MEASUREMENTS

Measurements of quantities in Physics are very important because they enable us to make
accurate conclusions in our study.
There are three fundamental (basic) quantities that are measured in Physics. They are:
Enrollment in local colleges, 2005

Basic Quantities Symbols IS Units Other Units

Length l Metres (m) Cm, dm, km

Mass m Kilogram (Kg) Tonnes, grams,
Time t Seconds (s) Hours, weeks, days
Temperature T Kelvin (K) Degrees Celsius,
fahreinht
Current I Ampere (A) milliampere

However, there are other also measurable quantities that will be met during the course of
study in Physics. These include: Temperature, Electric current, Luminous Intensity,
Amount of substance, Area, Volume, Speed or Velocity, Power, Weight, Density, Voltage,
Heat, Resistance, etc.

1. MEASURING LENGTH, l

Length is defined as a distance between two points in a straight line.

or
Length is the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during a specific time interval.
For a length of 1 metre, the time interval is (1/299 792 458) seconds.

S.I. unit of length: metre (m)

Other units:
- Submultiple units: mm, cm, micrometres (μm), nanometers (nm);
where 1 cm = 1/100 m = 10-2 m
1mm = 1/1 000 m = 10-3 m
1 μm = 1/1 000 000 m = 10-6m
1 nm = 1/1 000 000 000 m = 10-9 m

- Multiple units: Km, Hm, Dm;

where 1km = 1 000 m or 103 m.
Instruments used for measuring length

(i) Metre rule

(ii) Ruler
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(iii) Click wheel

(iv) Tape measure
 (v) Vernier calipers
(vi) Micrometer screw gauge

Common Errors in Length Measurement

Any measurement made has degree of uncertainty (error) in its accuracy.

Basically these errors are caused by limitations of instruments, condition of
instruments and the state of the one using the instrument. Below are the types of
errors encountered when measurements are carried out.

Parallax Error

This occurs due to wrong positioning of the eye of the person taking a
reading from the instrument.

To take an accurate reading the eyes position MUST be perpendicular to the scale
of the instrument and the end of the object being measured.

(ii) Instrumental (Zero) Error

This results when

- an instrument has a worn out starting point of the scale, e.g. ruler having worn
out ends.
- the pointer of the instrument does not start exactly at the zero of the scale. It can
be either before or
after the zero of the scale. In this case, any reading taken must have zero error
added or subtracted
respectively in order to get an accurate measurement.
N.B: This type of error is accumulative in the measurements taken.

(iii) Random Error

This type of error is difficult to avoid because it involves many unidentified causes
when the
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measurement is being carried out. The causes are difficult to eliminate.

Possible causes include: noise, breathing, talking, movement, etc.
 To eliminate it from our measurements, a measurement is repeated several times
and the average
calculated.

Using a metre rule/ruler/tape measure

(a) Precautions
(i) Make the zero mark (or a convenient mark) to be at the start of the object
being measured.
(ii) Place a metre rule parallel to the object being measured.
(iii) Keep the eye position vertically above the marks on
the scale to avoid parallax error.
(iv) Repeat readings where necessary.
(v) Avoid using worn out edges of the scales.

(b) Accuracy of the measurements taken using a metre rule

It is ±1mm or ± 0.1 cm.

This means a reading taken must have no decimal place if expressed in mm and
one decimal place when expressed in cm; e.g. 45 mm or 4.5 cm respectively.

Using a Vernier Calipers

(a) Structure

It has two scales:

(i) main scale in which each division is 1 mm or 0.1 cm.
(ii) vernier scale has ten divisions in which each division is 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm.
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 Has two types of jaws:
(i) internal jaws that are for measuring inside lengths or diameters.
(ii) external jaws that are for measuring outside lengths or diameters.

(b) Accuracy of a vernier calipers

It is ± 0.1 mm or ± 0.01 cm.

Thus it is more accurate than a metre rule.

(c) Precautions

(i) Clean the jaws before using the vernier calipers.

(ii) Check for zero error and note it.
(iii) Take the readings perpendicularly to avoid parallax error.
(iv) Lock the jaws after making them press gently against the object being
measured.

(d) Taking a measurement with a vernier calipers

(i) Slide the jaws to come together to check for zero error. If the vernier scale zero
mark does not coincide with the zero mark on the main scale; note the reading
displayed. This reading will be added or subtracted from the length of object
measured.
(ii) Place the object between the jaws without exerting much pressure on object and
lock the sliding jaw using a locking screw.
(iii) Read the main scale mark before the zero (0) of vernier scale just like you do
with a metre rule and note down the reading.
(iv) Read the vernier scale – look for a mark on it which coincides with a mark on
the main scale.
This gives a fraction of a mm of the remaining length of the object.
The corresponding length = (vernier scale mark x 0.01) cm.
(v) Add length in (iii) to length in (iv).

Final Reading = main scale reading (cm) + (vernier scale mark x 0.01) cm

or

Final Reading = main scale reading (mm) + (vernier scale mark x 0.1) mm

(vi) ACCURATE LENGTH OF OBJECT = FINAL READING ± ZERO

ERROR
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 Illustration
After step (ii) above the vernier calipers two scales will be set as seen below.

Final reading = 4.2 cm + (7 x 0.01) cm …..[step (v)]

= 4.27 cm
N.B:

(i) If the main scale is in mm, then the vernier scale reading will give you one
decimal place, e.g. 42.7 mm
(ii) If the main scale is in cm, then the vernier scale reading will give you two
decimal places, as seen above.

Using a micrometer screw gauge

Useful for measuring small length such as diameters of wires, thickness of paper, etc.
Generally used for distances less than 25 mm.

(a) Structure

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 Main Features:

- Sleeve with a scale marked in 0.5 mm intervals.

- Thimble has a circular scale having 50 divisions, each of 0.01 mm (0.001 cm).
- Ratchet for making a tight grip.
- Spindle and Anvil are jaws for gripping an object being measured.
- Locking nut to lock the spindle in position before a measurement required is
read off.
(b) Precautions

(i) Clean the jaws (anvil and spindle) of the micrometer screw gauge.
(ii) Note the zero error.
(iii) Take the readings perpendicularly to avoid parallax error.
(iv) Gently grip the object with the ratchet to avoid deforming it.
(v) Repeat readings when necessary.

(c) Accuracy of the micrometer screw gauge

It is ± 0.01 mm or ± 0.001 cm.

It is more accurate than a vernier calipers and metre rule respectively.

(d) Taking a measurement with a micrometer screw gauge

(i) Clean the jaws

(ii) Close the jaws to determine zero error.

If the zero on the Thimble scale does not coincide with the zero mark and the
datum(horizontal) line on the Spindle scale; note the reading. Be careful to
identify whether it is a positive or a negative error.

(iii) Rotate the Thimble to open the jaws.

(iv) Place the object between the jaws and turn the Thimble till the object is gripped
gently. Use a ratchet for a tight grip (two clicks must be made).

(v) Take the reading, Sr, of the mark on the sleeve scale that is immediately before
the edge of the Thimble scale.

(vi) Take also the mark on the Thimble, Tr, which coincides with the horizontal

(datum) line on the sleeve scale. This gives a number of divisions which
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correspond to the length, Tl, between the last mark on the sleeve scale and the
edge of the Thimble.
 Length, Tl = ( Tr x 0.01) mm ; since on Thimble scale:1 division = 0.5mm/50
= 0.01 mm
(vii) Add readings in (v) to (vi).

Micrometer reading = Sr mm + Tl mm
= Sr mm + ( Tr x 0.01) mm

(viii) Accurate length = [ Sr +( Tr x 0.01)] ± zero error mm.

Illustration

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2. MEASURING TIME, t:

Time is defined as a duration for an event to take place

e.g. a ball falling from a 10m tall building to the ground.

S.I. unit: seconds (s)

Other units: (i) Submultiple units (ii) Multiple units

millisecond (ms) = 10-3s 1 minute = 60 s

microsecond (μs) = 10-6s 1 hour = 60 minutes
nanosecond (ns) = 10-9s 1 day = 24 hours
etc.
Every student is expected to know to convert from multiple units to s and vice versa;
also from
submultiple units to s and vice versa.

EXERCISE
Convert the following to seconds
(i) 10 minutes (ii) 1 hour (iii) 2 days (iv) 2.5 minutes (v) 2 ms

Instruments used

(i) Stop clock –Accuracy is ± 0.1 s

(ii) Stop watch – Accuracy is ± 0.01s
(iii) Clocks
(iv) Watches
(v) Sun dial
(vi) Atomic clock

Each instrument motioned above has a particular event for which it can be used to
measure
accurately the time of its occurrence.

For general laboratory experiments, stop clocks / watches are used to measure time.
Samples of readings are shown on the face of a stopwatch. State the times shown.
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Common Errors

When an event occurs , it is always not possible to get enough time to start or
stop the stopwatch.
It is possible to start the stopwatch earlier or later at the start of the event and also
stop
the stop watch earlier or later at the end of the event.
The error, which results is called REACTION ERRROR.

What is a reaction error?

Is an error due to early or late starting (stopping) of a stop watch when timing an
event.

The other error that also occurs is ZERO ERROR.

Precautions

(i) Always reset the stopwatch/clock to zero before taking a measurement.

Why? To avoid zero error.
(ii) Repeat time measurement readings.
Why? To avoid reaction error.
(iii) Take readings perpendicular to the scale.
Why? To avoid parallax error.
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The Simple Pendulum

In Physics, the practice of accurate measurement of time using a stopwatch/clock is

done by measuring the oscillations of a pendulum.

Structure

Terminology of the simple pendulum

(i) Length of pendulum is the distance from the centre of the bob to the bottom of the
split cork.
(ii) Complete Oscillation is the movement of the pendulum bob from one extreme
position of swing to the opposite extreme position and back to the starting extreme
position.
Consider a case when a pendulum is slightly displaced from rest position and
allowed to swing/oscillate freely as seen below.

Movement from: A B A C A (ABACA)

C A B A C (CABAC)
etc.
The movement must have four (4) equal parts.
(iii) Amplitude, a, is the maximum displacement of bob from its rest position.
(iv) Period of pendulum, T, is the time taken by pendulum to make one complete
oscillation.
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S.I. unit of T: seconds (s)

 It is not easy and accurate to measure T by measuring time of one oscillation
directly.

To be accurate, numerous (e.g. 20) complete oscillations are timed.

Then period, T = Time taken to make 20 complete oscillations

Number of complete oscillations (20)
Practice

To determine the periodic time of a simple pendulum

Procedure
 Suspend a pendulum from a clamp through a split cork, which are held in position by
a retort stand.
 Measure a pendulum length, l, of 100 cm (from middle of bob to the bottom of split
cork. Make sure that it is able to oscillate freely.
 Measure the time, t20, in seconds that it takes the pendulum to make 20 complete
oscillations.
 Determine the period of the pendulum, T, the time taken to make one complete
oscillation.
 Record your results in a suitable table.
 Repeat the above steps for lengths of 90 cm, 80 cm, 70 cm, 60 cm, 50 cm and 40 cm.
 Draw a graph of period, T, against the pendulum length, l.
 #TP It is given that T = 2πv(l/g), where g is acceleration due to gravity. Draw a graph
of T2 against l.
 #TP Determine the gradient or slope and from it find the value of g.
Note : T2 = (4 π2/g) l; where gradient = 4 π2/g.

Table of results

Length, l/cm Time for 20 oscillations, t20 /s Period, T/s T2/s2

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 Questions

(i) What can you say about the values of T in column 3?

(ii) State the relation between the period, T and the length, l of the pendulum.
(iii) What factor in this experiment affects the period of the pendulum?
(iv) What other factors affect the value of T?
(v) Why does the graph start at (0, 0)?
(vi) What is the frequency of the pendulum when l = 100 cm?
(vii) What is the value of the gradient?
(viii) Calculate the value of g. (The accurate value of g = 9.81 ms-2).
(ix) State possible errors during the experiment.

N.B:
Frequency of a pendulum, f: This is the number of complete oscillations (cycles) a
pendulum makes in one second.
S.I. unit: Hertz (Hz)
Relation between T and f: T = 1/f
or
f = 1/T
T is proportional to l (because when l increases, even T increases).
The period of pendulum depends on length of the pendulum.
The period of pendulum does not depend on amplitude and the mass of the bob.
With time the oscillations of the pendulum decrease and eventually stops. This is because
of air resistance that makes it lose kinetic energy.

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 MOTION

Refers to change in position.

Distance is the length of path moved by an object while displacement is the distance
moved by an object in a straight line.
Speed is defined as distance/time or as the rate of change of distance. Speed is
measured in metres per second(m/s), and is a scalar quantity.
A body moving with constant speed has a constant rate of change of distance.
Velocity is defined as displacement per unit time or as the rate of change of
displacement. Both displacement and velocity are vector quantities, because they have
both magnitude and direction.
Velocity is also measured in metres/second, but direction should also be given when
stating velocities.
A body traveling with uniform velocity has a constant rate of change of displacement.
This means, it is moving with a uniform speed in a straight line.
Acceleration is defined as change in velocity per unit time or rate of change of
velocity. Acceleration is a vector quantity and has units of metres per second per
second (m/s2).
Uniform acceleration is defined as a constant rate of change of velocity.
Acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration of a freely falling body. It does not
depend on the mass of the object. It has a value of 9.8 m/s2. In most calculations it is
approximated to 10 m/s2 or 10 N/kg. This value varies from place to place.

