Professional Traffic Operations Engineer

Certification Program Refresher Course

Student Supplement

Module 2
Operational Effects of Geometric Designs

© 2022 - Institute of Transportation Engineers

1627 Eye Street, NW, Suite 550 | Washington, DC 20006
Introduction to Refresher Course
This Refresher Course provides an overview of topics, key references and independent study materials by
topic for practicing engineers who intend to take the PTOE certification examination. The suite of modules
includes six (6) webinar recordings on traffic operations analysis, operational effects of geometric designs,
traffic safety, traffic control devices, traffic engineering studies, and social, environmental, and
institutional issues, each accompanied by a student supplement.
This 2022 version of the course and student supplement is an update and expansion to a July 2016 course
managed by Robert K. Seyfried, P.E., PTOE. Contributors to that course were:
• Robert K. Seyfried, P.E., PTOE; President, R. K. Seyfried and Associates, Inc.; Evanston, IL
• Jerome Hall, Ph.D., P.E., Professor Emeritus, Civil Engineering, University of New Mexico,
Albuquerque, NM
• Pat Noyes, Principal, Pat Noyes and Associates, Boulder, CO
• Eric T. Donnell, Ph.D., P.E., Assistant Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA
• John M. Mason, Jr., Ph.D., P.E., Associate Dean of Graduate Studies, Research, and Outreach and
Professor of Civil Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA
• Martin E. Lipinski, Ph.D., P.E., PTOE, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Memphis; Memphis, TN
This 2022 version was updated by:
• Peter J. Yauch, P.E., PTOE, RSP2i, Vice President, Iteris, Inc., Tampa, FL
Much appreciation is given to Stephen J. Manhart, P.E., PTOE, PTP, RSP1, Project Manager for Traffic
Engineering, Michael Baker International, Minneapolis, MN, for his review of the student supplements on
behalf of the Transportation Professional Certification Board.

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Contents
Design Context And Functional Classification............................................................................................... 1
Roadway Hierarchy ................................................................................................................................... 1
Rural System: ........................................................................................................................................ 1
Urban System ........................................................................................................................................ 2
Land Use Type ........................................................................................................................................... 2
Freeway Versus Non-Freeway Facilities ................................................................................................... 3
Access Management ................................................................................................................................. 3
Modal Split ................................................................................................................................................ 3
Road User Characteristics And Accommodations......................................................................................... 3
Bicycle ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
Pedestrian ................................................................................................................................................. 7
Micro-Mobility .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Considerations For People With Disabilities ............................................................................................. 7
Transit ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
Vehicle Characteristics (E.G., Size, Operational Capabilities) ................................................................... 8
Vulnerable Road Users .............................................................................................................................. 8
Accessibility Requirements For Design ..................................................................................................... 8
Geometric Design Controls And Criteria ....................................................................................................... 9
Design Speed ............................................................................................................................................. 9
Horizontal Curve Radius ............................................................................................................................ 9
Superelevation ........................................................................................................................................ 10
Pavement Widening on Curves ........................................................................................................... 10
Transition Design ................................................................................................................................ 10
Sight Distances ........................................................................................................................................ 11
Maximum Grade ..................................................................................................................................... 13
Cross Slope .............................................................................................................................................. 13
Vertical Clearance ................................................................................................................................... 14
Design Vehicles ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Vertical Curvature ................................................................................................................................... 15
Roadways And Roadsides ........................................................................................................................... 18
Roadway.................................................................................................................................................. 18
Roadside.............................................................................................................................................. 19

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Intersections ............................................................................................................................................... 20
Intersection Types (E.G., Stop-Control, Continuous Flow) ..................................................................... 21
Roundabouts ........................................................................................................................................... 22
Turning Lanes .......................................................................................................................................... 22
Turn Bay Design ...................................................................................................................................... 22
Medians And Channelizing Islands.......................................................................................................... 23
Sight Distance.......................................................................................................................................... 23
Freeways, Ramps, And Interchanges .......................................................................................................... 25
System Interchange Versus Service Interchange .................................................................................... 25
Interchange Types ................................................................................................................................... 26
Avoiding Bottlenecks .............................................................................................................................. 27
Merging, Diverging, And Weaving Areas ................................................................................................ 28
Ramps...................................................................................................................................................... 28
Managed Lanes ....................................................................................................................................... 28
Sight Distance.......................................................................................................................................... 29
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 30

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 Professional Traffic Operations Engineer
Certification Program Refresher Course

Module 2- Operational Effects Of

Geometric Designs
Design Context And Functional Classification
Functional classification groups highways and streets according to the
purpose they serve to the motorists. The design intention is to provide
reasonable similarity of the roadway, roadside, and operating
environment for each functional class. Although classification schemes
vary in rural and urban areas, three general categories exist - arterials,
collectors, and local streets.
The concept of classifying the highways and street network is based
principally on land access and mobility. The idea of mobility implies
continuous travel while accessibility refers to travelers’ direct access
to abutting property. Those roadways providing mobility at the
expense of access are said to be of a high functional class. A low
functional class roadway provides increased access and limited overall
mobility.
Roadway Hierarchy
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) has developed a roadway classification scheme:
Rural System:
• Principal Arterial
o Substantial statewide or interstate travel
o Movements between population centers >50,000
individuals
o Includes most existing rural freeways
o Freeways are defined as having full control of access
• Minor Arterial
o Link between cities, large towns and traffic generators
o Continuity between interstate and inter-county
service
o Spacing follows population density
o Trip lengths greater than those served by lower
functional classes
o Provide generally high travel speeds and minimal
interference to through movements
• Major Collector
o Serve towns not on arterial routes
o Serve traffic generators not on arterial routes
o Link to routes of higher classification

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o Important intra-county routes

• Minor Collector
o Spacing follows population density
o Provide service to smaller communities
o Link locally important traffic generators with outlying
remote areas
• Local Road
o Primarily provides access
o Serves travel over short distances
o Contains all rural mileage not in a higher classification
Urban System
• Principal Arterial
o Serves major centers of activity
o Serves highest traffic corridors
o Provides continuity between urban centers and major
rural connections
o Subdivided into interstates, other freeways and
expressways, and other principal arterials
• Minor Arterial
o Includes all arterials not classified as principal
o Provides intra-community connectivity
o Ideally does not penetrate neighborhoods
• Collector
o Provides for land access and traffic circulation within residential neighborhoods and
commercial/industrial areas
o Collects traffic from local road for channelization to the arterial system
o May carry bus routes and include the entire street grid system
• Local Road
o All facilities not classified as a higher functional class
o Direct access to land
o Service to through traffic is discouraged
Land Use Type
The surrounding land uses have a significant impact on the design of the roadway facility; key is the
required level of accessibility along the roadway. As noted in the roadway hierarchy discussion above,
roads carrying high speed and high-volume traffic should generally not
be used for access to adjacent properties.
Many agencies utilize land use in defining a context classification for
roadway design. For example, the Florida Department of
Transportation has adopted the following classifications based on land
use types:
• C1 Natural Lands - Preserved in a natural or wilderness condition, including lands unsuitable for
settlement due to natural conditions.
• C2 Rural - Sparsely settled lands, may include agricultural land, grassland, woodland, and
wetlands.

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• C2T Rural Town - Small concentrations of developed areas immediately surrounded by rural and
natural areas; includes many historic towns.
• C3R Suburban Residential - Mostly residential uses within large blocks and a disconnected / sparse
roadway network.
• C3C Suburban Commercial - Mostly non-residential uses with large building footprints and large
parking lots. Buildings are within large blocks and a disconnected/sparse roadway network.
• C4 Urban General - Mix of uses set within small blocks with a well-connected roadway network.
May extend long distances. The roadway network usually connects to residential neighborhoods
immediately along the corridor and/or behind the uses fronting the roadway.
• C5 Urban Center - Mix of uses set within small blocks with a well-connected roadway network.
Typically concentrated around a few blocks and identified as part of the civic or economic center
of a community, town, or city.
• C6 Urban Core - Areas with the highest densities and building heights and within FDOT classified
Large Urbanized Areas (population> 1,000,000). Many are regional centers and destinations.
Buildings have mixed uses, are built up to the roadways, and are within a well-connected roadway
network.
Freeway Versus Non-Freeway Facilities
Design considerations vary significantly between freeway and non-freeway facilities. Freeways are
generally fully access-controlled facilities with no at-grade intersections or driveways. Minimum access
locations are usually provided along arterials. Because of their very nature, collector and local roadways
are intended to provide for high levels of access.
Access Management
Access control is the legal limitation or restriction of access to and from properties neighboring highway
facilities. The principal operational difference between the street or highway with or without access
control is the degree of interference with through traffic by other
vehicles or pedestrians entering, exiting, and crossing the highway.
Both operational safety and efficiency are improved when access
points along a highway are controlled. Freeways are generally fully
access-controlled facilities with no at-grade intersections or
driveways. Minimum access locations are usually provided along
arterials. Because of their very nature, collector and local roadways are
intended to provide for high levels of access. Efforts should, however, be made to restrict access locations
near intersections to avoid vehicle conflicts.
Modal Split
Included in the design context is the anticipated modal split; will there be significant pedestrian or bicycle
traffic; are there transit facilities; will this facility accommodate significant freight movement; and similar
considerations. Each of these has an impact on the optimal geometric design. These are typically
quantified into percentages of heavy vehicles, transit vehicles, bicycles, motorcycles, and pedestrians, and
used for design considerations, determining traffic impacts, and quantifying travel demand management
for land uses.

