column wise as shown below.
Modal matrix , M = [m1, m2, m3 …. mn].

21 What is the need for controllability test? K1 CO6

The controllability test is necessary to find the usefulness of a state

variable. If the state variables are controllable then by controlling
(i.e. varying) the state variables the desired outputs of the system
are achieved.

22 What is the need for observability test? K1 CO6

The observability test is necessary to find whether the state

variables are measurable or not. If the state variables are
measurable then the state of the system can be determined by
practical measurements of the state variables

74 74
S. Question K CO
No. level
23 State the condition for controllability by Gilbert’s method. K1 CO6

Case (i) when the eigen values are distinct

Consider the canonical form of state model shown below which is
obtained by using the transformation X=MZ.
= ΛZ + U
Y=Z + DU
Where, Λ = M-1AM; = CM , = M-1B and M = Modal matrix.
In this case the necessary and sufficient condition for complete
controllability is that, the matrix must have no row with all zeros. If
any row of the matrix is zero then the corresponding state variable is
uncontrollable.
Case (ii) when eigen values have multiplicity
In this case the state modal can be converted to Jordan canonical
form shown below = JZ + U
Y=Z + DU Where, J = M−1 AM
In this case the system is completely controllable, if the elements of
any row of that correspond to the last row of each Jordan block are
not all zero.
24 State the condition for observability by Gilbert’s method. K1 CO6

Consider the transformed canonical or Jordan canonical form of the

state model shown below which is obtained by using the
transformation, X =MZ
ሚ
𝐶=CM and M=modal matrix.
The necessary and sufficient condition for complete observability is
that none of the columns of the matrix be zero. If any of the column
is of has all zeros then the corresponding state variable is not
observable.

75
75
S. Question K CO
No. Level
25 State the duality between controllability and observability. K1 CO6

The concept of controllability and observability are dual concepts

and it is proposed by kalman as principle of duality. The principle of
duality states that a system is completely state
controllable if and only if its dual system is completely state
controllable if and only if its dual system is completely observable or
vice versa.
26 What is the need for state observer? K1 CO6

In certain systems the state variables may not be available for

measurement and feedback. In such situations we need to estimate
the unmeasurable state variables from the knowledge of input and
output. Hence a state observer is employed which estimates the
state variables from the input and output of the system. The
estimated state variable can be used for feedback to design the
system by pole placement.
27 How will you find the transformation matrix, Po to transform K1 CO6

the state model to observable phase variable form?

Compute the composite matrix for observability,Q0
Determine the characteristic equation of the system |λI -A |=0.
Using the coefficients a1,a2,….an-1 of characteristic equation form a
matrix, W.
Now the transformation matrix, P0 is given by P0=W Q0T.
28 Write the observable phase variable form of state model. K1 CO6

The observable phase variable form of state model is given by the

following equations
A0Z + B0u. Y =C0Z + Du
Where, A0 = , B0 = and C0 = [ 0 0 ….. 0 1 ]

76 76
11 PART B
UNIT V
S. Question K CO
No. Level
1 K3
Obtain the state model of the electrical network shown in figure. CO6

2 K3
Consider the system with state equation CO6

𝑥1ሶ 0 0 1 𝑥1 0 𝑥1
𝑥2ሶ = −2 −3 0 𝑥2 + 2 u; Y= 1 0 0 𝑥2 . Determine
𝑥3ሶ 0 2 −3 𝑥3 0 𝑥3
whether the system is completely controllable and observable.
3 K3
Construct a state model for a system characterized by the differential CO6

𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
equation +6 +11 𝑑𝑡 + 6𝑦 + 𝑢 = 0
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 2

4 K3
Determine the state Controllability and Observability of the system CO6

described by

5 K3
𝑌(𝑠) CO6
A system is characterized by the transfer function =
𝑈(𝑠)

3
. Identify the first state as the output. Determine
𝑠3 +5𝑠2 +11𝑠+6

whether or not the system is completely controllable and observable.

6 K2 CO6
Explain the functional modules of closed loop sampled data system
and compare its performance with open loop performance.
7 K3 CO6
With the diagram explain the sampled data control systems with its
advantages.
8 K3 CO6
Write the detailed notes on sampler and hold circuits.

77 77
S. Question K CO
No. Level

8 K3
Solve the state equation for the system given below CO6

𝑥1ሶ 0 1 𝑥1 0 𝑥1
= + 𝑢; y = 1 0 𝑥 and obtain the time
𝑥2ሶ −2 −3 𝑥2 1 2

response x(t) for a unit step input. Assume zero initial conditions.
9 Obtain the transfer function model for the following state model K3 CO6
0 1 1
system. A= , B= ,C= 1 0 , D=[0] and also check the
−6 −5 0
stability of the system.