The Equations of Motion

For bodies traveling with uniform speed, v = s/t, where v is the speed, s is the distance
traveled and t is the time taken.
For bodies traveling with uniform velocity, v = s/t, where v is the velocity, s is the
displacement traveled and t is the time taken.
For bodies moving with uniform acceleration:
1
(i) v = u + at (iii) s=ut+ at ²
2

(ii) s=¿)t (iv) v2 = u2 + 2as

where u is the initial velocity, v is the final velocity, a is the acceleration, s is the
displacement and t is the time taken.

The four equations apply to a bodies moving in a straight line.

Examples on applications of equations of motion

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1. A car reaches a velocity of 20 ms-1 in 10 s after starting from rest.

Determine:
 (a) its acceleration; and
(b) the distance traveled.
Answer
(a) u = 0 ms-1, v = 20 ms-1, t = 10 s, a = ? (b) s = ?
Using Equation 1: v = u + at Using Equation 2: s=¿)t
v−u
a= s=¿)t
t

20 m/s−0 m/s
¿ ¿ ¿) 10s
10 s

= 2m/s2 = 100m

Note: Do not use Equation 3 because a has to be found.

2. A body moves a distance of 90 m from rest with an acceleration of 5 ms-2.

Calculate the following:
(a) final velocity; and
(b) time taken to attain this velocity.
Answer
(a) s = 90 m, a = 5 ms-2, u = 0 m/s, v = ? (b) t = ?
1
Using Equation 4: v2 = u2 + 2as Using Equation 3: s=ut+ at ²
2

1
v2 = u2 + 2as s=ut+ at ²
2
1
v2 = (0 ms-1)2 + 2(5 ms-2)90 m 90 m=(0 m/s )t + (5 m/s ²)t ²
2
v2 = 900 m2s-2 -2 2
(90 m) = (2.5 ms ) t
v = ± 30 ms-1 t ² = 36 s ²
t =±6s
v = 30 ms-1 t =6s

Distance - Time and Velocity - Time Graphs

These graphs can be used to solve problems where bodies are moving in straight lines.
From a Distance - Time graph, the speed can be found by determining the
slope(gradient) of the graph. A graph below illustrates the method.
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The speed of the body = slope of AB = (10 m - 0 m)/ (4 s - 0 s) = 10 m/4 s = 2.5 m/s.
From a Velocity - Time graph, the acceleration can be found by determining the
slope(gradient) of the graph, and the distance traveled found by calculating the area
under the graph.
The figure below shows the Velocity - Time graph of a body that starts from rest,
reaches a velocity of 30 m/s after 10 seconds, then travels at this velocity for a further
10 seconds, and then is brought to a rest in a further 5 seconds.

The acceleration of the body in the first 10 seconds = slope of AB = (30 m/s - 0 m/s)/(10
s - 0 s) = 3 m/s2.
The distance traveled during the whole of the motion = the area of the shaded part
ABCD = Area of triangle ABP + Area of rectangle BPQC + Area of triangle CQD.
Area of triangle ABP = 1 x AP x BP = 1 x 10 s x 30 m/s = 150 m.
2 2
Area of rectangle BPQC = BC x BP = 10 s x 30 m/s = 300 m.
Area of triangle CQD = 1 x QD x CQ = 1 x 5 s x 30 m/s = 75 m.
2 2
The total area of ABCD = 150 m + 300 m + 75 m = 525 m.
The total distance traveled = 525 m.

The acceleration of the body in the last 5 second

= slope of CD = (0 m/s -30 m/s)/(25 s - 20 s) = (- 30 m/s )/5 s = -6 m/s2.

This slope has a negative value. It is the deceleration of the body. A deceleration is a
negative acceleration.

MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

An object moving towards the Earth or away from it in a vertical direction experiences a
force of gravity.
Every object in this motion experiences a uniform acceleration, called acceleration due
to gravity, g.

Definition : Acceleration a body experiences due to the force of gravity acting on it.

g = 9.8 ms-2 = 9.8 Nkg-1 (for calculations we use 10 ms-2 or 10 Nkg-1).

The equations of motion which can be used to calculate variables in the motion are:

(a) Downward Motion (b) Upward Motion

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v = u + gt v = u – gt
 h=¿)t h=¿)t

1 1
s=ut+ at ² s=ut − at ²
2 2

v2 = u2 + 2gh v2 = u2 – 2gh

N.B: a in the equations of linear motion is substituted by g, s by h and direction of g is

always towards the Earth.

Examples
1. A stone at rest falls from the top of a tall tower.

Calculate
(a) its velocity after 2 s; and
(b) the distance it falls after that time.

Answer
(a) u = 0 ms-1, g = 10 ms-2, t = 2 s, v = ? (b) s = ?
1
Using, v = u + gt Using, s=ut+ at ²
2

v = 0 ms-1+ (10 ms-2)(2 s) s = 0 ms-1(2 s) + 1 (10 ms-

2
)(2 s)2
2
= 20 ms-1 = 20 m

2. A mass is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 10 ms-1.

(a) What is the maximum height it reaches?

(b) What time does it take to reach the maximum height?
(c) Determine the time it takes for it to return to the ground.
(d) At what velocity does it hit the ground?

Answer

(a) u = 10 ms-1, v = 0 ms-1, g = 10 ms-2, s = h = ? (b) t = ?

Using v2 = u2 – 2gs Using v = u – gt
02 = (10 ms-1)2 – 2(10 ms-2)h 0 ms-1= 10 ms-
1 -2
- (10 ms )t
2(10 ms-2)h = (10 ms-1)2 (10 ms-2)t = 10 ms-1
h=5m t=1s
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(c) t = 1 s (time to move up = time to move down). The motion is symmetrical.

 (d) u = 0 ms-1, t = 1 s, g = 10 ms-2, v = ?
Using v = u + gt
= 0 ms-1 + (10 ms-2)(1 s)
= 10 ms-1

See below the graphs of motion of the object;

Free Fall in Air

Free falling involves an object motion under the influence of only acceleration due to
gravity, g.
A free fall in a vacuum is unique because irrespective of the mass, size and shape, the
objects will move through a same distance (height) at the same time; e.g. a feather and
stone.

(a) If air resistance is neglected, the velocity of the falling increases uniformly until it hits
the ground. It will have a constant acceleration.

Graph of motion

(b) If air resistance is taken into account, the velocity increases as well as the air
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resistance.
The effect of air resistance in the motion is summarized below:
 (i) It reduces acceleration of the falling object.
(ii) At a certain stage of fall, air resistance acting upwards will equal the weight of
the
object acting downwards.
(iii) The resultant force (total force) on the object will become zero.

(iv) This will make the object fall with a constant velocity. This velocity is called
terminal velocity, vo.
The above effects are also observed in liquids but where we have air resistance,
we should
replaced it with viscous drag.
Terminal velocity is defined as a velocity of a free falling object in a fluid (air or
liquid)
when its weight balances the fluid resistance.

Graph of motion

(v) The value of vo depends on size, shape and weight.

(a) Small dense objects e.g. steel ball bearing/stone.
- Have high vo because they fall through a long distance at 10 ms-2 before
Fliquid = W.
(b) A parachute with large surface area.
- Has low vo because it falls through a short distance at 10 ms-2 before Fair = W.

An example to think about

1. The diagram below shows two forces acting on a raindrop, which is falling to the
ground.
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 (a) Name the forces A and B.
(b) State the cause of each of the forces named above.
(c) State and explain what happens to the raindrop when A = B.
(d) At what velocity does the raindrop hit the ground?

MASS, m

It is defined as a quantity (amount) of matter in a body.

It can be measured using bathroom scales, triple beam balances, lever arm balances, top
pan balances, etc.
S.I. unit: kilogram (kg); where 1 kg = 1 000 g.
The mass of an object is constant(remains the same no matter where it is located).
Mass is a scalar quantity.

WEIGHT, W

It is defined as a force of gravity acting on a body.

or
a gravitational force acting on a body.
In general, it results from the attraction which every object experiences above the Earth
surface due to acceleration due to gravity, g.
S.I. unit: Newton (N).
Instrument for measuring weight is a spring balance or force meter or newton meter.

Relationship between weight and mass

Weight is directly proportional to mass; W α m

Thus then W = mg
where g is acceleration due to gravity(or gravitational field strength).
Weight is a vector quantity - Always acts towards the centre of the Earth.
The weight of an object depends on g but the value of g depends on the distance from
the centre of the Earth (most times the surface of earth is considered).

Typical Examples on Variation of W

1. On Earth: since it is oblong (not completely spherical), g is not constant all over it.
Weight of a body is greater at the North or South poles to that at the equator.
2. Weight of a body on the moon < weight of a body on Earth.

Comparison between mass and weight - Summary

Mass Weight
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Constant everywhere Varies with location on the Universe

 S.I. unit: kilogram (kg) S.I. unit: Newton (N)
Measured using beam balances Measured using spring balance
A scalar quantity A vector quantity

INERTIA and MASS

Inertia is defined as a property by which all bodies resist or oppose being moved by a
force.
or
Reluctance (laziness) of a body to change its state of motion.
If the object has a larger mass, the greater is its inertia and the more difficult to
start or stop it into or from motion respectively.
Passengers in a bus which stops suddenly find themselves moving forward in an
attempt to continue moving with the speed of the bus but stopped by safety belts or seats
in front of them.

In some instances it is concluded that:

“Mass of a body is the measure of inertia.”

CENTRE OF MASS (GRAVITY), G

It is defined as a point in a body where the mass (weight) seems to be concentrated.

Depending on the shapes of bodies it is possible to have G at their geometric centres or
at other parts of the body or even outside the body.

Centre of mass for regular shaped lamina bodies

A lamina is a flat body with a uniform thickness. It can be approximated to a two

dimensional body.

Methods of locating G

(a) Balancing Method (b) Geometric Method (c) Pendulum

Method

Centre of mass for irregular shaped lamina bodies

It is determined by the plumb line method.

Fact used: When a body is suspended, the centre of mass falls directly below the
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suspension.
Hang a body freely from a corner and by means of a plumb line mark a vertical line from
the point of suspension. This is repeated, hanging a body from another corner, and the
point of intersection of the drawn lines gives the centre of mass. To cross check the
accuracy, the body is again hang from another corner and the line drawn as before. If it
passes through the point already marked then G has been accurately located.

A body shaped as seen below has its G outside its body.

STABILITY

It is the ability for an body to remain at an equilibrium (balanced) state.

When the ability is overrun, the body topples (falls). This occurs normally when the
position of a vertical line through the centre of mass, G, falls outside the base of the
body; e.g.

There are three states of stability or equilibrium.

(a) Stable Equilibrium

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Characteristic: When a body is slightly displaced, it returns to the original position.

e.g. a bottle standing on its base.
 If the bottle is tipped a little, G raises but stays vertically over the base. In order to
lower the force of gravity, the bottle falls back to its original position.

(b) Unstable Equilibrium

Characteristic: When a body is slightly displaced, it falls down to a new position.

e.g. a bottle standing on its mouth.

It balances for a short time because a small tip makes G fall outside the mouth.
(c) Neutral Equilibrium

Characteristic: When a body is slightly displaced, the height of G is neither lowered

nor raised but position changes.
e.g. a bottle lying on its side.
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 When tipped, the bottle just rolls on its side to a new position. Height of G above the
ground remains the same.

Factors affecting stability of bodies

(a) Position of G with respect to the base

N.B: G can be lowered by making the base of a body very heavy.

(b) Base area

A body with a large base area is more stable than that with a small area.
e.g. racing cars are more stable than the usual cars because they cover a big base
surface area.

FORCES

A force is defined as a pull or a push.

S.I. unit: Newton (N).

Types of forces

Frictional force, Strain force, Impact force, Gravitational force, Magnetic force, Nuclear
force,
Electrostatic force.

Groups of forces

(a) Contact forces – Forces which act by being in contact with the body.
(i) Frictional force (ii) Strain force (iii) Impact force

(b) Non-contact forces – Forces which act at a distance from the body.
(i) Gravitational force (ii) Magnetic force (iii) Electrostatic force (iv) Nuclear force

Effects of forces
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When forces act on bodies, the following can be observed:

(i) Change in shape of a body; e.g. a spring, plasticine, etc.
(ii) Change in size of a body; e.g. a spring, rubber band, etc.
(iii) Change in direction of a moving body.
(iv) Increase or decrease of speed (velocity) of a moving body.

A. Change in shape and size of a body

A good object to be used in this case is a spring.

When a mass is hanged from a spring, it increases in length (size). This increase in
length is called extension; and corresponding force applied called stretching force or
load.
This increase in length accounts for change in shape and size. If the load is increased
further
the spring becomes deformed.

Relationship between Load and Extension of a spring

Summarized by Hooke’s Law which states:

The extension of a spring is proportional to the stretching force provided
elastic limit is not exceeded.

A graph for a spring stretched beyond elastic limit is shown below.

(a) Along OE, Hooke’s Law holds.

Note that when F is doubled, even e is doubled; etc.

(b) E – is the elastic limit: Up to this point the spring is able to regain its length
after being unloaded.

(c) OE – is the Limit of proportionality: Along this region, the extension is directly
proportional to the load.

(d) Spring constant, k: Is the force needed to cause a unit extension.

Mathematically is expressed as: k = F ( 1/gradient of e/F)
e
where, F = ke
This general equation is useful for calculating any of the variables when two have
Page25

been provided.
(e) B – Up to this point, the spring regains shape but does not regain its length when
unloaded. It will have gained some extra length.