Road User Characteristics And Accommodations

There are three components of the highway safety system that must be considered in the traffic
operations and roadway design - the road user, the vehicle, and the roadway. System failures - crashes,

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congestion, etc. - occur when one or more of these elements fail,

either individually or through interaction within the environment
(weather, light conditions, etc.).
The analysis of road user characteristics includes:
• Consideration of what people can do (the physical
characteristics)
• Variability and limitations of these physical characteristics
• Psychological, attitudinal, and other modifying factors that influence people’s responses and
behavior (what they actually do).
Road users include:
• Drivers. The driving task is very complex. Drivers must possess necessary skills to safely operate a
motor vehicle in an uncertain environment, interacting with the roadway and the behavior of
other road users.
• Pedestrians. Providing a safe environment for pedestrians requires special considerations.
Pedestrians may use the same roadway space as motor vehicles. However, the behaviors and
physical limitations of pedestrians are significantly different than those of motor vehicles and
their operators. Pedestrians represent a wide range of abilities and limitations, including children,
adults, elderly, and those with disabilities.
• Bicyclists. Bicyclists present another set of challenges to the traffic engineer. Their perceptions of
the dangers of the cycling task may be limited. In addition, many cyclists are children, with limited
skills and lacking experience.
An understanding of the physical characteristics of road users is
essential in the design and operation of transportation systems. One
must know the capabilities of drivers and pedestrians to provide
proper guidance and control. Important physical characteristics
include:
• Vision
• Hearing
• Other senses
• Strength and coordination
Of all the physical characteristics of road users, vision is the most important. Vision components that must
be considered include:
• Visual Acuity. The ability to discern objects. While minimums are established to obtain a driver’s
license, there is a great deal of variability among road users. Visual acuity may change during a
person’s lifetime. It will also vary with the amount of illumination provided. Static visual acuity
may be better than dynamic visual acuity. Thus, the placement of a sign to guide or warn drivers
may be adequate for most drivers during the day but may be inadequate for the elderly at night.
Traffic signs and markings should be placed within a cone of clear vision of approximately 10
degrees.
• Glare Vision and Recovery. Glare greatly impairs the ability to see. Traffic operations decisions
must consider glare effects in the placement of roadway illumination and in locating signs and
traffic signals. Glare recovery time increases with age.

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• Depth Perception. Road user decisions such as determining if a safe passing maneuver can be
performed or if there is an adequate gap in traffic for a pedestrian to cross a street are based on
the ability to perceive speeds and distances.
• Color Vision. Color vision is important, because color is one of the factors considered in the design
of traffic control devices. To accommodate individuals with restricted color vision other factors,
such as placement and shape, are used to communicate with the road user.
Physical characteristics define what road users can do under a given
set of circumstances. However, traffic engineers must consider actual
road user behavior, which can be very different based on several
modifying factors. Some of these key factors include:
• Psychological factors such as motivation, intelligence level,
and attentiveness
• Attitudinal factors including attitudes toward risk and regulation, impatience, and anger
• Maturity and experience
• Fatigue, drugs, and alcohol
• Age and physical disability
• Weather and light conditions
Perception-reaction time (PRT) is defined as a person’s ability to recognize and respond to a situation that
may require a decision and action. PRT is an important element to be considered in the placement of
traffic control devices and in designing roadways. It has been found that most drivers (95 percent) have a
PRT of two seconds or less for most common roadway situations. The American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) recommends using a value of 2.5 sec. for calculating
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) to include drivers with slower response times and to accommodate drivers
affected by the modifying factors listed above. AASHTO recommends that a longer PRT time be used in
complex or unexpected situations such as freeway lane drops or exit ramps.
The roadway must be designed so that it can be traversed safely and efficiently by the users. The driving
task is performed by the drivers according to their ability to receive and process information, and
ultimately perform actions. In addition to the driving task, drivers have limitations on the amount of
information they are able to process. If a highway is designed to reinforce driver expectations, drivers will
accurately and readily make decisions. When highways are designed with unusual or unexpected
situations, driver expectancies are violated, reaction times are increased, and driver error is not
uncommon.
The population of road users consists of individuals with substantial variability in capabilities and
limitations. Traffic engineers must consider this variability in roadway design and placement of traffic
control devices. One must not design for the “average” driver or pedestrian, because this would mean
that 50 percent of drivers and pedestrians would not be able to perform the task within the specified
time. Designing for the worst condition would be a costly proposition and may result in driver confusion
and inefficient operation. In most cases, traffic engineers select design values which can accommodate 85
percent or more of road users.
The elderly and the handicapped pose a special concern to the traffic
engineer. The population is aging, yet older people have mobility
needs and are road users as drivers and pedestrians. The aging process
is accompanied by deterioration in visual and physical skills. Older
drivers do not see as well at night. The average walking speed of older

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pedestrians is slower than the speed of younger people. The following are among the design
accommodations that can be made to recognize the limitations of the elderly and the handicapped:
• Intersection angle at or close to 90o
• Wide receiving lanes for turns
• Raised curb channelization
• Acceleration lanes for right turns
• Sloping rather than vertical curbs
• Pedestrian refuge islands
• Continuous raised curb medians and channelized left turn lanes rather than TWLTL
• Generous intersection sight distances
• Positive offset between opposing left turn lanes
• Corner curb radii less than 25 to 30 feet
• Roundabouts limited to single lane
• Extended pedestrian intervals at signalized crosswalks
• Use of RRFBs or similar enhancement devices at unsignalized crosswalks.
Driver error is a significant contributing factor in most crashes. For
example, drivers can make errors in judgment concerning closing
speed, gap acceptance, curve negotiation, and appropriate speeds to
approach intersections. In-vehicle and roadway distractions, driver
inattentiveness, and driver weariness can lead to errors. A driver may
also be overloaded with information processing required to carry out
multiple tasks simultaneously, which may lead to errors. Drivers are
more likely to make mistakes when their expectations are not met.
One way to accommodate human limitations is to design roadways to meet driver expectations. When
drivers can rely on past experience to assist in the driving task, errors are less likely. Drivers develop both
long- and short-term expectancies. Long-term expectancies are global in nature, and drivers anticipate
that they will be true everywhere. Examples of long- term expectancies include:
• Freeway exits will be on the right-hand side of the road
• When approaching an intersection, drivers must be in the left lane to make a left turn
• A continuous through lane will not end at an interchange or intersection
Short-term expectancies are developed over the most recent few miles or minutes of travel on a roadway.
These may include:
• On a gently winding road, upcoming curves will continue to be gentle
• After traveling at high speed for some considerable distance, the road ahead will be designed to
accommodate the same speed
• A road that has the characteristics of a freeway will not have any at-grade intersections or
driveways.
Drivers can respond more quickly and correctly to conditions that they expect and are more likely to react
more slowly and are more likely to make mistakes when conditions do not meet their expectations. The
best (safest) roadway design is one that provides consistency and meets driver’s expectations.