10 A system is represented by the state equation K3 CO6

0 1 0 0
𝑋ሶ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈, 𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 = 0 −1 1 , B= 0 ,
0 −1 −10 10
C = 1 0 0 . Determine the transfer function

11 Obtain the state model of the system whose transfer function is K4 CO6
given by
𝑌 𝑠 10
= 3
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 +4𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 1
2

12 Obtain the state space model for LTI system whose transfer system K3 CO6
−2𝑠+1
is given by 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑠3 +5𝑠2 +3𝑠+1

13 Find the state space model for LTI system whose transfer system is K3 CO6
given by
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑠 3 +5𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 1
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 3 +4𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 3

14 Obtain the state model of the given electrical network K3 CO6

78 78
 12 Supportive Online Certification courses (NPTEL, Swayam,
Coursera, Udemy, etc.,)

Swayam - Control Systems

 Udemy - Introduction to Control System for Engineers

 Udemy - Applied Control System for Engineers – Autonomous Vehicles

 NPTEL - Control System Engineering.

79 79
 13 Real time Applications in day to day life and to industry

UNIT V
 Aircrafts generate forces in flight through controlling the position of flaps and
rudders.
 Keeping satellites in place above the earth is an application of controls.
 Conveyor belts usually move at a constant speed, and so you need a control
system to ensure that the desired speed is always met.
 Industry Applications
Control systems are mainly used for controlling the equipments of machines in
industry. In recent years control systems have proliferative applications in in
modern industry and technology. Control systems are found in abundance in all
sectors of industry such as:
 Quality control of manufactured products
 Automatic assembly line
 Machine tool control
 Space technology and weapon systems
 Computer control
 Power Systems
 Robotics
 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems(MEMS)
 Smart transportation systems
 Ship stabilization systems
 Temperature control systems
 Steering control of automobiles
 Missile launching system
 Sun tracking control of solar collectors

80 80
14 CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS
Robust Control with Engineering Applications

Robust control is an important branch of control theory that explicitly deals

with uncertainty in its approach to controller design. Over the past several decades,
there has been an increasing interest in robust control. On one hand, uncertain
parameters or disturbances exist inherently in the aeronautics and astronautics,
advanced manufacturing, and other complex engineering systems. On the other
hand, uncertain parameters or disturbances seriously affect the stability, accuracy,
and reliability of underlying control systems. Therefore, robust control has become a
challenging problem in international control filed, for example, 𝐻∞ control, 𝐻2
control, guaranteed cost control (GCC), adaptive control (AC), variable structure
control (VSC), ant disturbance control (ADC), fault-tolerant control (FTC), and so
forth. This special issue contain sixty-seven papers, which covers currently hot topics
on robust control from theoretical methods to practical applications.

Sensor FTC Compensation:

Sensor fault output from the measurements influences the closed-loop

behavior and corrupts the state estimation. The PID main controller performs
conventional closed-loop position tracking control such that the measurement signal
is employed, as in yck = yk − Fssˆk ,

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 Fault compensation is performed by a logical process wherein fault
magnitude is received from the estimated fault signal based on the residual signal to
make a control decision based on the binary signal. The fault compensation process
will not be executed if the binary decision signal has a value equal to 0; otherwise, if
the binary decision signal is equal to 1, the fault compensation process will be
executed using the threshold k.

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15 Assessment Schedule

Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date

Unit 1 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 1

Unit 2 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 1

Retest for IA 1

Unit 3 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 2

Unit 4 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 2

Retest for IA 2

Unit 5 Assignment
Assessment
Revision Test 1

Revision Test 2

Model Exam

Remodel Exam

University Exam

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 16 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOK:
 Nagarath, I.J. and Gopal, M., “Control Systems Engineering”, New Age
International Publishers, 2017.
 Benjamin C. Kuo, “Automatic Control Systems”, Wiley, 2014
REFERENCES:
Katsuhiko Ogata, “Modern Control Engineering”, Pearson, 2015.
Richard C.Dorf and Bishop, R.H., “Modern Control Systems”, Pearson Education,
14th edition, 2016.
John J.D., Azzo Constantine, H. and Houpis Sttuart, N Sheldon, “Linear Control
System Analysis and Design with MATLAB”, CRC Taylor& Francis 2013.
Rames C.Panda and T. Thyagarajan, “An Introduction to Process Modelling
Identification and Control of Engineers”, Narosa Publishing House, 2017.
M.Gopal, “Control System: Principle and design”, McGraw Hill Education, 2018.
NPTEL Video Lecture Notes on “Control Engineering “by Prof. S. D. Agashe, IIT
Bombay.

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 17 Mini Project suggestions
 Auditorium Control System Using IR
 Appliances Security Controller Using Power Line
 Access Control System
Using Microcontroller/Microprocessor
 Automatic Sprinkler Control System
 A u t o m a t i c S p e e d C o n t r o l l e r f o r Fa n s a n d C o o l e r s U s i n g
Current Sensor
 Bomb Detection Robotics Using Embedded Controller
 Bi-Directional Visitors Counter

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 Thank you

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