(f) Yield point, Y – after this point the spring becomes plastic because it runs and large
extensions occur even without an increase in the load. The spring is
deformed.

(g) S – At this point the wire snaps (breaks).

Note:
(i) Identify any materials that can be stretched.
(ii) Does Hooke’s Law hold when a body with a uniform cross sectional area is
compressed?
(iii) State why the graph passes through the origin (0,0).

Calculations of extension in springs

This depends on the fact that the extension and the stretching force are directly
proportional within the elastic limit (limit of proportionality). The springs can be coupled
in two major ways.

(a) Series: Springs are connected one after the other in a straight line.

(i) Single Spring: Stretched by a mass.

Extension = Stretched length – Original length

= 6 cm – 4 cm
= 2 cm

(ii) Two identical springs connected in series

Page26
 Total Extension = Extension of spring 1 + Extension of spring 2
Since the springs are identical, then all of them will have the same extension.
If spring 1 has extension = 2 cm; then
Total Extension = 2 cm + 2 cm
= 4 cm
Thus Extension per spring (identical) = Total Extension

(b) Parallel: Identical springs are hanged adjacent to one another at the same level and
acted on by the same force.

If the force causes a total extension of 1 cm on the two springs then:

Page27

(i) Extension of each spring = 1 cm

 2
= 0.5 cm

(ii) The springs will share the total extension equally.

(iii) If one spring extension is x cm, then extension of two springs is 2x cm.

(iv) This type of arrangements of springs finds use in Chest Expanders Springs.

Worked examples

1. Study the figure below of a spring stretched by 6 N. It is unloaded and then stretched
by unknown force W.

(a) Find the extension due to:

(i) W; and (ii) 6 N.
(b) What is the value of W?

Answer
(a) (i) Extension due to W = 35 cm – 30 cm
= 5 cm
(ii) Extension due to 6 N = 45 cm – 30 cm
= 15 cm
(b) W = ?
Page28

Since the proportionality holds;

6N 15 cm
 W 5 cm
15 cm x W = 5 cm x 6 N
W = 5 cm x 6 N
15 cm
= 2N
or
From (a),(i) and (ii) above; spring constant, k = 6 N/15 cm, e = 5 cm, F = W = ?

Using Hooke’s Law: F = ke

Substituting in the above equation: W = (6 N/15 cm)(5 cm)
=2N
2. A spring is stretched by different forces as seen below.

Determine
(a) X; and (b) mass, M.

Answer
(a) X = ?
By proportion: 16 cm 20 g
X 45 g

20 g (X) = 45 g x 16 cm
X = 45 g x 16 cm
20 g
= 36 cm
(b) M = ?
Page29

By proportion: 20 cm M
36 cm 45 g
 36 cm (M) = 45 g x 20 cm
M = 45 g x 20 cm
36 cm
= 25 g

B. Effects of force on the motion of a body

(i) make a body move if it was stationery.

(ii) stop it in case it was moving.
(iii) change direction of a moving body.
(iv) accelerate/decelerate a body.

The effects (i) to (iii) are summarized in Newton’s First Law of Motion.
States
A body stays at rest or if moving; starts doing so with a constant velocity unless an
external force acts on it. (Recall the idea of inertia).

Effect (iv) brings in the idea of Newton’s Second Law of Motion.

States
The force applied to a moving body is proportional to the acceleration it gains
provided mass is kept constant.
Mathematically expressed as: F α a

Thus, F=ma;

where F is force, m is mass and a is acceleration.

Illustration: If a force, F is applied on a block of wood on a frictionless horizontal

surface, it will undergo acceleration, a. However if the force becomes 2F,
even the acceleration becomes, 2a; etc.

S.I. unit of F: Newton (N)

A newton is defined as a force which gives a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 ms-2.

Note: 1 N = 1 kg x 1ms-2.

Examples

1. Find the resultant force which acts on a body of mass 10 kg to produce an

acceleration of 2 ms-2.

Answer
m = 10 kg, a = 2 ms-2, F = ?
Page30

Using F = ma
F = 10 kg x 2 ms-2
 = 20 N
2. A body of mass 5 kg initially at rest gains a velocity of 30 ms-1 when a
constant force acts on it for 6 s. Find the magnitude of the constant force.

Answer
v = 30 ms-1, u = 0 ms-1, t = 6 s, m = 4 kg, a = ?, F = ?
To find a:
Using v = u + at
a = (v – u )/t
= (30 ms-1 – 0 ms-1)/6 s
= 5 ms-2
To find F:
Using F = ma
F = 5 kg x 5 ms-2
= 25 N

C. Effect of frictional force on motion of a body

Frictional force is defined as a force that opposes the motion of a body.

Facts to note about frictional force

(i) On rough surfaces frictional force is high and low for smooth surfaces.

(ii) Frictional force is useful to moving bodies and us because it helps our shoes/feet to
grip on the ground as well as tyres of vehicles; and between surfaces of
moving bodies with the media surrounding them.
Brake systems rely on frictional force.

(iii) To reduce frictional force, the following can be done

- use oil/grease
- use wheels or roller bearings or bearings

(iv) To increase frictional force

- make surfaces highly rough
- do not use greasing agents

(v) Frictional forces cause

- wear and tear of moving parts
- reduction of speed (velocity) of moving objects due to its effect to produce
a net (resultant) force.

Definition: This is the difference between the applied (driving) force and the
Page31

frictional force.

These two forces act in opposite directions.

 Consider a body being acted by a force, Fa so that it accelerates Eastwards. Acting
against this force is the frictional force, Ff, to the West.

Resultant force, F = (Fa - Ff); this force causes the acceleration or deceleration.

Illustrations

The resultant force concept introduces the idea of Newton’s Third Law of Motion.

States

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

e.g.
for a moving car, the tyres push on the road while the road in return pushes back
on the tyres.

Numerical Examples on Application of F = ma and Resultant Force

1. A wheelbarrow of mass 20kg at rest on a horizontal ground experiences a frictional

force of 2 N when a force of 42 N is applied to it.
Determine
(a) the resultant force; and
(b) the acceleration of the wheelbarrow.
Page32

Answer
 m = 20 kg, Ff = 2 N, Fa = 42 N, F = ?
(a) Resultant force, F = Fa – Ff
= 42 N – 2 N
= 40 N
(b) a = ?
Using F = ma
a = F/m
= 40 N/20 kg
= 2 Nkg-1 or 2 ms-2.

2. A block of mass 2 kg is pushed along a floor with a constant velocity by a force of 5 N.

The pushing force is increased to 10 N.
Determine the following:
(a) the frictional force before the pushing force is increased;
(b) the resultant force after the force is increased; and
(c) the acceleration of the block.

Answer
(a) Frictional force, Ff = 5 N.

(b) m = 2 kg. Ff = 5 N, Fa = 10 N, F = ?
Resultant force, F = 10 N – 5 N
=5N
(c) a = ?
Using F = ma
a = F/m
= 5 N/2 kg
= 2.5 ms-2.

3. A toy truck has a mass of 1 kg and is being pushed along a table with a constant
velocity when a force of 5 N is applied.
(a) What is the acceleration of the truck? Give a reason for your answer.
(b) The push is increased to 9 N. Determine the net force and acceleration of the toy
truck.

D. Turning Effects of Forces

When a force is applied, it can make a body to turn at an angle about a point called a
pivot or fulcrum; e.g. a door being opened or closed; a nut being loosened or tightened
by a spanner.

Moment of a force, M, is defined as the product of force and the perpendicular

Page33

distance
from the line of action.
 Illustration
Generally it gives a turning effect of a force.

Mathematical expression:

Moment of force = force x perpendicular distance from line of action

In symbols; M = F x -d

S.I. unit: Newton metre (Nm); for force in Newtons (N) and distance in metres (m).

Other unit: Newton centimeter (Ncm)

The magnitude of M depends on:

- size of force acting ( big F, big M).
- distance force acts from fulcrum (large d, big M).

Law of Moments or Principle of Moments

Consider a seesaw on which two boys are seated on opposite sides of the fulcrum and
swing each other up and down. Thus enjoying the game.
When one of the boys moves a certain distance towards the fulcrum or away from it, the
swinging stops. No enjoyment of the game.
Page34

In the former case, the seesaw was balanced or at equilibrium.

It is because the moment of force F1 (clockwise) must be equal to the moment of force,
F2 about the fulcrum or pivot.
At equilibrium then; Clockwise moment = Anti-Clockwise moment

F1 x -d1 = F2 x -d2

This is a mathematical expression of Law of Moments or Principle of Moments, P.O.M.

It states
When a body is in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about a point equals
the sum of the anti-clockwise moments about the same point.

Verification of the Principle of Moments

Apparatus: metre rule, retort stand and clamp, two pieces of string, two mass hangers,
and slotted masses.

Set up of the apparatus

Procedure
Suspend a metre rule with a help of a string tied on a clamp and adjust the string position
around the metre rule till it balances horizontally.
Suspend mass, m1 = 200 g at a distance, d1 = 20 cm on the left hand side of the pivot and
on the right hand side suspend a mass, m2 = 100 g at distance, d2, which must be
determined by adjusting its position till the metre rule again balances horizontally.
Repeat the above for three other positions, d1 of m1; and determine corresponding
distances, d2 for mass, m2.
Record readings in a table.
Calculate the clockwise and anti-clockwise moments for each set of readings.
Compare the values of clockwise and anti-clockwise moments for each set of readings.
State what you find about the corresponding moments for each set of readings.
[Expected: Clockwise moments (CM) = Anti-clockwise moments (A-CM) about the
same point of suspension].
Conclusion
Page35

When a body is balanced about a pivot, the A-CM and CM are equal about the same
point; thus showing that the P.O.M has been verified.
N.B:
In everyday life, P.O.M find use in balances used for measuring mass, seesaws.

Examples

1. A plank of wood AB shown below is balanced on a pivot, O, when a force of 4 N is

suspended from end B. Find the force P which makes the plank to balance.

Answer
Clockwise moments = 4 N x 2.5 m
Anti-clockwise moments = P x 0.5 m
But Anti-clockwise moments = Clockwise moments
P x 0.5 m = 4N x 2.5 m
P = 4 N x 2.5 m
0.5 m
= 20 N

2. A uniform beam of length 4.0 m pivoted about its centre supports a 5.0 N
weight at a distance of 1.5 m from the centre; and 6.0 N weight at the other side at a
distance, d from the centre for it to balance. Determine distance, d.

Answer
Applying the Principle of Moments: Anti-CM = CM
6.0 N x d = 5.0 N x 1.5 m
d = 5.0 N x 1.5 m
6.0 N
= 1.25 m

Parallel Forces

Sometimes it occurs that more than two parallel forces act on a body and the body comes
to equilibrium. This indicates that the Anti-CM are equal to CM.
Page36

It is correct for us to conclude that whenever a body has several parallel forces acting on
it the P.O.M still holds.
Consider the following examples:
1. Calculate the Anti-CM and CM of the forces acting on the plank shown below.
Comment on your answer.

Answer

Anti-CM = (12 N x 1 m) + (2 N x 3 m);

= 12 Nm + 6 Nm
= 18 Nm

CM = (3 N x 1.5 m) + (4 N x 2.5 m) +(1 N x 3.5 m)

= 4.5 Nm + 10.0 Nm + 3.5 Nm
= 18 Nm

The Anti-CM = CM, showing that in spite of there being several parallel forces acting
on the plank; the P.O.M holds.

2. Determine the value of distance, d2 in the balanced plank shown below.

Answer
Applying P.O.M: Anti-CM = CM

W1 x d1 + W2 x d2 = W3 x d3
(4.0 N x 2 m) + (6.0 N x d2) = 8.0 N x 2 m
(6.0 N x d2) = (8.0 N x 2 m) - (4.0 N x 2 m)

d2 = (8.0 N x 2 m) - (4.0 N x 2 m)
6.0 N
= 1.3 m

3. Determine force, W2 that will make the plank balanced.

Page37
4. Consider a situation seen below.

What is force Q if the plank AB is in equilibrium?

Answer

Upward forces = Q + 300 N

Downward forces = 500 N
For equilibrium, Upward force = Downward force
Q + 300 N = 500 N
Q = 200 N

N.B: - Q and 300 N are referred to as reaction forces.

- 500 N is the action force.

5. What are:
(a) Anti-CM and CM; and
(b) Clockwise forces and Anti-clockwise forces in the figure shown below?

Answer
(a) Anti-CM = 200 N x 25 cm + 400 N x 10 cm
= 900 N cm
Page38

CM = 500 N x 15 cm + 100 N x 15 cm
= 900 N cm
 The plank is in equilibrium.

(b) CWF = 500 N + 100 N

= 600 N

Anti-CWF = 200 N + 400 N

= 600 N
Since the two are equal; the plank is in equilibrium.
N.B:
The sum of parallel forces in one direction is equal to the sum of parallel forces
in the opposite direction.

6. The plank below is in equilibrium.

Determine the value of force, F.

7. A uniform wooden plank AD, 120 cm long and weighing 2.00 N rests on sharp
supports as seen below. Other weights are suspended from it so that it is at equilibrium.
What are reactions at B and C?

Facts to note:
Q and R are reactions in magnitude and direction.
For the plank to be in equilibrium, Q + R = 0.20 N + 2.00 N + 1.00 N
= 3.20 N
Answer
Page39

To find reaction at B, i.e. Q, we take moments about C.