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Bicycle
Bicycles are an important element of the transportation system for
both utilitarian as well as recreational trips. In many cases, bicycles can
safely and comfortably share roads with motor vehicle traffic.
Improvements that can considerably enhance the safety of a street or
highway for bicycle usage include:
• Paved shoulders
• Wider outside traffic lanes (14-foot [4.2 m]) minimum width) if no shoulder exists
• Bicycle lanes
• Bicycle-safe drainage grates
• Maintaining a smooth, clean riding surface
Providing a secure parking facility at the bicyclist’s destination is also an important factor in determining
the viability of bicycle use for a particular trip.
Pedestrian
Walking is the most basic mode of transportation and is a fundamental
part of the transportation system. Safety is a key consideration in the
design of pedestrian facilities. Accessibility and usability are also key
considerations for pedestrian facilities which should accommodate
pedestrians of all abilities including children, adults, the elderly, and
those with disabilities.
Federal regulations provide that when new pedestrian facilities (or projects that alter existing facilities)
are planned, those facilities must be designed and constructed to be accessible to and usable by people
with disabilities.
Micro-Mobility
Micro-mobility vehicles have proliferated in both large cities and small towns, utilizing existing right-of-
way and transportation infrastructure that was not explicitly designed with these vehicles in mind.
Designing new facilities that accommodate micro-mobility is an evolving field. The launch of micro-
mobility has exposed significant new challenges that must be addressed through policy, planning, design,
and maintenance. Several organizations have addressed policy and planning considerations for micro-
mobility vehicles, but facility design and maintenance guidance for micro-mobility vehicles remains
limited.
Considerations For People With Disabilities
The United States Access Board is developing new guidelines under the Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA) and the Architectural Barriers Act (ABA) that will address access to sidewalks and streets,
crosswalks, curb ramps, pedestrian signals, on-street parking, and other components of public rights-of-
way. These guidelines also review shared use paths, which are designed primarily for use by bicyclists and
pedestrians for transportation and recreation purposes. Known as Public Rights-of-Way Accessibility
Guidelines (PROWAG), the latest information on the application and status of these requirements can be
found at https://www.access-board.gov/prowag/.
Transit
Design considerations for public transit on city streets and freeways would include both bus and light-rail
systems. Each has very specific design requirements and must be considered early in the design process.

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Vehicle Characteristics (E.G., Size, Operational Capabilities)

There is not a standard vehicle used on our roadways, but rather a large variety of automobiles, pick-ups,
and SUVs, single unit and tractor-trailer trucks, buses, motorcycles, and more. Each has its own operating
characteristics; variations in acceleration and deceleration, lengths of vehicle, speeds, turning radii,
stopping distances, height of driver eye, and more. These are addressed by selecting an appropriate
design vehicle as discussed later in this document.

Vulnerable Road Users

The National Safety Council describes the term vulnerable road user
(VRU) as those unprotected by an outside shield, as they sustain a
greater risk of injury in any collision with a vehicle and are therefore
highly in need of protection against such collisions. This broad
definition can include (but is not limited to): a pedestrian; a roadway
worker; a person operating a wheelchair or other personal mobility
device, whether motorized or not; a person operating an electric
scooter or similar; and a person operating a bicycle or other nonmotorized means of transportation.
Motorcycle operators can also be considered as VRUs due to their lack of vehicle enclosure and higher
risk of injury in a collision. This expansive definition should be considered when understanding the scope
of those interacting with roadways.
Accessibility Requirements For Design
PROWAG’s accessibility guidelines apply to pedestrian facilities in the
public right-of-way. The proposed guidelines define the public right-
of-way to mean “public land or property, usually in interconnected
corridors, that is acquired for or dedicated to transportation
purposes”. The proposed guidelines ensure that the following facilities
for pedestrian circulation and use located in the public right-of-way
are readily accessible to and usable by pedestrians with disabilities:
• Sidewalks, pedestrian overpasses and underpasses, and other pedestrian circulation paths,
including requirements for pedestrian access routes, alternate pedestrian access routes when
pedestrian circulation paths are temporarily closed, and protruding objects along or overhanging
pedestrian circulation paths
• Pedestrian street crossings, medians, and pedestrian refuge islands, including requirements for
curb ramps or blended transitions, and detectable warning surfaces
• Pedestrian street crossings at roundabouts, including requirements for detectable edge
treatments where pedestrian crossing is not intended, and pedestrian activated signals at multi-
lane pedestrian street crossings
• Pedestrian street crossings at multi-lane channelized turn lanes at roundabouts and at other
signalized intersections, including requirements for pedestrian activated signals
• Pedestrian signals, including requirements for accessible pedestrian signals and pedestrian
pushbuttons
• Transit stops and transit shelters for buses and light rail vehicles, including requirements for
boarding and alighting areas at sidewalk or street level, boarding platforms, and route signs
• Pedestrian at-grade rail crossings, including requirements for flangeway gaps
• On-street parking that is marked or metered, and passenger loading zones

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• Pedestrian signs, including requirements for visible characters on signs and alternative
requirements for audible sign systems and other technologies
• Street furniture for pedestrian use, including drinking fountains, public toilet facilities, tables,
counters, and benches
• Ramps, stairways, escalators, handrails, doors, doorways, and gates.
Any design effort should take into consideration PROWAG guidance.

Geometric Design Controls And Criteria

Roadway design is based on the characteristics of vehicles, drivers,
pedestrians, and traffic. Design controls are the physical dimensions or
limitations of vehicles, drivers, pedestrians, and traffic that guide the
geometric design of roads.
Design Speed
The design speed is the selected speed used to determine the various
geometric design features of the roadway. The design speed selected
depends on the location of the roadway, the functional classification,
and the topography of the land. Highway design features such as
horizontal curvature, vertical grades, superelevation, and sight
distance are determined once a design speed has been established.
High-speed design is 50 mph (80 km/h) or greater while low-speed
design is 45 mph (70 km/h) or less.
Horizontal Curve Radius
The horizontal alignment is made up of tangents and curves.
Horizontal curve design must meet two criteria: sight distance and
lateral acceleration. A minimum stopping sight distance must be
provided at all points along a horizontal curve to ensure that objects
in the road ahead can be adequately seen as drivers traverse the curve.
Lateral acceleration stems from the laws of physics and is the apparent
force (centrifugal force) pushing a driver away from the center of the
curve. This force is counteracted by side friction between the vehicle
tires and pavement surface and superelevation of the pavement. The
following expression illustrates the relationship among horizontal
curve characteristics and vehicle speed:

V2
Rmin = (metric)
127(0.01e + f )
V2
Rmin = (U .S . units )
15(0.01e + f )
Where:
Rmin = minimum radius (ft or m)
V = design speed (mph or km/h)

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e = rate of superelevation (percent)

f = coefficient of side friction
Although side friction factors can be as high as 0.8 with a dry pavement
surface, drivers usually feel comfortable at values of only up to 0.3 in
a low-speed operating environment. In a high- speed environment,
drivers usually accept less lateral acceleration and consequently the
accepted maximum side friction factor is in the range of 0.15 to 0.08.
Superelevation
The term superelevation applies to sloping the cross section of a
roadway to accommodate a vehicle traveling around a horizontal
curve. There is a practical limit to the rate of superelevation—
excessive rates may cause slow-moving vehicles to slide toward the
center of the roadway when snow and icy conditions prevail. General
design practice has been to design high-speed roadways with a maximum rate of superelevation of 12
percent (0.12 ft/ft or m/m). Where snow and icy conditions are common, the maximum rate of
superelevation should be limited to 8 percent (although some agencies use a maximum of 6 percent).
Pavement Widening on Curves
When negotiating a horizontal curve, a motorist will perceive the width of the roadway as being reduced
because the angle of the view of the roadway ahead changes. Because this may cause difficulty in steering
the vehicle and because the vehicle generally occupies a greater width due to the rear wheels tracking
inside the front wheels, pavement widths are sometimes widened around curves. As expected, the need
for pavement widening around curves increases as the vehicle size
increases, and as the pavement width and curve radius decrease.
Transition Design
Transition design covers both the transition in roadway cross-slope as
well as transition in curvature in the design of the horizontal
alignment. Transitioning the pavement cross-slope on tangent
roadway sections to a superelevated cross-slope in curved roadway sections is referred to as
superelevation transition. It is done at both ends of a curve (PC and PT) to provide motorist comfort and
safety as they negotiate a curve. In this case, the tangent section of roadway is connected directly to the
circular curve. Superelevation transition involves rotating the pavement surface about the roadway
centerline or along the inside or outside edge of the traveled way. Tangent-to-curve transitions provide
for superelevation runoff and tangent runout.
Alignment transition is sometimes accomplished using spiral curves. Spiral transitions introduce motorists
to a circular curve gradually, by using one or more curves to connect the tangent roadway segment to the
circular curve. The advantages of using spiral curve transitions are that they:
• Simulate the natural driving path of vehicles
• Provide a suitable location for superelevation runoff
• Facilitate pavement widening on a circular curve
• Enhance the appearance or the roadway