Why? This eliminates the moment due to R, which acts through C.
 Taking moments about C:

CM = Anti-CM
Q x 100 cm = (0.20 N x 80 cm) + (2.00 N x 50 cm) + (1.00 N x 30 cm)
Q x 100 cm = 16 N cm + 100 N cm + 30 N cm
Q x 100 cm = 146 N cm
Q = 1.46 N

But Q + R = 3.20 N
1.46 N + R = 3.20 N
R = 1.74 N

Try to find R by taking moments about B.

8. A metre rule of weight 0.9 N, is suspended by strings A and B as shown in the figure
below in order to have it at equilibrium.

Find where a 2 N weight will be hang from the centre for

(a) string A to become slack; and
(b) string B to become slack.

Answer

Take moments about A: (To eliminate tension in string so that it becomes slack).

Let d1 be distance from centre.

0.9 N x 30 cm + 2 N (30cm + d1) = (2 N + 0.9 N) 50 cm

27 N cm + 60 N cm + 2 d1 N = 145 N cm
2 d1 N = 145 N cm – 87 N cm
d1 = 58 N cm
2N
= 29 cm
Taking moments about B:
Page40

Let d2 be the distance from centre.

 0.9 N x 20 cm + 2 N (20 cm + d2) = (2 N + 0.9 N) 50 cm
18 N cm + 40 N cm + 2 d2 N = 145 N cm
2 d2 N = 145 N cm – 58 N cm
d2 = 87 N cm
2N
= 43.5 cm

ENERGY, WORK AND POWER

1. ENERGY , E
Energy is defined as the ability to do physical work.
S.I. unit: Joule (J)

FORMS AND SOURCES OF ENERGY

FORMS SOURCES RENEWABLE/

NON-
RENEWABLE
Heat energy fires NR
Light energy sun, stars, light bulbs, burning fires NR
Sound energy vibrating objects NR
Chemical energy Food, fossil fuels (coal and gas) NR
Electrical energy batteries, H.E.P and Nuclear Power NR
Stations
Kinetic energy moving objects NR
Potential energy objects above Earth surface NR
Nuclear energy atoms (atomic nuclei) NR
Solar energy sun R
Geothermal molten rocks underground R
energy
Wind energy wind R
Wave energy water waves at sea R

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

States: Energy cannot be created or destroyed but changed from one form to another.

Energy input ‘machine’ converts equal energy output

(transducer)
Page41

This concept is used in energy changes or conversions: energy changing from one form to
another.
ENERGY CONVERSIONS

Energy flow diagrams are used to show energy changes that occur. Some examples are
given below.

(a) A bulb torch illuminating a room

Chemical Energy Electrical energy Light Energy + Heat Energy

(b) An apple falling from a tree

Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Heat Energy + Sound

Energy

(c) A singer singing into a microphone

Sound Energy Electrical Energy Kinetic Energy + Sound Energy

(d) An initially moving car suddenly brought to rest

………… Energy Heat Energy + ……………… Energy

(e) Production of electricity from a hydroelectric power station

Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Electrical Energy

(from head of water) (rotating turbine)

(f) Production of electricity in a power station using coal

Chemical Energy Heat Energy Kinetic Energy + Electrical Energy
(turn water into (rotating turbine)
steam)
(g) A simple pendulum
Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Potential Energy
(at extreme left) (at centre) (at extreme right)
Page42
NB: The pendulum eventually stops at the middle position because all the energy
becomes gradually lost due to air resistance opposing its motion. This does not show that
energy of the pendulum is destroyed!

There are many examples of energy conversions, which we experience in our everyday
life. For the examples listed below draw energy flow diagrams:

(i) Footballer kicking a ball

(ii) Charging a car battery
(iii) A radio speaker producing music
(iv) Solar Panels used in our homes
(v) Swimmer diving from a platform
It is also important to note that every energy conversion is designed to produce useful
energy, which can be made use of in special ways like for lifting, data transfer, growth,
storage, deceleration and many others.

SOURCES OF ENERGY IN BOTSWANA

SOURCE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Sun -Renewable -Changes with weather
-Abundant and clean -Expensive (solar panels)
Firewood -Cheap and easy to find -Non-renewable and dirty to use
-Causes deforestation
-Produces CO2 which causes pollution
and Global warming
Coal -Can be used to produce -Non-renewable
electricity in power -Produces Carbons which causes
stations pollution and Global warming
-People get paid for
mining
Natural gas -Clean and easy to use -Non-renewable
-Causes pollution and Global warming
Oil (petrol, diesel, -Easy and clean to use -Non-renewable
paraffin) -Produces CF’s which causes pollution
and Global warming
Page43

Wind -Renewable -Machinery used is expensive

-Abundant and clean
N.B: In columns two and three the responses should be based on the Social, Economic
and Environmental factors.

Fill in the blanks in this article about Global Warming. Use the terms given below.

Some gases such as -------------------- from industries accumulate in the atmosphere

leading to an ------------------------ in temperature. These gases trap long wavelength
----------------------- radiation emitted by the Earth. This is known as the --------------
effect, and is believed to cause ------------------------------ . Global warming causes a
rise in temperature of the oceans, which leads to ---------------- in the sea level.

[Greenhouse, Nitrogen, solar, rise, fall, infrared, carbon dioxide, increase, decrease,
Global Warming]

A. KINETIC ENERGY, Ek
Kinetic Energy is defined as energy due to motion of objects or energy possessed by
all moving objects.
It depends on the mass and velocity of the object.
S.I. unit: Joule (J)
To calculate kinetic energy of a body we use the formula:
Kinetic Energy = ½ x mass x velocity x velocity
In symbols, Ek = ½ mv2
where m is the mass of the object in kg
v is the velocity of the object in ms-1
Examples
(a) Calculate the kinetic energy of a car of mass 1000 kg moving at a speed of 20 ms-1.
Answer
m = 1 000 kg, v = 20 ms-1, Ek = ?
Using Ek = ½ mv2
= ½ x 1 000 kg x 20 ms-1 x 20 ms-1
= 2 000 J
(b) A body of mass 100 g is moving with a velocity of 5 ms-1. Calculate its Ek.
Answer
m = 100 g, v = 5 ms-1, Ek = ?
= (100/1 000) kg
= 0.1 kg
Using Ek = ½ mv2
= ½ x 0.1 kg x (5 ms-1)2
= 1.25 J

(c) A moving object has a mass of 0.4 kg and 80 J of kinetic energy. Calculate the
object’s velocity.
Answer
Page44

m = 0.4 kg, Ek = 80 J, v = ?
Using Ek = ½ mv2
 80 J = ½ x 0.4 kg x v2
80 J = 0.2 kg x v2
v2= 80 J/0.2 kg
v = ±v(80 J/0.2 kg)
v = ± 20 ms-1
The velocity of the moving object is 20 ms-1.

B. POTENTIAL ENERGY, Ep
Potential Energy is defined as the energy a body possesses due to its position with
respect to the Earth.
It depends on the weight and height of a body above the Earth.
S.I. unit: Joule (J)
To calculate potential energy of a body we use the formula:
Potential Energy = mass x acceleration due to gravity x height above the Earth
In symbols:
Ep = mgh
where m is measured in kg
g is 10 ms-2 or 10 Nkg-1
h is measured in metres, m
Examples
(a) A boy of mass 45 kg, fearing dogs climbs to the top of a 3 m tall tree.
(i) What form of energy does he gain as he climbs?
(ii) Calculate the amount of energy he gains.

Answer
(i) Ep
(ii) m = 45 kg, g = 10 Nkg-1, h = 3 m, Ep = ?
Using Ep = mgh
= 45 kg x 10 Nkg-1x 3 m
= 1350 J

(b) Peter let a stone of mass 200 g fall from a tower that is 20 m tall till it hit the ground.
(i) What type of energy does the stone possess when at the top of the tower?
(ii) Calculate the amount of energy it has at the top of the tower.
(iii) What form of energy does the stone gain as it falls?
(iv) Calculate the amount of PE when the stone has fallen by 15 m.
(v) State the kinetic energy of stone on hitting the ground. Support your answer with a
reason.
(vi) What is the speed of stone on hitting the ground?
(vii) Use energy flow diagram to show energy changes that take place.

Answer
(i) Ep
Page45

(ii) m = 200 g, g = 10 N/kg, h = 20 m, Ep =?

 = (200/1000) kg
= 0.2 kg
Using Ep = mgh
= 0.2 kg x 10 N/kg x 20 m
= 40 J
(iii) Ek

(iv)
h = 20 m – 15 m
= 5 m; Ep =?
Using Ep = mgh
= 0.2 kg x 10 N/kg x 5 m
= 10 J
NB: The Ek = 40 J – 10 J (from the PCE)
= 30 J
(v) Ek = 40 J
From the PCE, the entire Ep has been converted to Ek.

(vi) Ek = 40 J, m = 0.2 kg, v =?

Using Ek = ½ mv2
v = ±v(2KE/m)
= ±v[(2 x 40 J)/0.2 kg]
= ± 20 ms-1
The velocity of the stone is 20 ms-1.

(vii) Potential Energy Kinetic energy Sound energy + Heat energy

WORK, W

Work is defined as a product of a force and a distance in the direction of force.

S.I. unit: Joule (J)
To calculate work done, the mathematical expression is used:
Work Done = Force x distance moved in the direction of force
In symbols: W=Fxs

Relation between Work and Energy

For an object to do a piece of work, it must have energy that is actually used up. A good
example is of a man who becomes tired after pushing a box on a floor. No energy means
no work is possible.

WORK DONE = ENERGY

However, not any energy spent means work is done! Carrying 100 kg of cement on the
Page46

head without changing the vertical height make a person tired although NO WORK IS
DONE.
(i) What is the reason for this unfortunate situation?
(ii) Give other examples of cases as that mentioned above.

Examples on calculating the work done by forces

(i) What is the amount of work done if 100 N is applied to push a box across a horizontal
floor for a distance of 3 m?

Answer
F = 100 N, s = 3 m, W =?
Using W = F x s
= 100 N x 3 m
= 300 J

(ii) A boy of mass 50 kg climbs a tree to a height of 5 m. Calculate the amount of work
done in this process.
Answer
m = 50 kg, g = 10 Nkg-1, s = height = 5 m, F = ?, W = ?
Using F = mg
F = 50 kg x 10 Nkg-1
= 500 N
But W = F x s **
Then W = 500 N x 5 m
= 2500 J
Note that in ** above,
W = mgh
The Work Done in a vertical direction is equal to Potential Energy.

POWER, P
Power is defined as the rate at which, work is done.
or
Rate at which energy is being used (supplied).
Mathematical expression:
Power = Work Done/ Time taken
or
Power = Energy transfer/ Time taken

In symbols: P = W/t or E/t

S.I. unit: Watt (W)
where 1W = 1J/1s
Page47

Multiple units: kilowatts (kW); 1 kW = 1 000 W

Megawatts (MW); 1MW = 1 000 000 W
Examples
(a) A man loading a truck lifts a box of mass 100 kg through a height of 1.6 m in 4 s.
(i) Calculate the amount of work done by the man.
(ii) What is the power of this man?
Answer
(i) m = 100 kg, g =10 Nkg-1, h = 1.6 m, W =?
Using W = mgh
= 100 kg x 10 Nkg-1 x 1.6 m
= 1 600 J

(ii) W = 1 600 J, t = 4 s, P =?
Using P = W/t
= 1 600 J/4 s
= 400 W

(b) A crane, A, lifts a load of 400 kg through a vertical height of 10 m in 4 s. Another

crane, B, lifts 300 kg through 15 m vertically in 5 s. Which crane uses more power?

(Answer: PA = 10 000 W; PB = 9 000 W; Crane A uses more power than crane B)

(c) A trailer was pulled by a car with a horizontal force of 3 000 N so that it moved a
distance of 100 m in 1minute on a horizontal road. Calculate the average power
exerted by the car on the trailer. (Answer: P = 5 000 W)

EFFICIENCY OF ENERGY CONVERSIONS

Generally refers to the conversions of energy to other forms at a minimum loss.

Efficiency, η, is defined as the ratio of output energy to input energy, multiplied by

100%.

Mathematical expression

Efficiency, η = Output Energy x 100 % or Power Output x 100 %

Input Energy Power Input
Consider the diagram below;
Page48
The intension was to produce only light from the bulb but along with light produced, heat
was unintentionally produced. This means that some of the electrical energy ended up
producing some form of energy that was not intend to produce. In this case if the bulb
only produced light, then it would be 100% efficient.
UNFORTUNATELY THERE IS NO KNOWN MACHINE (ENERGY CONVERTER)
THAT IS 100% EFFICIENT.

EXAMPLES
1.A machine lifts a load of 500 N through a vertical height of 2 m in 5 seconds.

(a) What type of energy does the load gain?

(b) How much work does the machine do?
(c) How much power does the machine develop?
(d) The machine has an efficiency of 40%. Determine how much energy was supplied
to the machine.

2. An athlete in a race exerts a force of 100 N for a distance of 200 m and in the process
uses 500 000 J.

(a) What is the efficiency of the athlete?

(b) State where the rest of the energy goes?

THERMAL PHYSICS

THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER

When an object is heated, kinetic energy of the particles increases. The particles will tend
to push each other further apart increasing the volume of the body. Friction between the
particles will result in the average temperature of the object increasing. The opposite
where a body loses energy and its temperature decreasing resulting in a decrease in
volume is called contraction.

NOTE: Different substances may expand by different amounts at the same rate of energy
supply. In general gases expand more than liquids and liquids expand more than solids.
Page49

DEMOSTRATION: BALL AND RING

The ball and ring is constructed so that it just fits through the hole in the ring. When the
ball is heated for a few minutes it can no longer pass through the ring as it has expanded.

USES OF EXPANSION

 Thermometer (liquid –in – glass)

 Shrink fitting
 Riveting metal plates
 Bimetallic strip

BIMETALLIC STRIP: It is constructed by riveting two equal lengths of different metals

so that they cannot move separately

USES OF THE BIMETALLIC STRIP

(a) THERMOSTAT: It is a device which keeps the temperature of an appliance

Page50

constant or near constant. E.g. electric iron

When the iron is switched on, the bimetallic strip bends down and breaks the circuit. This
switches the iron off. After cooling the strip tightens and the two contacts will touch each
other again, therefore the circuit becomes complete. The iron will be switched on again
and this maintains a near steady (constant) temperature.

(b) FIRE ALARM

When there is fire outbreak, the strip bends upwards and closes the circuit at the contacts
then the bell rings.

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST EXPANSION

(a) RAILWAY LINES: Previously gaps were left between the lengths of rail but today
rails are welded into lengths of about 1 km and are tapered overlap at the ends. This
allows for a smooth journey and also for expansion.
Page51
(b) LOOPING OF PIPELINES:

Long water, oil or gas pipes may have loops to avoid cracking during expansion and
contraction.

(c) BRIDGES: They are made with concrete sections and gaps are left between the
sections. The expansion gaps are filled with soft material like rubber to allow for
expansion and also stops chunks of rocks from falling in.

(d) POWER AND TELEPHONE LINES:

The lines must be made to hang loose when constructed in summer to allow for
Page52

contraction in winter. The lines are made a bit tight in winter so that they do not hang too
loose in summer due to expansion.
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE: Temperature is the degree of hotness and
coldness of a substance. The instrument used to measure temperature is called a
thermometer.

To measure temperature we rely on some physical properties which vary with

temperature e.g. thermal expansion, electromotive force (EMF) or voltage, electrical
resistance and colour.

(a) THERMAL EXPANSION: LIQUID –IN-GLASS THERMOMETER S (Laboratory

and clinical) rely on the fact that liquids expands more than solids when heated. When the
bulb is warmed, the liquid rise through the capillary tube and the temperature is read at
the highest level reached by the liquid.

(b) ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE:

THERMOCOUPLE THERMOMETER: This type of thermometer consists of two wires

of different materials joined together at the ends. One of the junctions is at a point where
the temperature is measured (temp probe) and the other is kept at a lower fixed
temperature (cold junction), usually ice is used. Due to the temperature differences
between the junctions an electromotive force is developed across the junctions. An
electric current will flow and it can be measured by means of galvanometer.

A thermocouple measures a wide range of temperatures from -250 °C to 1500 °C. It is

also very sensitive i.e. can detect rapid temperature changes.
Page53
(c) ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

THERMISTOR THERMOMETERS: A thermistor is an electrical resistor whose

resistance varies with temperature. A thermistor is inserted in an electric circuit and when
it is hot its resistance decrease allowing a large current to flow through the circuit
therefore we get a large reading on a digital scale (display) i.e. the temperature reading
becomes high. When it is cold, its resistance increase and a small amount of current flow
therefore we get a small reading.

(d) COLOUR

TEMPERATURE STRIPS: They usually change colour from blue to green when
warmed.

THE TEMPERATURE SCALE

THE CELCIUS SCALE: Celsius used two fixed points to calibrate a thermometer.

FIXED POINTS: These are constant temperatures of natural systems.

(a) THE ICE POINT (LOWER FIXED POINT): An uncallibrated thermometer is placed
in pure melting ice at normal atmospheric pressure. This gives 0 °C.

Page54
(b) THE STEAM POINT (UPPER FIXED POINT): The thermometer is placed in steam
at normal atmospheric pressure. This gives 100 °C.

Once the liquids levels have been established at the fixed points, the distance between the
two fixed points is divided into 100 equal divisions.

LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETERS: A volume of liquid is filled into the glass bulb
which is connected to a capillary tube. The liquid expands into the capillary tube when
heated and contracts when cooled. The liquids normally used in this type of thermometer
are mercury and alcohol.

LINEARITY: The degree marks along the capillary tube are equally spaced. Thus the
change in length of the liquid thread is directly proportional to the change in temperature.

SENSETIVITY: A sensitive thermometer is one which responds quickly to small

temperature changes. Sensitivity of a liquid- in – glass thermometer can be improved by:

(i) Using a thin (narrow) capillary tube.

(ii) Using less volume of liquid.

Page55

(iii) Making the walls of the thinner.

RANGE: The range is a set of temperatures which a thermometer can measure. Range of
a thermometer can be improved by:

(i) Using a wide capillary tube.

(ii) A large volume of liquid.

THE LABORATORY THERMOMETER

 Range varies
 Accuracy is to the nearest whole number of degrees.

CLINICAL THERMOMETER

 Range is normally from 35 °C to 42 °C.

 Accuracy to 0.1 °C.

SPECIAL FEATURES

 The capillary tube is oval in cross section, so that the liquid may be seen despite
the capillary tube being thin.
 The capillary tube has a constriction which prevents the liquid from flowing back
into the bulb before taking the reading. The liquid is returned to the bulb by
shaking the thermometer.
 The capillary tube is very thin.
Page56

MELTING AND BOILING

Some substances can exist in three phases or states i.e. solid, liquid and gas.

MELTING AND SOLIDIFICATION

Imagine a block of ice at a temperature of -10 °C, if thermal energy is supplied to the ice
at a uniform rate the temperature of ice will increase until it is 0 °C. As more energy is
supplied, the ice melts but the temperature remains constant. The energy supplied is used
to overcome the bounds which hold the particles together. Bond breaking involves taking
in energy. The energy absorbed is called latent heat of fusion. Latent means hidden and
fusion means melting.

BOILING AND CONDENSATION

If water is heated, the temperature rises until the water boils at a temperature of about
100°C then the temperature remains constant. The temperature remains constant until all
the water has evaporated. The energy being used is called Latent Heat of Vapourasation.
This is energy used to change the water from liquid to gas. Generally latent heat is the
energy required to change state of a substance.
Page57
BOILING POINT: It is the temperature at which a liquid boils and some groups of
particles form separate bubbles of vapour throughout the liquid.

MELTING POINT: It is the temperature at which a solid changes into liquid

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BOILING AND EVAPORATION

EVAPORATION BOILING
 Occurs at any temperature  Occurs at a definite temperature

 Occurs at surface of liquid  Occurs within the liquid

 No bubbles  Bubbles appear

COOLING CURVES: The rate at which an object cools can tell us a great deal about the
material it is made of.

COOLING CURVE OF WAX

Page58

The first break in the smooth curve is when solid wax began to form. The temperature is
never constant, this shows that wax is a mixture of substances (hydrocarbons).
COOLING CURVE OF ETHANAMIDE

The flat part of the graph AB is when the substance is solidifying. The graph shows that
ethanamide is a pure substance because it has a definite freezing/melting point.

TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

(a) CONDUCTION: It is the flow of heat through matter from places of high temperature
to places of lower temperature without movement of matter as a whole. Conduction
occurs faster in solids (metals).

When an object is heated particles gain kinetic energy, they rub against each other
transferring energy to places of lower temperature. Conduction occurs faster in metals
than non- metals because they have free electrons, when heated the electrons gain kinetic
energy and move to lower temperature regions.

CONDUCTING POWER OF DIFFERENT METALS

DIAGRAM X

Page59

DIAGRAM Y
An experiment is set up to find out which metal is the best conductor of heat. Balls are
stuck with
Wax to rods made from different metals, as shown in diagram x.

The rods are heated at one end. Some of the balls fall off, leaving some as shown in
diagram Y. Most of the balls on copper drop off followed by aluminium, brass and finally
iron. This show that copper is the best conductor amongst the four metals.

GOOD CONDUCTORS: Good conductors of heat are used when heat is required to
travel quickly through matter. E.g. kettle, pans, pots and other boilers are made of good
conductors of heat.

BAD CONDUCTORS: Handles of boilers are made up of bad conductors of heat (good
insulators). E.g. wood, plastic, air, water, wool etc.

The apparatus below show that water is a bad conductor of heat as water at the top of the
tube boils while ice has not melted.

Page60
(b) CONVECTION: It is the flow of heat from places of higher temperature to places of
lower temperature by the movement of the fluid particles.

Water at the heated point expands, get less dense and rise up creating streams of moving
fluid called convection currents. The dense surrounding water molecules move down.

The following figure shows how convection occurs in air.

(c) RADIATION: It is the flow of heat from one place to another through
electromagnetic waves. Radiation can occur in a vacuum. Dull, black surfaces are good
absorbers/ emitters of heat. Shiny white surfaces are good reflectors or poor absorbers
and emitters of heat.

The following apparatus can be used to study these.

The two flasks are left in the sun for about five minutes. The thermometer in a black flask
will record a higher reading.
Page61
APPLICATIONS OF CONDUCTION, RADIATION AND CONVECTION

(a) VACUUM/ THERMOS FLASK

A vacuum flask keeps hot liquids hot and cold liquids for a longer time. Such flasks are
designed to reduce heat loss through conduction, convection and radiation.

FEATURES OF A THERMOS FLASK

 Double silvered walls: Reduce heat loss by radiation.

 Vacuum: Reduce heat loss by convection and conduction.
 Insulated Stopper: Reduce heat loss by conduction and evaporation.

(b) HOT WATER SYSTEM

Water is heated in the boiler it expands and rises by convection to hot water tank. Cold
water flows from the hot water tank to the boiler. Convection currents will be set until
water in the hot water tank and boiler is hot.
Page62
(c)SOLAR PANEL: In sunny countries warm water can be produced using solar panels.
In other type of a panel, a metal tube (pipe) is welded at the back of a metal plate which
is painted black. The plate absorbs heat from the sun and shares this energy by
conduction with the pipes (water).

(d) BUILDINGS: In hot countries buildings are often painted white to reflect heat.

(e) COOLING FINS:

The cooling fins at the back of the refrigerator are painted black so that they lose heat
more rapidly.

(f) ELECTRIC FIRES: Curved surfaces of electric fires are made of shiny metal to reflect
heat. Page63
CONSEQUENCES OF CONDUCTION, CONVECTION AND RADIATION

(a) CYCLONES: This is an area of intense low pressure. An abundant source of warm
moist air at a temperature of about 27° C will result near the sea surface due sun. This
warm moist and less dense air will blow inwards and rise rapidly to great heights. Clouds
of great vertical extent capable of providing torrential rainfall will be formed.

The upper cooler, drier and denser air will descend. Cyclones results in violent winds,
dense clouds and heavy rain. This causes destruction to buildings and trees.

(c) NIGHTS AND DAYS IN DESERTS: In deserts there is absence of cloud cover.
This result in the maximum solar radiation reaching the earth therefore we have
very high temperatures during the day. At night all the radiation is lost to the
atmosphere and this result in very cold nights. This extreme temperatures result in
harsh conditions in deserts.

(c) GREENHOUSE EFFECT

Carbon dioxide (CO2) and other gases like methane (CH4) and water vapour (H2O) form a
layer in the atmosphere i.e. they form a blanket above the earth’s surface. Shorter
wavelength infrared radiation from the sun is more energetic therefore it can pass through
these gases and is absorbed by plants, soil and buildings. The soil, plants and buildings
emit less energetic long wavelength radiation. The long wavelength radiation cannot pass
through greenhouse gases but rather is absorbed. These gases are warmed up as a result
and radiate energy in all directions. Some of this infrared radiation is radiated back to
earth so the earth will become warm. This results in global warming.
Page64
 THERMAL EXPANSION activity

1 (a) Fig.1.1 shows power cables

Fig.1.1
(i) Explain why the cables are laid slack. [2]

2 Fig.2.1 shows two flasks inverted in beakers containing water. The flasks are left in the sun.

Fig.2.1
In which set up will bubbles be produced more rapidly? Explain you answer

3(a) Fig.3.1 shows a thin- walled glass bulb capillary tube. The bulb is filled with methylated spirit.
Page65
 Fig.3.1

The bulb is then placed in a beaker of hot water.

(i) State and explain what will be observed

(ii) Name one application of this observation.[3]
(b) Fig.3.2 shows the fixed points A and B marked when a laboratory thermometer is calibrated.

Fig.3.2
(i) Name the points A and B.
(ii) What are the values of the temperatures A and B? [4]
(d) State two differences between this thermometer and a clinical thermometer.[2]

4 This question is about thermometers. Fig.4.1 shows a clinical thermometer.

Fig.4.1

[4]
(a) The scale markings are already labeled. By writing in the boxes, label the bulb, constriction, mercury,
and vacuum.
(b) The scale markings on the clinical thermometer cover only a small range of temperatures.
State one feature of the thermometer that allows it to be so sensitive.[1]

(c) Fig.4.2 shows a thermometer with the 0°C and 100°C points marked. The length between 0°C and
100°C is 10 cm.

Fig.4.2
What is the length moved by the mercury thread when the temperature changes from 0°C to 30°C?[2]

5 Fig.5.1 Shows an experiment on heat transfer.

Page66
 Fig.5.1

(a) The water at the top is boiling but there is still ice at the bottom of the tube.What conclusion can you
draw from this experiment?[1]
(b) The water is then heated from the bottom. Heat is distributed in the water by the process of convection.
Describe the process of convection.[3]

6 Fig.6.1 shows the apparatus used to investigate heat loss by radiation.

Fig.6.1
(a) The flasks are filled with equal volumes of water at 95 °C.