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Horizontal curve lengths and radii should be in balance with the corridor terrain and with the lengths of
tangents in the horizontal alignment. “Broken back” curves (two horizontal curves in the same direction
separated by a short tangent section) should be avoided.
Sight Distances
Highway designers evaluate five different types of sight distance:
• Stopping Sight Distance - Stopping sight distance is the primary
form of sight distance used in geometric design. In concept,
stopping sight distance should be designed to provide enough
distance for a driver traveling at the design speed to safely
stop the vehicle before colliding with an obstacle in the
roadway. Stopping sight distance (SSD) is made up of two
components: distance traveled during perception of and
reaction to an obstacle, and distance traveled during braking.
SSD on level grades can be calculated using the following
equation:
V2
SSD = 0.278 tV + 0.039 (metric)
a
V2
SSD = 1.47 tV + 1.075 (U.S. units)
a
where:
t = brake reaction time (2.5 sec.)
V = design speed (mph [km/h])
a = deceleration rate (11.2 ft/sec2 or 3.4 m/sec2)
Perception/reaction time (PRT) is the amount of time a driver requires to see and identify a
stimulus on the roadway and react to it. Based on research, AASHTO recommends a PRT of 2.5
sec. to be used for stopping sight distance. When driving conditions are not clear or situations are
unexpected, drivers require longer response times. Desirably, sight distances greater than
minimum SSD should be provided where vehicle conflicts or complex conditions exist.
The SSD model assumes deceleration rates that are comfortable and attainable on wet pavements
and are within the braking capabilities of typical vehicles.
The AASHTO Green Book recommends that SSD be measured
from an assumed passenger car driver eye height of 3.5 feet
(1080 mm) to a target height of 2.0 feet (600 mm). The
assumed target height is based on passenger car taillight
height.
When on grades, braking distance may be different than on
level terrain. As such, the following equation can be used to modify the braking distance
component in the previous equation:

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On upgrades, SSD braking distances will be shorter than on level terrain. On downgrades, braking
distances will be longer than on level terrain.
• Passing Sight Distance is important on two- lane, two-way
roadways where passing maneuvers are performed by faster
vehicles passing slower vehicles and where the passing must
be accomplished in a lane usually used by opposing traffic. The
provision of frequent opportunities to pass is important for
both capacity and safety considerations. Passing sight
distances are longer than stopping sight distances and are
consistent with the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) criteria for marking no-
passing zones.
The current AASHTO design passing sight distances are
considerably shorter that criteria found in earlier editions of
this manual. The passing sight distances assume that a driver
who has begun a passing maneuver will abort the maneuver
and drop back into the driver’s original lane if an oncoming
vehicle becomes visible after the pass has begun. Recent
research has found that this criteria provides adequate safety
for passing vehicles.
Passing sight distance is measured from an assumed passenger car driver eye height of 3.5 feet
(1080 mm) to a target height of 3.5 feet (1080 mm) representing the upper portion of the
opposing passenger car.
• Horizontal Sight Distance - Roadside objects may restrict
available sight distance around a horizontal curve and should
be checked to ensure that vehicles traveling the inside lane of
the curve have adequate SSD as a minimum. The following
expression can be used to calculate the required clearance
(horizontal sightline offset) to roadside sight obstructions
(measured from the centerline of the inside lane) to provide
stopping sight distance:

where:
R = curve radius (ft or m)

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SSD = stopping sight distance (ft or m)

HSO = horizontal sightline offset (ft or m)
• Decision sight distance - When unexpected conditions or
sources of information are present in the roadway
environment, stopping sight distance may not be adequate for
drivers to recognize the condition and to take appropriate
action. As such, decision sight distance can be used in design
to allow for additional time by the driver to react to
unexpected conditions. Locations where decision sight
distance is important include interchanges and complex
intersections, lane drops, or at toll plazas that contain a
significant amount of visual demand for the driver.
Various maneuvers are denoted A, B, C, D, and E. Maneuver A
is a stop on a rural road; maneuver B is a stop on an urban road;
maneuver C is a speed, path, or direction change on a rural
road; maneuver D is a speed, path, or direction change on a suburban road; and maneuver E is a
speed, path, or direction change on an urban road.
Decision sight distance can be computed using the stopping sight distance equations; however,
rather than using 2.5 seconds for perception-reaction time, other times are used. Maneuver A
assumes a 3.1 second perception-reaction time. Maneuver B assumes a 9.1 second perception-
reaction time. Maneuver C assumes a perception-reaction time between 10.2 and 11.2 seconds.
A perception-reaction time between 12.1 and 12.9 seconds is assumed for Maneuver D. A
perception-reaction time between 14.0 and 14.5 seconds is assumed for Maneuver E.
• Intersection Sight Distance - Because intersections are locations where vehicle conflicts occur, a
driver needs a clear line of sight both approaching and departing at-grade intersections to make
a safe crossing or turning maneuver. The “Intersection Design” section contains more information
about intersection sight distance.
Maximum Grade
Maximum grades are set to ensure consistent vehicle speeds on
highways. Steep grades force heavy vehicles (such as trucks) to slow,
thus disrupting traffic flow. In general, it is appropriate to limit grades
to five percent for a 70 mph (120 km/h) design speed. Grades in the
range of 7 to 12 percent are acceptable for low-speed designs. A
minimum grade of 0.5 percent is desirable in level terrain to ensure
proper roadway surface drainage. The absolute minimum grade for
drainage is 0.3 percent.
Cross Slope
The cross slope is also a consideration in roadway design, and on tangent sections of roadway, serves
primarily in a drainage role, allowing rainfall to drain from the roadway surface to a roadside collection
facility. Cross slope in a curve is known as superelevation and provides motorist comfort and safety as
they negotiate the curve.

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Vertical Clearance
Vertical clearance is an important factor in accommodating taller vehicles along a roadway facility. All
intended vehicles should be able to pass under overhead structures without conflict.

Design Vehicles
Roadways, intersections, ramps, parking lots, and other traffic-related
facilities are designed to accommodate certain types of vehicles.
Design vehicles are defined by AASHTO as “selected motor vehicles
with representative weight, dimensions, and operating characteristics
used to establish highway design controls for accommodating vehicles
of designated classes.” There are four general classes of vehicles
identified in the AASHTO Policy of Geometric Design of Highway and
Streets: passenger cars, trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles. There
are 19 design vehicles that fall into the four general classes. Key design
vehicle dimensions include height, length, width, wheelbase, and
turning radius.
Large vehicles, such as trucks and buses, require more liberal design
dimensions than passenger cars. The design dimensions for all 19
design vehicles are presented in the AASHTO Green Book.
The AASHTO Green Book suggests that the following guidelines should
be considered when determining a design vehicle:
• Passenger Car: parking lots
• Single-unit truck: intersections on residential streets and park
roads
• City bus: intersections of city streets and state highways that
are designated bus routes with limited large truck traffic
• School bus: intersections of low-volume local roads (less than
400 vehicles per day) and highways, and some subdivision
streets
• Interstate semi-trailer (WB-65 or 67): intersections of freeway
ramp terminals with arterial crossroads, and intersections of
state highways with roads carrying a large number of large
trucks.
The design vehicle influences various geometric design elements.
These include:
• Sight distance (including stopping, intersection, passing, and
decision)
• Intersection layout and design (channelization)
• Grades (critical length and downgrades)
• Interchange design (ramp design, acceleration and deceleration lanes)
• Lane width on all roadway types
• Horizontal curves (radius, superelevation, and pavement widening on curves)
• Cross-slope

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• Vertical clearance
Vertical Curvature
The vertical alignment (profile) consists of tangent grades and vertical
curves. The vertical alignment should be carefully coordinated with the
horizontal alignment to assure that adequate sight distance is
provided, and that distorted appearances are avoided.
Vertical curves may be either crest or sag curves. In the figure, G1 is the
initial roadway grade while G2 is the final roadway grade. One-half of
the vertical curve length is between the beginning of the curve (PVC)
and the point of intersection of the initial and final grades (PVI). The
other half of the curve length is between the PVI and the end of the
vertical curve (PVT). Such curves are referred to as equal-tangent.
Points on a vertical curve are defined by stations and elevations.
Stationing along a vertical curve is measured along a horizontal plane.
The symbol A is the algebraic difference between the initial and final roadway grades. It is expressed as
an absolute value, usually in percent, as follows:

Because vertical curves used in highway design are based on the parabolic equation and have equal
tangent lengths, a constant rate of slope change is a resulting property
of these curves. As such, K-values, defined as the horizontal distance
to effect a one percent change in grade, can be used to calculate the
length of a vertical curve. The relationship between K and the length
of a vertical curve is as follows:

where:
L = length of vertical curve (ft or m)
K = horizontal distance to effect a one percent change in grade
A = absolute value of the algebraic difference in grades
(percent)
The K-value is based on stopping sight distance (SSD) criterion and is
critical for design. On crest vertical curves, sight distance is limited by
both the driver eye and object heights. For SSD, it is generally assumed
that the driver eye height used for design is 3.5 feet (1,080 mm); the
assumed object height is 2 feet (600 mm). Assumed driver eye height
for trucks is 8 feet (2,400 mm). When the SSD is less than the length of
vertical curve, the minimum length of curve to provide SSD is as
follows:

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When the stopping sight distance is greater than the length of vertical curve, the expression used to
calculate the required length of curve is as follows:

where:
L = minimum length of vertical curve (ft or m)
h1 = driver eye height (ft or m)
h2 = object height (ft or m)
A = algebraic difference in vertical grades (percent)
S = stopping sight distance (ft or m)
Determining minimum crest vertical curve lengths for passing sight
distance can be done using the same equations as for stopping sight
distance. However, the driver eye and object heights assumed in
passing sight distance are both 3.5 feet (1080 mm). The length of crest
vertical curve necessary to provide adequate passing sight distance is
longer than that for providing adequate stopping sight distance.
For sag vertical curves there are at least four different criteria that are used to establish their length:
• Headlight sight distance
• Passenger comfort
• Drainage control
• General appearance
While SSD must be provided in all cases, the other criteria are used to
ensure safety and consistency of design. During nighttime driving
conditions, a vehicle’s headlamp illumination distance controls SSD. It
is usually assumed that headlamp height (H) is 2.0 feet (600 mm) and
the aim of the headlamp (β) is one degree above the longitudinal axis
of the vehicle. When SSD is less than the length of curve, the minimum
length of sag curve to provide SSD is:

where:

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L = minimum length of vertical curve (ft or m)

A = algebraic difference in vertical grades (percent)
S = stopping sight distance (ft or m)
H = headlight height (2.0 ft or 0.6 m)
β = headlight aim angle (1o)
When SSD is greater than the length of vertical curve, the minimum length of sag curve to provide SSD is:

On sag vertical curves, the presence of an overpassing structure can

block a driver’s sight line. As such, the minimum length of sag curve is
based on the required sight distance and the height of the structure is
as follows, assuming that sight distance is greater than the length of
vertical curve:

where:
L = minimum length of sag vertical curve (ft or m)
S = stopping sight distance (ft or m)
C = vertical clearance (ft or m)
h1 = driver eye height (ft or m)
h2 = object height (ft or m)
A = absolute value of the difference in grades (percent)
When underpass sight distance is a concern, an assumed driver eye height of 8.0 feet (2.4 m) based on
eye height of truck drivers. The assumed object height is 2.0 feet (600 mm) based on the taillights of an
automobile.
To determine stations and elevations on vertical curves, a parabolic function is used. The general form of
the equation is as follows:

where:

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y = roadway elevation at distance x from the PVC (ft or m)

G1, G2 = initial and final tangent grades, respectively (percent)
x = distance from the PVC to a point on the curve (ft or m)
L = length of vertical curve (ft or m)
Elev(PVC) = elevation at the PVC (ft or m)
To determine the distance from the PVC to the high or low point on a vertical curve, the following equation
can be used:

where:
xm = distance from PVC to high or low point on curve (ft or m)
A = absolute difference in grades (percent)

Roadways And Roadsides

The cross section of the highway can be divided into roadway and
roadside elements. The roadway cross section is defined as the
physical features between the outer edges of pavement, and includes
the travel lanes, curbs, and shoulders. The roadside cross section
includes the sideslopes, ditches, medians, clearances to obstructions,
and barriers.
Roadway
The roadway cross section is that portion which is designated for use by vehicles. The traveled way
pavement and cross slope, traffic lane and shoulder widths, shoulder width and cross slopes, and curbs
make up the roadway cross section.
Traveled Way - The traveled way is that portion of the roadway
normally used by moving traffic. Key pavement characteristics that
relate to geometric design include the effect on driver behavior and
the pavement's ability to retain its shape and dimensions, to drain, and
to retain adequate skid resistance. High-type pavements are usually of
the best riding quality and are justified by high traffic volumes. Low-
type pavements are not built to the same high standards as the high-
type pavements and may not readily drain. High-type pavements cause less interruption to traffic
operations, while low-type pavements are generally used where design speed and traffic volume is
considered to be very low.
Normal Crown - Pavements on two-lane roadways generally have a high point at the centerline of the
pavement, and a uniform cross-slope downward toward both edges. On multilane, divided facilities, the
pavement cross-slope can be similar to that of a two-lane facility or it can slope downward from the
median edge to the right-hand shoulder edge. High surface type pavements usually have a 1.5 to 2.0
percent crown cross-slope and low-type pavements have a 2 to 6 percent crown cross slope.

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Lane Widths - Roadway lane widths generally range from 9 to 12 feet (2.7 to 3.6 m) in width, with 12 feet
(3.6 m) being the most widely used. Lower values are permissible on lower functional class roadways,
while wider lanes are more desirable on higher functional class roadways. Lane width and restricted
lateral clearance affect highway capacity and operations. Narrow lanes force vehicles closer together and
tend to lessen vehicle operating speeds. Similarly, restricted clearances to obstructions can reduce the
capacity of traffic lanes.
Shoulders - The purpose of the shoulder as a part of the roadway cross
section is to accommodate stalled or parked vehicles, provide space
for emergency use, and provide lateral support of sub-base, base, and
surface courses. The width of shoulders varies from 2 feet (0.6m) on
lower functional class roadways to about 12 feet (3.6 m) on major
roads, where the entire shoulder may be stabilized or paved.
Shoulders that are 12 feet (3.6 m) wide are generally recommended
for high-volume, high-speed highways and for highways carrying large truck volumes.
Shoulder cross-slopes should be designed to drain away from the traveled way. On tangent sections of
the roadway, shoulders are generally sloped at the same rate as the traveled way, or one to two percent
greater. On the outside of horizontal curves, the algebraic difference in the slopes of the traveled way and
shoulder should be limited to a maximum of 8 percent, thus limiting the chances of vehicle loss of control.
Curbs - Curbs are generally used in urban settings where the objective
is to deter vehicles from conflicting with pedestrian movements and
to provide proper roadway surface drainage. Curbs may be either
sloped or vertical curbs. Sloped curbs are designed for vehicles to cross
when necessary. They are generally used in median or intersection
areas to delineate vehicle paths. Vertical curbs typically range from 6
to 8 inches (150 to 200 mm) in height with a generally vertical face.
They are generally used to discourage vehicles from leaving the roadway.
The placement of curbs on roadways affects the lateral placement of moving vehicles. As such, curbs
should be offset from the edge of the traveled way by 1 to 2 feet (0.3 to 0.6 m). Curbs are not
recommended on roadways with a high design speed such as arterials or freeways. When curbs are
impacted at high speeds, drivers may lose control of their vehicles.
Roadside
Roadside cross-sectional elements also have an operational effect on traffic flow, as well as safety of
vehicles that leave the roadway. Roadside cross section elements meriting consideration are: horizontal
clearance to obstructions, medians, roadside slopes, and traffic barriers.
Horizontal clearance to obstructions - The need for a clear roadside
exists because crashes on rural highways often involve drivers running
off the road and colliding with fixed objects such as bridge piers, sign
supports, culverts, ditches, and other design features of the highway.
The clear zone is a traversable recovery area that permits vehicles
leaving the traveled way to safely stop or return to the roadway. The
clear zone is measured from the edge of the traveled way and includes
the shoulder. For high-speed, high functional class roadways with level roadside slopes and tangent
alignment, the desired clear zone is 30 feet (9 m). Desirably, obstacles in the clear zone area are either

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removed, redesigned so as to be traversable, relocated, made breakaway, or shielded by traffic barriers

or crash cushions.
A clear zone of 30 feet (9 m) may not be cost-effective in situations
where traffic volumes are low and where a 30-foot (9-m) clear zone is
unjustified for environmental or economic reasons. A minimum clear
zone width of 10 feet (3 m) may be appropriate for low-speed rural
collectors and rural local roads. On urban roadways with curbs,
horizontal clearance of at least 1.5 feet (0.5 m) should be provided
from the face of curb to any roadside obstacles. However, this
horizontal clearance does not represent a clear zone--the same clear zone widths as provided for rural
roads are desirable where feasible.
Although the previous discussion provides guidance on clear zone distances, traffic volumes, speeds, and
roadside geometry are also important considerations when designing the roadside area. The figure is
appropriate for clear zone distance guidance, but the designer must also consider environmental impacts,
urban versus rural locations, and economic constraints.
Roadside slopes - Within the clear zone, roadside fill slopes should be
as flat as practical. Slopes of 1V:4H are considered “recoverable,” with
slopes of 1V:6H or flatter preferred on high-speed roads. Slopes
between 1V:4H and 1V:3H are “non- recoverable,” meaning that
vehicles encountering such slopes would be expected to travel to the
bottom of the slope. Slopes steeper than 1V:3H are “critical,” and may
result in vehicles overturning on the slope.
Medians - The median is the portion of a divided highway separating
opposing traveled ways. Medians serve to separate opposing traffic,
act as recovery space for errant vehicles, and are storage areas for left-
turning and U-turning vehicles. Medians generally range from 4 feet
(1.2 m) to 80 feet (24 m) or more in width. The optimum median width
for two-way left-turn lanes is 10 to 16 feet (3.0 to 4.8 m). Providing
two- way left-turn lanes on undivided roads with closely spaced
driveways can reduce travel times, improve capacity, and reduce crash
frequency. However, non-traversable medians are often desirable to
control left turn access in and out of driveways. On high- speed
highways, if the median is less than 30 feet (10 m) wide, a median
barrier may be warranted depending upon the average daily traffic.
Traffic barriers - Removing, redesigning, relocating, or reducing the
severity of impact with an obstacle (by making it breakaway) in the clear zone are preferred methods for
improving roadside safety. When such treatments for roadside obstacles cannot be accomplished,
installation of a longitudinal barrier or crash cushion must be considered. Installation of a longitudinal
barrier should only be considered when the barrier would result in a lower crash severity than potential
impacts with the roadside obstacle or condition.

Intersections
An intersection, as defined by the AASHTO Green Book, is “…the general area where two or more highways
join or cross, including the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic movements within the area.”

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Intersection Types (E.G., Stop-Control, Continuous Flow)

The most common forms of at-grade intersections are shown in the
figure in the slide. Generally, they are three-legged (a “T” or “Y”
intersection), four-legged (“+” intersection), and multi-legged. Rotary
intersections are also used; the primary type currently being designed
in the modern roundabout described below.
There are some new and innovative intersections that have been
designed to improve the safety and efficiency of left turning vehicles
while remaining an at-grade intersection. These include the
Continuous Flow Intersection (CFI) (also known as the Displaced Left
Turn intersection or DLT), the Median U-Turn intersection, the
Restricted Crossing U-Turn intersection (RCUT), and more. In the CFI,
left turning vehicles make their turn across opposing traffic in advance
of the intersection. In the Median U-turn intersection, left turning
vehicles proceed through the intersection and then make a U-turn and
return to the intersection to make a right turn. In the RCUT, side street
traffic desiring to go straight or turn left first turn right, and then make
a U-turn to return to the intersection.
An intersection is defined by both its functional and physical areas. The
functional area of an intersection extends both upstream and
downstream from the physical intersection area and includes any left-
or right-turn lanes and their associated channelization. The functional
area on the approach to an intersection consists of three basic
elements:
• Perception-reaction distance
• Deceleration/maneuver distance
• Queue storage distance
One criterion used to define the downstream functional area is the
distance needed for turning vehicles to accelerate to the speed of
traffic. Desirably, driveways should not be located within the
functional area of an intersection.
Intersecting roadways should generally meet at as close to right angles
and at as nearly level grades as practicable. When the intersecting
roadways meet at angles significantly different from 90o, the result can
be extensive intersection areas and limited sight distances.
Intersections require storage space or storage platforms for stopped
vehicles; therefore, the use of flat grades within the intersection
proper is desirable. Generally, grades steeper than 3% on intersection
approaches should be avoided because many drivers cannot judge the
increased or decreased stopping or acceleration distances required.

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Roundabouts
One specialized type of intersection is the modern roundabout. Roundabout designs can be used at 3-leg,
4-leg, and multi-leg intersections. Roundabouts are a specialized form of intersection design in which all
traffic entering the circulating roadway operates under YIELD control. Designing the size of the central
island and the deflection of entering vehicle paths is critical to
controlling the speeds of vehicles as they enter and pass through the
intersection. Roundabouts have proven extremely effective in
reducing right-angle and left-turn intersection crashes.
Roundabouts operate most safely when their geometry forces traffic
to enter and circulate at slow speeds. Horizontal curvature and narrow
pavement widths are used to produce this reduced-speed
environment; approaching vehicles must deflect from their normal path to use the roundabout. Key
geometric design elements include:
• Inscribed circle diameter - the distance across the circle inscribed by the outer curb (or edge) of
the circulatory roadway
• Entry width - measured from the point where the yield line intersects the left edge of the traveled-
way to the right edge of the traveled way, along a line perpendicular to the right curb line
• Circulatory roadway width – the width of the circular roadway
• Entry radius – the radius of the curve where the entry roadway enters the circular roadway
• Exit radius – the radius of the curve where the exit roadway diverges from the circular roadway
• Splitter island – used to separate the entry lane(s) and the exit lane(s) on one leg of the
roundabout.
• Stopping sight distance - required for a driver to perceive and react to an object in the roadway
and to brake to a complete stop before reaching that object and should be provided at every point
within a roundabout and on each entering and exiting approach.
Turning Lanes
The need for left-turn lanes is usually based on capacity analysis or safety considerations. In general, left-
turn lanes should be considered for intersections where the volume of left-turning vehicles during the
design hour exceeds 100 vph. If the volume is greater than 300 left-
turns per hour, a double left-turn lane should be considered. The
length of left-turn storage must be adequate for the expected number
of left-turning vehicles. As a rule of thumb, at a signalized intersection,
provide enough length to store twice the average number of left-
turning vehicles per cycle. Left-turn lanes should desirably be the same
width as through lanes, but on low-speed approaches, narrower turn
lanes may be acceptable.
For right-turning roadways, 12-foot (3.6-m) lanes are also desirable. Right-turn lanes adjacent to curbs
should be designed to full widths. Right-turn lanes should be considered if the volume of right-turning
vehicles exceeds 300 vph during the design hour.
Turn Bay Design
Bays for turning lanes should consider three primary dimensions:

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• Taper Length provides the shift from the through lane to the turn lane and is typically based on
the approach speed of the roadway; longer tapers are needed for higher speeds.
• Deceleration Length is the space needed for a turning vehicle to enter the turn lane and slow to a
stop before the intersection. Most agencies assume the deceleration starts at the beginning of
the taper.
• Storage Length is the space needed for cars to queue while
waiting to complete their turn. If an analysis of the
intersection has been completed, the 95th percentile queue
length, the distance at which 95% of the queues will be at or
below, can be used for the necessary storage length.
Medians And Channelizing Islands
Conflicts are inherent to intersection design. Many potential conflicts
can be minimized using appropriate channelization techniques. The
nine principles of channelization are as follows:
• Undesirable or wrong-way movements should be discouraged
or prohibited through channelization
• Desirable paths for vehicles should be clearly defined by all
elements of the intersection
• Desirable and safe vehicle speeds should be encouraged by
the design of the intersection
• The design of the intersection should wherever possible
separate points of conflict
• Traffic streams should cross at near-right angles and merge at
flat angles
• The design of the intersection should facilitate the movement
of high priority traffic flows
• The design of the intersection should facilitate its scheme of
traffic control
• The intersection should accommodate decelerating, slow, or
stopped vehicles outside higher-speed through traffic lanes
• Safe refuge from motor vehicles for pedestrians, handicapped,
and others should be provided where appropriate
Sight Distance
Intersection design must provide sufficient sight distances for the
driver to perceive potential conflicts and to carry out the actions
necessary to negotiate the intersection safely. At intersection
approaches, speeds and the required driver action govern sight
distances. At intersection departures, the designer must provide for all
maneuvers permitted upon departure from the stopped position.
Intersection sight distance is divided into six forms:
• Case A: Intersections with no control
• Case B: Intersections with stop sign control on the minor road
o Case B1:Left turn from the minor road
o Case B2: Right turn from the minor road