(i) State the difference that will be observed in the thermometer readings after
5 minutes.

(b) What conclusion can be drawn from this observation? [3]

7 Fig.7.1 shows the cooling system of a refrigerator.

Fig.7.1

(a) The pipe and fins at the back of the refrigerator are painted black.
Page67

Explain why
(i) the pipes and the cooling fins are painted black,[1]
(ii) there are many fins fitted along the pipe.[2]
 (b) Explain why the body of the refrigerator is painted white. [1]

8 In a desert, the nights are very cold and days are very hot.
(a) Explain this in terms of heat transfer.[3]
(b) Fig.8.1 shows a greenhouse.

Fig.8.1

(i) Explain how the greenhouse traps radiation.

(ii) How does the greenhouse lose heat when the window is open? [3]
(c) Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere acts like a greenhouse. The amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is increasing.
Name the environmental effect of this increase. [1]

WAVES

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF WAVES

WAVE: It is an energy carrying disturbance propagated through a medium or space by local progressive
disturbance of the medium but without the overall movement of the medium itself.

DISPLACEMENT – DISTANCE GRAPH

Page68
 (a) Amplitude (A): It is the maximum displacement of any point (particles) in a wave from the rest
position.
(b) Wavelength(λ): It is the distance between two successive crests or troughs OR It is the minimum
distance in which a wave tries to repeats itself.
(c) Frequency(f): It is the number of waves generated by a source in a second OR It is the number of
waves passing a point in a second.
(d) Speed(v): It is the distance travelled per unit time by a wave.
(e) Wave Front: These are points that are in phase (Peaks in a transverse wave and compressions in a
longitudinal wave).
WAVE EQUATION

The speed, frequency and wavelength for any set of waves are linked by the equation.

v=fλ

Where v = speed (m/s)

f= frequency (Hz)

λ = wavelength (m)
DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPH

Page69
 (a) Period(T) : It is the time taken for one complete oscillation or one wavelength.

1 1
T= or f=
f T
Where f = frequency (Hz)

T = Period (s)

TYPES OF WAVES

The obvious distinction between waves is based on the way they travel. There are two types of waves
namely transverse and longitudinal.

(I) TRANSVERSE: Each point on the wave vibrates at right angles to the direction in which the
wave is travelling e.g. water waves, Electromagnetic waves (Radio, Infrared, Ultraviolet,
Gamma, microwaves and x-rays), secondary waves(s-waves).

(ii) LONGITUDINAL: Each point on the wave vibrates parallel to the direction of the wave. The points
actually move together (compression) and then further apart (rarefaction) e.g. Sound waves, primary waves
(P- waves).

WAVE EFFECTS

(a) REFLECTION: When a vertical surface is put in the path of the wave, the wave is reflected from
the surface at the same angle as it strikes. The wavelengths are represented by straight lines. For
Page70

the wave to be reflected must encounter a medium of different density from the medium in which
it is travelling.
 (b) REFRACTION: It is the bending of a wavefront when it travels from one medium into another of
different refractive index. It is caused by a change of speed.
e.g. 1 A wave travelling in different depths of water at an angle ( Rectangular Shape)

REFRACTION OF LIGHT

The bending of light when it passes from one material (called a medium) to another is called refraction.

LAWS OF REFRACTION

(i) A ray of light is bent towards the normal when it enters an optically denser medium at an angle. ie
the angle of refraction r is less than the angle of incidence i.
(ii) A ray of light is bent away from the normal when it enters an optically less dense medium e.g
from glass to air.
(iii) A ray emerging from a parallel – sided block is parallel to the ray entering but is displaced
sideways.

(iv) A ray through the normal is not refracted.

Page71
For light rays passing from one transparent medium to another, the sine of angle of incidence and the sine
of angle of refraction are in constant ratio.
sine i Snell’s law
n=
sine r
Where: n is a constant or refractive index.

E.g Calculate the refractive index of glass in the example given.

sine i
n=
sine r

sin 30 °
n= =
sin 20 °
REFRACTIVE INDEX AND SPEED OF LIGHT

Light is refracted because its speed changes when it enters another medium.
Page72

speed of light ∈air

Refractive index of a medium=
speed of light ∈a medium
e.g The speed of light in water is 2.25 *108 and in air is 3.00*108 .

a)if light travels from air to water. Calculate the refractive index of water.

speed of light ∈air

Refractive index of a medium=
speed of light ∈a medium
8
3.00∗10
n= 8
2.25∗10
= 1.33

REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH

An object O, seen through a transparent medium like water, appears closer than really is. This effect is
caused by refraction at the surface of the water. Rays of light coming from object O bent away from the
normal as they leave the water so that they appear to come from a virtual image I which is above the object
O.

Real Depth
Refractive index of water =
Apparent Depth

CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

When a ray of light travels from an optically denser (High refractive index) to a less dense medium (Low
refractive index), most of the light is refracted but there is also a reflected ray. Refraction is also not
possible at every angle of incidence as shown by a series of diagrams below.
Page73
(a) Angle of incidence I less than the critical angle

(b) When the angle of refraction r = 90°, the angle of incidence I = the critical angle i c

(c) When the angle of incidence I is greater than the critical angle i c, total internal reflection occurs.

As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also increases. Eventually, the angle of
refraction will be equal to 90°. At this point the refracted ray runs along the surface of the glass. The angle
of incidence at which the angle of refraction is equal to 90° is called Critical angle. For angles greater than
the critical angle, the incident ray is reflected inside the glass, and there is no refracted ray. This is called
Page74

Total internal reflection. Total internal reflection is when light from a high refractive index medium is
directed towards a low refractive index medium and the angle of incidence I is greater than the critical
angle ic.
 1
ic= sin-1( n )

OPTICAL FIBRES

An optical fibre, light pipe or light guide consists of a plastic or glass fibre of about the size of human hair.
When light ray is shone into the core of the fibre, it bounces from one edge to the other by total internal
reflection. Light can be transported over large distances through a series of total internal reflections. The
fibre can be easily bent carrying the light with it, and so light can be made to travel around bends.

USES OF OPTICAL FIBRES

 Doctors use it as an Endoscope to obtain images of internal organs

 Used by Engineers to light up some awkward spot for inspection
 Fibre optics widely used in Telecommunication systems.

MIRAGES
A mirage is an optical illusion that results from total internal reflection of light in air. People during hot
days often have the experience of seeing water in the distance, although it is dry.

Hot air near the ground will have a low refractive index and if the air above this layer is cooler it will have
a high refractive index. This can cause light rays from the sky to be totally internally reflected by hot air.
The reflection of the sky appears as patches of water on the road to the observer.
Page75
 LENSES

Lenses bend light and form images. There are two main types of lenses namely Convex and Concave.

(a) CONVEX LENS: These are thickest in the middle and thin around the edge. When rays parallel to
the principal axis pass through the convex lens they are bent inwards.

Convex lenses

Action of a convex lens on rays of light

The point F where the rays meet (converge) is called the PRINCIPAL FOCUS F. The distance from the
PRINCIPAL FOCUS to the center of the lens is called the FOCAL LENGTH (f). Rays of light can pass
through the lens in either direction, so there is another principal focus F1 on the opposite side of the lens
and the same distance from the center of the lens. The center of the lens is its OPTICAL CENTER C. The
line through C at right angles to the lens is the PRINCIPAL AXIS.

(b) CONCAVE LENS: These are thin in the middle and thickest round the edge. When rays parallel
to the principal axis pass through a concave lens, they are bent outwards.

Concave lenses
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Action of a concave lens on rays of light

The PRINCIPAL FOCUS F is the point from which the rays appear to diverge (spread out).

RAY DIAGRAMS FOR A CONVEX LENS

Standard rays: In ray diagrams, any two of the following rays are needed to fix the image position and size.

(a) A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the Principal Focus F after being

refracted by the lens

(b) A ray through the principal focus F1 which is refracted parallel to the principal axis

(c) A ray through the optical center (C) passes straight through the lens

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 Page78

MAGNIFICATION OF CONVERGING LENS

Linear magnification of lenses is given by

image height (IY ) ¿ V

m= =distance ¿image object ¿=
object height (OX ) distance ¿ U

 The distances from the lens to real objects, images and focuses are positive values.
 The distances from the lens to virtual images and focuses are negative values
V
Note: When using m= any negative signs should be ignored.
U
THE LENS FORMULA

Experimental results show that the relationship between f, u and v for all thin lenses is given by the
formula;

1 1 1 uv
= + or f=
f u v u+v

Where: f is focal length

u is object distance from c

v is image distance from c

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Page79

 They are all transverse waves

 They obey the laws of reflection and refraction
  They are emitted and absorbed by matter
 They travel through a vacuum
 They travel at the speed of light C in a vacuum i.e. C =3* 108 m/s
 They obey the wave equation v = f λ
 They transfer energy

COMPONENT SOURCE METHOD OF USES SIDE EFFECTS

DETECTION

GAMMA Nuclei of atoms Geiger-Müller Radiotherapy, Radio dating, Kill cells, Cause
RAYS i.e. Radioactive tube, Photographic Sterilizing pests and cancer, Radiation
substances, e.g. film, Photo(solar) weevils, Sterilizing medical burns, Cause
uranium, cobalt cell equipment, Preserving food death

X- RAYS X- ray tube Photographic film, Radiography i.e. Take X- Same effect as
Photo cell ray pictures, gamma rays what
Crystallography i.e. study differs is the
structure of crystals, Treat source.
skin disorders

ULTRA Very hot Fluorescent To verify forged bank notes Causes sun tan or
VIOLET objects, Arcs chemicals and and signatures, Treat skin sun burns,
and sparks, powders, Photo disorders(kill bacteria), Harmful to the
Mercury vapour, cell or solar cell Washing detergents have eyes(retina),
Uv lamps, Sun fluorescent chemicals, Causes skin
Lighting, Paints cancer

VISIBLE Sun, Very hot Photographic film, Essential for High intensity
(LIGHT) objects, Lamps Photo cell, Eyes photosynthesis, can damage the
Communication i.e. lasers, eyes
Chemistry flame tests

INFRA RED Sun, Hot Special Photography through fog Heating

objects, Infrared photographic film, and haze or at night, TV
lamps, Fires Thermometers, and radio remote
Skin controllers, Infrared
scanners to track animals at
night, Cooking?, Security
lamps

COMPONENT SOURCE METHOD OF USES SIDE

DETECTION EFFECTS

MICROWAVES Microwave ovens, Receivers(Dish Cooking, International Kill cells,

Mobile phones, aerials), Mobile television relay networks, Cause
Communication phones, Communication via cancer
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satellites, Communication mobile phones, RADAR

Transmitters(Dish detection of ships and
 aerials) satellites planes, Police speed traps

RADIO Transmitters, Stars Receivers UHF (Ultra High Harmless

WAVES are natural sources (Radios) Frequency): used for
local radio and
broadcasting TV
programs.
VHF (Very High
Frequency) : use for local
Police and Ambulance
messages, TV, local
radio
MW (Medium Waves)
and LW (long Waves):
This are real radio
broadcasting waves.
They are used to transmit
radio waves for long
distances, because of
their long wavelength
they can easily bend
around the curve of the
earth and hills

Note* All electromagnetic waves obey the equation C= fλ

Where: C is the speed of light = 3 * 108 m/s

F is frequency in Hertz

λ is wavelength in meters

SOUND

Sources

Any vibrating object can be a source of sound e.g. vibrating guitar string, Vibrating tuning fork, Vibrating
air inside a trumpet.

LONGITUDINAL NATURE OF SOUND WAVES

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When a loud speaker cone vibrates it moves forwards and backward very fast. This squashes and stretches
the air in front. It results in a series of compressions (squashes) and rarefactions (stretches) through air and
these are sound waves. The distance between successive compressions or rarefactions is wavelength.

PROPAGATION

Sound waves being longitudinal in nature require a material medium (i.e. solid, liquid, gas) for it to travel.
To demonstrate this, place an electric bell in an air tight container. Remove the air using a vacuum pump
and watch the bell. The clapper continues to vibrate but sound heard by the listener diminishes. The bell is
heard again when air is restored.

AUDIBLE SOUND FREQUENCIES

The human ear is not capable of hearing sounds of all frequencies. Humans are sensitive to a limited range
of sound frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. Other animals like dogs can detect sound frequencies up to
50 000 Hz and bats up to 120 000 Hz. Sounds above 20 000 Hz (audible range) are called
ULTRASOUNDS OR ULTRASONIC SOUNDS. Bats use ultrasounds to locate insects and other objects.
They send out a series of ultrasounds pulses and use specialized shaped ears to pick the reflections. This is
called echo location.

APPLICATIONS (USES) OF ULTRASOUNDS

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(i) CLEANING: Delicate machinery is immersed in a tank of liquid, where vibrations of high
powered ultrasounds are used to dislodge (remove) dirt or grease.
 (ii) ECHO SOUNDING/SONAR DEPTH SENSING: Ships use echo sounding to measure the
depth of water beneath them. Pulses of ultrasounds are sent downwards to the sea bed. The
time taken (t) for the echo reflection to return is recorded. Knowing the speed of sound in
water to be 1400 m/s the distance travelled by the sound wave can be measured.

vt
S=
2
Where S = distance (m)

V = speed (m/s)

t
=¿ time taken by the sound to the bottom only.
2

(iii) SCANNING: Echo sounding principle is used. The transmitter sends ultrasounds into the
mother’s womb. It also acts as a detector and picks up reflected pulses from the body. The
pulses are processed by the computer which puts an image on the screen.
NOISE POLLUTION: Noise is defined as sound of irregular frequency or simply unwanted sound. Too
high levels cause stress and disturb concentration.

MEASUREMENT OF SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR

(i) FLASH AND BANG METHOD: We assume light travels instantaneously. Record the time
interval between the arrival of the flash and bang (sound) produced by the gun at a known
distance (s) from the observer.
s
V=
t
Where V = speed (m/s)

S = distance (m)

t = time (s)
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In order to eliminate the effect of any wind the speed (v) should be measured for sound travelling each way
and then the average taken.
 (ii) CLAP-ECHO METHOD: Sound heard after reflection is called echo. Stand at a distance (s)
from a reflecting surface and clap two pieces of wood together in such a way that each clap
made coincides with the echo of the previous clap. Clap (N) number of times in a time t.

2 sN
V=
t
Sound travels a total distance of 2sN in a time t.

ORDER OF MAGNITUDE OF SPEED OF SOUND

The speed of sound varies from one medium to another. Even in the same medium changes in temperature
can also cause variation in speed. Some examples are given in the following table.

Medium Speed (m/s)

Air(dry) at 0 °C 330
Air(dry) at 30 °C 350
Water(pure) at 0 °C 1400
concrete 5000

As it can be seen sound travels faster through solids followed by liquids and lastly gases.

REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVES

Sound waves are reflected well from hard flat surfaces such as walls, or cliffs and obey the laws of
reflection just like light. Reflected sound is called an echo.

FREQUENCY AND PITCH

Different frequencies sound different to the ear. We hear high frequencies as high notes or high pitch. We
hear low frequencies as low notes or low pitch.

(a) High frequency and Pitch (small wavelength)

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 (b) Low frequency and Pitch

AMPLITUDE AND LOUDNESS

A loud note has large amplitude and a soft note has small amplitude.

(a) Sound is louder with a large amplitude

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(b) Sound is soft with a small amplitude

QUALITY (TIMBRE)

Each instrument is said to have typical sound quality i.e. same note on different instruments sounds
different. The sound waves produced by musical instruments can be regarded as a combination of different
frequencies.

The strong one is called the fundamental (main) frequency and it determines the pitch. The other
frequencies are called over tunes or harmonics. The over tunes determine the quality of sound. When the
fundamental frequency and over tunes are combined they produce the characteristic sound of the
instrument.

Following figures shows notes of the same frequency (pitch) but different quality.
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EFFECTS OF MULTIPLE REFLECTIONS OF SOUND WAVES (ACOUSTICS) ON THE QUALITY
OF SOUND

A large empty hall with hard walls, floors and ceiling sounds echoey. Sound is reflected from one surface
to another so on and so on and it may take several seconds for the wave energy to be absorbed so that
sound dies away. The effect is called REVERBERATION. If there is too much reverberation it is difficult
to hear sound clearly.

ACTIVITY: WAVES, EMW, SOUND

1 Fig.1.1 shows the waveform produced by Ofentse moving one end of a string while the other end
is fixed.

Fig.1.1

(a) Name the lengths represented by X and Y.[2]

(b) Describe how the frequency of the movement of Ofentse’s hand may be found.[2]

2 Fig.2.1 shows waves on the surface of a liquid.

Fig.2.1
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(i) What type of wave is illustrated?

(ii) On the diagram, show one wavelength and label it λ.

(iii) X is a particle on the surface of the liquid.

On the diagram, draw an arrow to show the direction in which the particle is moving.[3]
3 (a) Fig.3.1 represents a wave motion.

Fig.3.1

(i) Does the motion represent a longitudinal or transverse wave?

(ii) Give one example of
1 a longitudinal wave ……………………………………………
2 a transverse wave ………………………………………………
(iii) Which letter in Fig.3.1 represents
1 the amplitude ……………………………………………………
2 the wavelength? .............................................................................[5]
(b) A wave has a wavelength of 0.8 m and a speed of 2 m/s. What is the frequency of the wave? [2]

4 A teacher demonstrated the formation of longitudinal waves using a slinky spring as shown below.

Fig.4.1

(a) On Fig.4.1, mark one region of compression with letter C and one region of rarefaction with the letter R.
[1]

(b) (i) It was observed that each wave-front took 4.0 seconds to travel the whole length of the spring. If the
spring is 2.0 m long, calculate the speed of the waves.[2]
(ii) The distance between two successive compressions is 0.60 m. Use your answer to (b) (i) to calculate
the frequency of the waves. [2]
5 (a) Fig.5.1 shows the graph of the variation of the displacement of a wave with distance along the wave at
a particular time.
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 Fig.5.1
State the values for

(i) the amplitude of the wave …………………………

(ii) the wavelength of the wave ………………………..[2]
(b) Fig.5.2 shows the graph of the variation of the displacement of the same wave with time at a particular
point along the wave.

Fig.5.2
State values for
(i) the time for one complete cycle (Period T) ………………………
(ii) the frequency f of the wave ………………………………[2]
(c) Calculate the speed of the wave drawn in Figs.5.1 and 5.2. [3]

6 (a) Fig.6.1 shows part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Fig.6.1

Which property is
(i) the wavelength, ………………………………………
(ii) the speed, ……………………………………………
(iii) the frequency. ………………………………….. [3]
(b) Some ultra-violet waves have a speed of 3 x 108 m/s and a frequency of 2.5 x 1015 Hz.
Calculate the wavelength of the ultra violet waves.[2]

7 Fig.7.1 shows the electromagnetic spectrum.

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 Fig.7.1

(i) Name the type of radiation at B.[1]

(ii) Give two effects of ultraviolet radiation on the human body.[2]
(iii) State the speed of electromagnetic radiation in a vacuum.[1]

8 Gamma and radio waves are components of the electromagnetic spectrum.

(a) (i) State two properties which are common to gamma and radio waves.
(ii) State two properties, which are changing from gamma to radio waves.[4]
(b) A radio wave of frequency of 200 000 Hz has a wavelength of 1500 m. Calculate the speed of the
radio[2]

9 A guitar is a source of sound.

(a) How is sound produced from the guitar?[1]
(b) Describe how the sound is transmitted through air.[3]

10 In an experiment to determine the speed of sound in air, Tiro and Tirelo stand 400 m apart as shown in
Fig.10.1

Fig.10.1

Tiro fires a starter gun. Tirelo measures the time between seeing the smoke and hearing the sound from the
gun. The experiment was repeated and the following results were obtained.

time t1 = 1.23 s
t2 = 1.27 s

(i) Use the results above to calculate the average speed of sound.
(ii) How would the value obtained in (b)(i) be affected if
1. the sound from the gun was louder?
2. a light wind blew from Tiro to Tirelo?[5]
11. This question is about ultrasound and its uses.
A fishing trawler is using pulses of ultrasound (sonar) to find a shoal of fish. Page90
(a) A pulse of ultrasound is sent into the water.
It takes 0.1 s to reach the sea bed.
It is reflected back off the sea bed.
Calculate the speed of ultrasound in sea water.Show how you work out your answer. [3]
(b) The shoal of fish moves under the trawler.
How will this change the time taken for the echo to return?Explain your answer.[2]
(c) Suggest why the echo lasts longer than the pulse sent out.[2]

12 Fig.12.1 shows a ruler fixed to the edge of a table to produce sound.

Fig.12.1

(a) (i) Describe what happens to the molecules of air near the ruler as the sound is produced.
(ii) Distance l is reduced and the ruler is plucked. What happens to the pitch of sound? Tick one box.

Pitch is increased

Pitch is constant

Pitch is decreased

(iii) What kind of sound is produced when distance l is increased? Tick one box.

Soft sound

Low sound

Loud sound
[3]

MAGNETISM

Strong magnetic properties are exhibited by some metals. These are Iron, Cobalt, Nickel
and Gadolinium. These metals and their alloys are said to be Ferro magnetic or magnetic
materials.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS


A magnet has two poles i.e it is a dipole. These are places where the magnetic
force appears to be concentrated.
 A magnet which is allowed to rotate freely in a horizontal plane always comes to
rest with one pole pointing N-pole and the other S-pole of the earth.
 Either pole attracts any magnetic material which is not magnetized.
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 Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.

MAGNETIC FIELD
A magnetic field is a region where the magnetic force can be experienced. A magnetic
field is a vector quantity, thus it has magnitude and direction.

EXAMPLES OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

(a) Opposite Poles

(b) Like Poles

The force between magnetic poles decreases as their separation increases and the force
between magnetic poles increases as their separation decreases.

(c) Bar magnet

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METHODS OF MAGNETISATION
(a) EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD: The earth’s magnetic field can be used to induce
magnetism on a hot steel bar. The bar is placed in a N-S direction and hammered. It is not
possible to make a strong magnet because earth’s field is relatively weak.

(b) STROKING :A permanent magnet may be made by stroking a steel bar with a pole of
a permanent magnet. The steel is stroked repeatedly in one direction with one pole of a
magnet.

(i) Single Touch

(ii) Double Touch

(c) ELECTRICITY The best way to make a permanent magnet is to place a bar of hard
magnetic material inside a solenoid carrying direct current (d.c).
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METHODS OF DE MAGNETISING A MAGNET

(a) HAMMERING/ DROPING : A magnet becomes demagnetized by hammering when

not aligned to N-S direction or when continually dropped.

(b)KEEPING : A magnet loses its magnetism if kept improperly.

(c) ELECTRICITY : To demagnetize a magnet it can be placed inside a solenoid carrying

alternating current ( A.C). Since the polarity of the solenoid reverse rapidly the magnet
does not settle down with any polarity.

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(d) HEATING : Magnetism can be destroyed by heating a magnet until it is red hot and
letting it to cool while pointing in an E-W direction of the earth.

INDUCED MAGNETISM

If an unmagnetised piece of magnetic material is brought into a magnetic field it becomes

a magnet. E.g If an iron bar is brought close to a pole of a bar magnet poles are induced
in the iron as shown.

Poles are always induced in such a way that it causes attraction. i.e a N – Pole induces a
S- Pole on a magnetic material close to it and vice- versa. Induced magnetism explains
how a magnetic chain such as that shown in the following diagram is formed. Each pin
induces magnetism in the one below it.

IRON AND STEEL

Iron is said to be a soft magnetic material. It becomes a strong induced magnet but when removed
from magnetic field, it loses its magnetism. Steel is said to be a hard magnetic material. It does
not become as strong an induced magnet as iron, but retains its magnetism for a longer time once
removed away from magnetic field.

E.g If iron and steel are attached to the Pole of a permanent magnet and dipped in iron fillings,
the iron bar picks up more iron fillings than steel bar. If the permanent Pole is removed most iron
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fillings fall off iron than steel

Iron is therefore used to make electromagnets and the core of transformers. Steel can be used to
make permanent magnets.

MAGNETIC FIELD : Two methods are used to detect a magnetic field around a magnet.

(1) USING A PLOTTING COMPASS:

 Place a bar magnet on a sheet of paper and draw around it.

 Make a dot on the paper near the N- pole of the magnet
 Position the plotting compass so that the curved S- Pole end of the needle surrounds dot
1.
 Make the next dot 2 near the N-Pole end of the plotting compass needle.
 Now move the plotting compass so that its S- Pole is over dot 2.
 Continue plotting in the direction indicated by the N- Pole of the plotting compass needle
until you reach the S- Pole of the magnet.
 Join up the dots to show magnetic field lines.
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A complete map of the magnetic field of the magnet can be made by plotting field lines from
several different starting points around N-Pole the magnet.

Note: (a) The magnetic field lines go from N-S and their direction is shown by the needle of the
compass.

(b) The magnetic field lines never cross each other.

(2) USING IRON FILLINGS

 Arrange a sheet of cardboard over the top of a magnet. Non – magnetic materials such as
wooden blocks can be used to support the cardboard so that it is slightly raised above the
magnet.
 Sprinkle iron fillings thinly and evenly over the top of the cardboard and tap the
cardboard gently with the tip of of a pencil/pen.

The iron fillings become magnetized by magnetic induction and form small magnetic dipoles.
Tapping the cardboard allows them to turn and line up in the direction of magnetic field. This
requires a strong magnet.

MAGNETIC SATURATION

Magnetic saturation is when all domains in a magnet are aligned in the direction of the field.

DOMAIN: These are tiny imaginary magnets or magnetic materials.

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PERMANENT MAGNETS: They are made using hard magnetic materials. E.g steel.

USES
  Freezer and refrigerator doors are fitted with a magnetic strip to keep the door closed.
 A magnet is fixed to the oil drain plug at the bottom of car engines and gear boxes. Small
splinters of metal are picked by the magnet from the oil and prevent them from damaging
moving parts of the engine.
 A magnet is used to reset metal index in the maximum and minimum thermometer.

ELECTROMAGNETS : They are made using soft magnetic material. E.g iron

The main advantage that electromagnets have over permanent magnets is that they can be
switched on and off and can be varied in strength.

To predict the poles of the magnet, we use the right- hand rule. i.e. The four fingers curl in the
direction of the current and the thumb shows the N- Pole.