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o Case B3: Crossing maneuver from the minor road

• Case C: Intersections with Yield control on the minor road
o Case C1: Crossing maneuver from the minor road
o Case C2: Left or right turn from the minor road
• Case D: Intersections with traffic signal control
• Case E: Intersections with all-way stop control
• Case F: Left turns from the major road
A detailed discussion of all cases is contained in the AASHTO Green
Book.
For Case A, the length of the approach sight triangles should be
sufficient so that a vehicle approaching the intersection can slow or
stop before reaching the intersection if a vehicle is present on a
conflicting approach. It should be noted that dimension “a” is
measured along the minor road. This is the location when the minor
road driver should begin to brake if a vehicle is approaching on the
major road. Similarly, dimension “b” is measured along the major road.
For Case B, departure sight triangles should be provided for drivers
stopped on the minor road. These sight triangles are for situations
where traffic is approaching the stopped vehicle from either the left or
the right. The recommended sight triangle dimensions are based on
the concept of gap acceptance. The decision point is 14.5 feet (4.4 m)
from the edge of the major-road traveled way. This location represents
the position of the driver’s eye when stopped on the minor road. The
AASHTO Green Book indicates that the decision point can be increased
to 18.0 feet (5.4 m) when practical to increase the size of the sight
triangle.
Case B intersection sight distance (ISD) along the major road is based on the concept of gap acceptance.
As such, ISD is calculated as follows:

ISD = 1.47Vmajortg (U.S. units)

ISD = 0.278Vmajortg (metric units)
where:
Vmajor = design speed of major road (mph or km/h)
tg = time gap for minor road vehicle to enter major road (sec)
The time gaps for the Case B1, B2, and B3 conditions depend on type of design vehicles, type of maneuver
by the entering vehicle, width of the major road, and grade on the
minor road approach. Normally, the left turn from the minor road
(Case B1) is the most critical maneuver in terms of sight distance.
Because the time gaps are based on a two-lane highway with no
median and with grades less than three percent, adjustments can be
made if these conditions do not hold. On multi-lane highways for Case
B1, add 0.5 sec. for passenger cars and 0.7 sec. for trucks for each

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additional lane greater than one, from the left, that must be crossed by a turning vehicle. On multi-lane
highways for Cases B2 and B3, do the same for each lane that must be crossed and for narrow medians
that cannot store the design vehicle. For Case B1, add 0.2 sec. to the time gap for each upgrade percent
above 3 percent. For Cases B2 and B3, add 0.1 sec. for each percent upgrade above 3 percent.

Freeways, Ramps, And Interchanges

Freeways fall into the arterial functional class and are high-speed,
high-volume roadways with full-control of access. Preference is given
to through traffic by prohibiting crossing at-grade. The greatest
amount of traffic operational efficiency and capacity at intersections
occurs when intersecting roadways are grade-separated. Grade-
separations are commonly referred to as interchanges and act as a
physical separation between intersecting roadways.
In general, freeway design speeds should not be less than 50 mph (80
km/h). In rural areas, the design speed should be 70 mph (110 km/h),
except in mountainous terrain where a design speed of 50 to 60 mph
(80 to 100 km/h) may be used. Travel lanes should be 12 feet (3.6 m)
wide with a high-type pavement.
Paved shoulders should be provided on both the left and right sides of
the through travel lanes. Right shoulders should be at least 10 feet (3.0 m) wide and may be 12 feet (3.6
m) when the design directional hourly truck traffic exceeds 250 vph. On four-lane freeways, the median
(or left-side) shoulder should be 4 to 8 feet (1.2 to 2.4 m) wide. On six-lane freeways, the paved median
shoulder width should be 10 to 12 feet (3.0 to 3.6 m) wide.
Travel lanes typically have a 1.5 to 2.0 percent normal crown cross-slope while shoulders are typically
sloped 2 to 6 percent. Vertical grades should not generally exceed 7 percent in mountainous terrain with
flatter grades more common in rolling or level terrain. A 16-foot (4.9 m) vertical clearance is desirable. A
vertical clearance of 14 feet (4.3 m) may be used in urban areas if an alternate freeway facility with a 16-
foot (4.9-m) vertical clearance is nearby.
In urban areas, depressed or elevated freeways are more common than in rural areas. Depressed
freeways are typically constructed parallel to the at-grade street network and must provide adequate
vertical clearance. Frontage roads are also common adjacent to depressed freeways in urban areas.
Because of right-of-way restrictions, depressed freeways often have retaining walls. These walls should
be located 0.6 m (2 ft) beyond the edge of the outside (right) shoulder. Depressed freeways reduce noise
and are less conspicuous than elevated freeways but require a significant drainage network. Elevated
freeways can be constructed with minimal disruption to surface highway and street traffic. The
disadvantage of elevated freeways is that the structure must be maintained and it requires a closed
drainage system. Appropriate vertical clearance must be provided below the structure and a 4.5 to 6.0 m
(15 to 20 ft) lateral clearance to adjacent buildings must be provided to provide clear sight distance and
to permit access to the exterior of the building by maintenance, construction, or emergency response
equipment.
System Interchange Versus Service Interchange
Interchanges can be divided into two broad categories: system interchanges and service interchanges.
System interchanges connect two controlled access highways or freeways and have no at-grade
intersections at ramp terminals. Service interchanges connect a higher functional class roadway to a lower

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functional class roadway and may have at-grade intersections at ramp

terminals. Both the directional and full cloverleaf interchanges are
examples of systems interchanges. They provide for continuous traffic
flows at relatively high speeds. The diamond, partial cloverleaf, and
single-point urban (SPUI) interchanges are examples of service
interchanges because some movements at these interchanges must
pass through an at-grade intersection.
Interchange Types
The most common types of interchanges include trumpet, diamond,
partial cloverleaf (parclo), cloverleaf, and directional. Interchange
forms (A) and (B) are three-leg designs. Three-leg designs are common
when future expansion in the unused quadrant of the interchange is
unlikely. All remaining configurations, (C) through (H), are considered
four-leg design.
Although uncommon, the ramp in one quadrant configuration (C) may be used at locations where two
intersecting roadways have low traffic volumes and are subject to topographic or other controls.
• Diamond interchanges (D) are very common in both rural and urban areas. They require little
right-of-way and allow traffic to enter and leave the major road at high-speeds. The ramp
terminals form at-grade intersections at the crossing road – these locations may be signalized or
STOP-controlled, or may be roundabouts, depending on traffic volumes. The ramp, cross-street,
and traffic control should be designed to provide efficient operations and to discourage wrong-
way movements at each intersection.
• Single-point urban interchanges (SPUI) (E) are primarily used in urban areas with limited right-of-
way. Turning movements are usually controlled by a single traffic signal and left-turning
movements do not conflict with one another. These interchanges have greater capacity than
diamond interchanges but are more costly to construct.
• Cloverleaf interchanges (G) are more common in rural areas than urban areas because they
require significant space. When loop ramps are in two quadrants, these are referred to as partial
cloverleafs (F). When loop ramps are in all four quadrants, these are referred to as full cloverleafs.
Loop ramps accommodate left-turning vehicles–such ramps generate weaving maneuvers and
require longer travel distances for left-turning traffic.
• Directional interchanges (H) utilize one-way roadways that do not deviate much from the
intended travel direction. Such connections improve operational efficiency by increasing speed
and capacity and eliminating weaving maneuvers. The Alternative Four-Way Directional (Turbine)
Interchange is a prime example.
A relatively new interchange design is the Diverging Diamond
Interchange (DDI), also known as the Double Crossover Diamond (DCD)
interchange and is a variation of the traditional diamond interchange.
Opposing directions of travel on the non-freeway road cross each
other on either side of the interchange so that traffic crossing the
freeway on the overpass or underpass is operating on the opposite
side of the roadway. A key advantage is that the left turns to enter the
freeway do not have to cross opposing traffic.

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The following six criteria give helpful insight when deciding between an interchange or an at-grade
intersection configuration at crossing roadways:
• Design designation. The decision to develop a roadway with
full control of access becomes the warrant to provide all
intersecting highways with grade separations. The main
concern in this situation is the continuous flow of traffic on the
major roadway.
• Reduction of bottlenecks or spot congestion. Insufficient
capacity on heavily traveled routes may result in intolerable
congestion on one or more intersection approaches.
• Improve safety. Some at-grade intersections may have extremely high crash rates or severity. A
grade separation may be warranted if less expensive methods of alleviating or eliminating
hazardous conditions are not possible.
• Site topography. At some locations, grade separations are the only economically feasible
alternative. The site topography may be such that an at-grade intersection would be extremely
expensive.
• Road-user benefits. Grade separations can reduce the user costs due to delay at congested
intersections.
• Traffic volume warrant. A specific volume warrant cannot be established for an interchange;
however, volumes greater than capacity may justify an interchange.
Avoiding Bottlenecks
Freeway design should follow two important principles to avoid
building-in potential future bottlenecks:
• Basic number of lanes is defined as the minimum number of
lanes designated and maintained over a significant length of
route, irrespective of local variations in traffic volume and
auxiliary lanes required for lane balance.
• Lane balance means that the roadway capacity departing any
junction should be equal to or greater than the roadway
capacity approaching the junction. At entrances, the number
of lanes beyond the merge should be equal to or one less than
the total number of approach lanes (freeway plus ramp). At
exits, the total number of approach lanes should be one less
than the sum of the lanes on the two diverging roadways.
It is desirable to designate one route as the through route and treat all
other routes, regardless of demand volumes or functional
classification, as intersecting facilities. Drivers should not be required
to change lanes or exit to remain on the major route. This is important
for the unfamiliar driver since the number of lane changes required to
stay on the through route will be minimized. In addition, signing is
usually simplified, information search time is reduced, and the through route is more clearly delineated.

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Merging, Diverging, And Weaving Areas

It is important that interchanges be located so as to provide the
desired service and function while properly receiving and discharging
traffic from connecting facilities in a safe and efficient manner. In
general, interchanges usually should not be spaced closer than an
average of 2 miles (3 km) within urban areas, an average of 4 miles (6
km) in suburban areas, and an average of 7.5 miles (12 km) in rural
areas. In consideration of the effects of existing street and highway
spacing in conjunction with natural and cultural conditions, the spacing between individual adjacent
interchanges may vary considerably. The minimum distance between adjacent interchanges should not
be less than 1 mile (1.5 km) in urban areas, 2 miles (3 km) in suburban areas, and 3 miles (5 km) in rural
areas.
Inadequate distance between successive ramps may create weaving problems as well as a poor
distribution of traffic across the lanes. In the case of an entrance followed by an exit, the appropriate
length is governed by a capacity analysis.
Auxiliary lanes can be used in a variety of ways to maintain lane balance, increase capacity, and
accommodate weaving movements. Operational efficiency of the freeway may be improved if a
continuous auxiliary lane is provided between entrance and exit terminals where interchanges are closely
spaced. Between interchanges, an auxiliary lane should be provided where the distance between the end
of the entrance terminal and the beginning of the exit taper is less than 1500 feet (450 m).
Ramps
Ramp design speeds apply to the controlling (i.e., sharpest) curve on
the ramp proper. Ramps generally have a design speed that is 50 to 85
percent of the highway design speed. Right-turn movements often
have a design speed that is near the upper range. Loop ramps generally
have a design speed near the lower range, but for highway design
speeds of more than 50 mph (80 km/h), loop ramp design speeds
should not be less than 25 mph (40 km/h). Direct connections are
usually in the mid- to upper-range; however, the minimum design speed for direct connections is generally
40 mph (60 km/h).
Speed-change lanes are auxiliary lanes adjacent to the through travel lanes at a highway interchange –
the acceleration or deceleration required to enter or exit the through travel lanes are typically performed
on speed-change lanes. Speed-change lanes may be tapered or parallel. Tapered lanes provide a direct
entry or exit to the through travel lanes at a relatively flat angle. Parallel lanes are added lanes that are
used for speed-changing.
Managed Lanes
Three types of managed lanes are commonly found on freeways—
exclusive, concurrent flow, and contraflow lanes. In addition, two
different operating strategies are used with exclusive lanes—two-way
and reversible. Several elements, criteria, and controls should be
considered in the design process for managed lane facilities, as they
are important for the safe and efficient operation of the facility. These

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criteria, which are like those applied to any type of roadway, relate to the vehicle design, driver
characteristics, design speed, and roadway alignment geometry.
The design of managed lane facilities on freeways is often a challenging process. In many cases, right-of-
way limitations and roadway constraints may make it difficult to meet all desirable design standards.
Unless a facility is being developed as part of a new project or major reconstruction of an existing facility,
some compromise in design may need to be considered.
Sight Distance
Sight distance remains a key design element in the development of a freeway system. In general, speeds
are higher than on conventional roadways, so sight distance requirements often require greater distances,
however, the concepts are the same.
Some special considerations for freeways should be made. For example, grade separation is often
established by having a crest vertical curve as the freeway crosses over an at grade roadway; at highway
speeds, the length of this curve is important for ensuring a safe stopping sight distance. In addition, on
horizontal curves, consideration to median barrier walls and other structures must be given, again to
ensure adequate stopping sight distance.

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REFERENCES
Questions for the certification examination are derived and/or documented from a number of
professional sources. Some of the most frequently cited references are:
Title: Highway Capacity Manual, 7th Edition: A Guide for Multimodal Mobility Analysis
Author(s): Transportation Research Board Inc.
Publisher: TRB, ISBN: 978-0-309-08766-7
ITE Publication Number: LP-674C
Publication Date: 2022

Title: Manual of Transportation Engineering Studies, 2nd Edition

Author(s): Edited by H. Douglas Robertson
Publisher: ITE, ISBN: 978-1-933452-53-1
ITE Publication Number: TB-012A
Publication Date: 2010

Title: Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, 2009 Edition

Author(s): FHWA/ITE/ATSSA/AASHTO
Publisher: FHWA/ITE/ATSSA/AASHTO, ISBN: 978-1-56051-473-2
ITE Publication Number: MUTCD-10
Publication Date: 2009

Title: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 7th Edition

Author(s): AASHTO
Publisher: AASHTO, ISBN: 978-1-56051-676-7
Publication Date: 2018

Title: Traffic Engineering Handbook, 7th Edition

Author(s): ITE, Brian Wolshon and Anurag Pande
Publisher: Wiley, ISBN: 978-1-118-76230-1
ITE Publication Number: LP-691
Publication Date: 2016

Title: Traffic Safety Toolbox: A Primer on Traffic Safety

Author(s): ITE
Publisher: ITE, ISBN: 0-935403-43-4
ITE Publication Number: LP-279A
Publication Date: 1999

Title: Transportation Planning Handbook, 4th Edition

Author(s): Edited by Michael D. Meyer
Publisher: ITE, ISBN: 978-1-118-76235-6
ITE Publication Number: LP-695
Publication Date: 2016

Title: Highway Safety Manual

Author(s): AASHTO
Publisher: AASHTO, ISBN: 978-1-56051-477-0
ITE Publication Number: LP-672
Publication Date: 2010

Module 2 © 2022 Institute of Transportation Engineers

Operational Effects of Geometric Design 2-30 Student Supplement
 Professional Traffic Operations Engineer
Certification Program Refresher Course

Title: Signal Timing Manual - NCHRP Report 812, Second Edition

Author(s): Tom Urbanik, Alison Tanaka, et al.
Publisher: TRB, National Cooperative Highway Research Program
Publication Date: 2015

Website References
Connected Vehicles, https://www.pcb.its.dot.gov/eprimer/module13.aspx

Freight and Commercial Vehicle ITS, https://www.pcb.its.dot.gov/eprimer/module6.aspx#is

USDOT, ATDM Program Brief: An Introduction to Active Transportation and Demand Management.
http://www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop12032/fhwahop12032.pdf

In addition to these professional references, a candidate may find it advantageous to review a general
traffic or transportation engineering text. Among the excellent texts currently available, the following
was frequently cited in question documentation:

Title: Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering, 16th Edition (Currently not Available)

Author(s): Homburger, W., et al.
Publisher: University of California
Publication Date: 2007

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