INCREASING STRENGTH OF ELECTROMAGNETS

 Using a soft- iron core inside the coil or solenoid

 Increasing the number of turns of the coil
 Increasing the amount of current through the coil
 Using a C-core shaped or horse shoe magnetic material which brings both magnetic poles
close together.
USES

 Lifting steel plates and slabs which are difficult to attach hooks and chains to.
 Lifting large quantities of loose iron and steel. E.g scrap metal.
 Separating Ferro magnetic metals from others such as copper, brass, aluminum
 Relay switches
 Electric bell
 Reed switches

OTHER USES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

(a) AUDIO/VIDEO TAPE

The tape reel of an audio or video cassette or tape contains many tiny magnetic particles on its
surface. When recording is made, an electromagnet (recording head) which carries current of
varying frequency arranges these particles in a particular pattern according to the frequency and
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direction of its current. When recording is played back, the arrangement of magnetic particles
reproduces the same frequency in the play head.
(b) INFORMATION STOGAGE

Information is nowadays is stored in code which can be read by computer. i.e a series of 1’s and
0’s (binary code). A very large number of 1’s and o’s can be recorded by patterns of tiny
magnetic particles on the surface of the disk.
(c) MAGNETIC SCREENING/ SHIELDING
If a region is completely enclosed by iron, magnetic field cannot pass into it. Thus for example, a
laboratory can be enclosed/ covered by iron if a sensitive experiment is carried out.

Region x is shielded from magnetic fields.

MAGNETISM ACTIVITY

1 Fig.1.1(a) shows two magnets

Fig.1.1(a)

(a) On the diagram below draw the magnetic field around magnet XY.
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 Fig.1.1(b)

[2]

2 Fig.2.1 shows a bar magnet and four circles which represent four positions for plotting compass.
Inside each circle draw an arrow to show which way the compass needle would point.

Fig.2.1

3 An iron bar alone is not a magnet. When the iron bar touches a magnet ( Fig.3.1) it becomes a
magnet and attracts a paper clip.

Fig.3.1

(a) What do we call the type of magnetism the iron bar now has?
……………………………………………………………………………[1]
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(b) Describe how you can show that the magnetism in the iron bar is caused by
the magnet.
………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………[3]

(c) Draw an arrow in the circle in Fig.3.1 to show the direction the compass needle will point.

4 In experiments with a vertically held bar magnet, its ability to attract soft iron tacks was tested.
The results are shown by the diagrams below.

In the various cases, the average number of tacks attracted was as follows;

N pole of magnet, 10 tacks,

N pole of magnet covered by a piece of soft iron, 8 tacks,
N pole of magnet covered by a piece of wood, 3 tacks.

(i) What happened to the soft iron as it was placed in contact with the magnet?

............................................................................................................................

(ii) Suggest why the magnet covered by the soft iron picked up almost as many tacks as the magnet alone.
………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

(iii) If the soft iron was gently slid off the end of the magnet whilst holding 8 tacks, state and explain what
would happen.
………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………..
(iv) Although wood is a non-magnetic material, a few tacks are attracted when the wood is held covering
the end of the magnet. Suggest a reason for this.
………………………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………….
[4]
5 Fig.5.1 shows a method of separating magnetic materials from coal before the coal is fed into a
furnace in a power station. The mixture of coal and magnetic materials is carried by a conveyor belt, which
rotates around an electromagnet.

Fig.5.1

(a) Label the two parts of the electromagnet in the boxes in Fig.5.1
(b) Explain how magnetic materials are separated from coal.[2]
(c) It was found that some large pieces of magnetic material were mixed with the coal. What two changes
should be made to the electromagnet to prevent this? [2]
7 Fig.7.1 shows an electromagnet.

Fig.7.1

(a) Describe in detail what happens when the switch is closed.[4]

8. The diagram shows two metal rods placed inside a solenoid.

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When a battery was connected between A and B, the two rods rolled away from each other.
(a) Explain this observation.[3]
(b) Name one material from which the rods could have been made.[1]
(c) The same effect was observed when an alternating voltage was applied between A and B. Explain this
observation.[2]

9 An electromagnet used for lifting and then realizing a small iron ball, is made in the laboratory and
shown in Fig.9.1

Fig.9.1

(i) Why is soft iron a better material to use for the rod than steel?
(ii) State the type of pole at the end A when the current is in the direction shown.
(iii) State two ways in which this electromagnet can be made powerful.[5]

10 Fig.10.1 shows a method of magnetizing a steel bar.

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Fig.10.1
(a) On Fig. 10.1
(i) show the direction of the current,
(ii) Label the south pole of the magnetized steel bar.
(b) Explain how you arrived at your answer to (a) (ii) [2]
(c) State two uses of an electromagnet.[2]

ELECTROSTATICS

Electric Charge: Is the property of certain subatomic particles which give rise to the
electric force. Electrons which lie outside the atomic nucleus are said to be negatively
charged, while the protons (in the nucleus) are positively charged.

Electrons are on the outside of the atom, they can sometimes be transferred from one
object to another. E.g. If we rub a polythene rod with a clean dry cloth, electrons are
transferred from the cloth to the rod, so the rod becomes negatively charged (having a
surplus of electrons).

If we rub an acetate rod in a similar way, electrons are transferred from the rod to the
cloth, leaving the rod positively charged (having a deficit of electrons).

N.B. Only electrons can be transferred in this way.

If one charged rod is free to rotate, and another brought close to it, it is easily verified that
like charges repel, unlike charges attracts.
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DETECTING AN ELECTRIC CHARGE

An instrument called an electroscope can be used to detect presence of an electric charge.

One common type is the gold-leaf electroscope.

A simple Electroscope

a) b)

When a positively charged rod is brought near the top plate of an uncharged electroscope,
the leaf rises. This is because the positively charged rod attracts electrons in the plate and
stem upwards so that the plate has an excess of negative charges. The lower stem and leaf
are left with an excess of positive charges. The leaf diverges from the stem because they
are both positively charged.

The leaf also rises if a negatively charged rod is brought near the top plate. This time, the
rise of the leaf occurs because electrons in the plate are pushed downwards.

Electric charge is measured in coulombs (C), symbol used is Q.

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Metals and graphite have electrons which are only loosely attached to their atoms and so
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they are free to move throughout the substance. Thus, for example, a metal sphere on an
insulating stand can be charged by contact with a charged rod, and the charge distributes
itself evenly over the surface of the sphere.

(a)

Electrons move from rod to the sphere charging the sphere negative

(b)

Electrons move from sphere to rod, leaving the sphere positively charged.

Note: (i) A charged object may be neutralized by a source of ions. e.g. A flame or
radioactive nuclide.

ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION

If a charged object is brought close to an uncharged metal sphere on an insulating stand,

electrons in the sphere are attracted or repelled by the object and so are redistributed.
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NB: The spheres shown above are still uncharged i.e. no electrons have been added or
removed and so they remain with equal numbers of electrons and protons.

Electrostatic induction explains how a charged object tends to attract dust particles or
small objects such as pieces of paper.

Note: Compare magnetic attraction of unmagnetised objects by magnetic induction with

attraction of objects by electrostatic induction.

Electrostatic induction can be used to charge metal spheres using a charged rod. The
advantage of using induction is that the rod does not lose any of its original charge in the
process.

METHOD 1

Here two spheres are held together, a charged rod is brought close to them and then the
spheres are separated while the charged rod is held in place. The charged rod can then be
removed, leaving the two spheres with equal and opposite charges.
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Example: Using a positively charged rod

Step 1

Electrons are attracted to the rod.

Step 2

Step 3

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METHOD 2
A single metal sphere may be charged by making use of the fact that the Earth is
uncharged and because of its size, can accept or donate electrons without becoming
significantly charged.

(i) CHARGING POSITIVELY

(ii) CHARGING NEGATIVELY

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Note: Only electrons can move.

N.B. The rod must be held in position the whole time that the sphere is connected to
earth, otherwise all of the sphere’s charge would be neutralized by accepting electrons
from or donating electrons to the earth

ELECTRIC FIELDS

Electric Fields: Is a region where charged particles experience the electric force. An
electric field is a vector field whose magnitude at a point determines the size of the force
on a charged particle placed at that point. The direction of the field at a point is the
direction of the force which would be exerted on a positive charge at that point.

Electric flow lines/flux lines/field lines may be drawn to show the general flux of an
electric field similar to the lines drawn to the magnetic field.

EXAMPLES

(i) Isolated Positive Charge (ii) Isolated Negative

charge

(iii) Similar Charges

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 (iv) Opposite Charges (v)
Uniform Field

Lightning conductor

Lightning: Is an electric discharge between the earth and a highly charged cloud i.e. the
attraction of opposite charges between the earth and the cloud. Lightning conductors are
often placed on the top of a tall building to prevent them from being struck by lightning.
A lightning conductor is a thick copper strip with one end fixed to a metal plate or water
pipe buried underground.

If thunder clouds contain a large quantity of negative charge on their underside (positive
charge on their tops) and the earth positive an electric field will build between the two.

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If the concentration of positive charge is large enough on the ground (roof) the force of
attraction between the positive and negative charges can be so strong that electrons
suddenly jump from cloud to the roof, producing a flash of lightning.

The spikes on the lightning rod allow positive charges to flow out, thereby reducing the
amount of induced charge on the roof and lowering the electric field strength between
cloud and roof. This to some extent lowers the chance of lightning striking the building
because the positive charges neutralize the negative charges on the cloud.

If lightning does hit the building, the lightning rod provides a low resistance route for
electrons to pass into the ground without damaging the building

ELECTROSTATICS ACTIVITY

1 Fig.1.1 shows a negatively charged, plastic strip suspended by a thin thread and charged strip R
made of a different plastic material.

The diagram shows what happens what happens when R is brought near end Y.

fig.1.1

(a) Name the effect of bringing R near to Y.[1]

(b) Explain how the strip R was charged.[1]
(c) How can the negatively charged strip be discharged?[1]

2 Fig.2.1 shows the charge on a balloon after it has been rubbed with a woolen cloth.

Fig.2.1
(a) Explain why the balloon becomes negatively charged.[2]
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(b) Fig.2.2 shows a plastic rod brought near the metal cap of a positively charged gold-leaf electroscope.
The divergence of the leaf increases.
 Fig.2.2

(i) What is the charge on the plastic rod?[1]

(iii) What will be observed when the cap is touched with a finger?Explain your answer.[2]

3 Fig.3.1 shows two identical metal spheres A and B mounted on insulated supports.

Fig.3.1

The spheres are touching each other. A positively charged plastic rod is brought near A as shown.

The spheres are now moved slightly apart and the charged rod is then removed. Show on Fig.3.2, the
resulting charges on the spheres. [2]

Fig.3.2

(a) Explain why energy is needed to separate the two spheres.[2]

(b) Sphere A is moved until it again touches B. Describe the movement of charge that occurs when they
touch. [1]
(c) Fig.3.3 shows another charged sphere.
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Fig.3.3
State and explain how the sphere could be discharged.[3]

4 Figure 4.1 shows a negatively charged conducting rod put near a light ball suspended at the end of an
insulating thread. The surface of the ball has been coated with conducting paint. Figure 4.2 shows what
happens after the ball has been allowed to touch the rod.

(a) Explain why, in Fig.4.1, the ball is displaced from the vertical.[3]

(b) Explain what happens after the ball has been allowed to touch the rod.[3]

5 Fig.5.1 shows what happens as a cloud passes over a house during a thunderstorm.

Fig.5.1

After the lightning had struck the conductor, there is less negative charge in the cloud.

(a) Explain why there is less negative charge in the cloud.[1]

(b) The lightning conductor is made of copper. State two important features in the way the lightning
conductor is designed.[2]

(c) Draw the electric field between the clouds and the ground in the region labeled X.
Page114

[2]
 ELECTRIC CURRENT

Current: is the rate of flow of charge.

Q
I= Where: I is current (A)
t
Q is charge(C)
t is time(s)

Direction of current conventionally is the direction of flow of positive charge in the

direction of the field.

An instrument used to measure current is the ammeter.

An ammeter is connected in series as shown below, with a component.

.For a small current it will be wise to use an ammeter with a scale in milliampere (mA).

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

Batteries are usually the energy sources in d.c. circuits. EMF is the work done or energy
transferred per unit charge moved through the battery itself as well as the external circuit

e .m . f =energy trasferred ¿ external cicuit +energy transferred within the cell ¿

charge moved

w
i.e. V= Where: V is e.m.f. in volts (V)
Q
W is energy in Joules (J)
Q is charge in coulombs(C)

POTTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Page115

p . d across terminals=energy transferred ¿ external circuit ¿

charge moved
 w
V=
Q

P.d. is also measured in volts and the instrument used is the voltmeter.

 Note the voltmeter is connected in parallel and the ammeter in series.

 The voltmeter measure p.d. across the resistor.
 Note that the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the positive terminals
of instruments. +, red and -,black
 P.d. is also known as voltage.
RESISTANCE

Current flows through some components more easily than it does through other e.g. for
the same p.d. current will pass more easily through copper wire than through nichrome
wire. The nichrome wire is said to have more resistance than copper.

V
R= A) is less because nichrome has more resistance.
The current in the nichrome circuit (0.1 I
V is P.d. across conductor (V) R is resistance (Ω)
Where:
Page116

I is current through conductor (I)

The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω)

FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE

 LENGTH- Doubling length of wire will double the resistance

 CROSS SECTIONAL AREA- Thin wire has more resistance than thick wire.
 MATERIAL
 TEMPERATURE
In metals: resistance increase with temperature

In semiconductors: resistance decreases when temperature increases

OHM’S LAW

The statement that current is directly proportional to potential difference is known as

Ohm’s law. In an experiment to investigate Ohm’s law, vary Voltage across a metal
resistor and record current and the voltage.

Plot a graph of I/A against V/v

The graph has constant gradient passing through the origin.

I 1
gradient= = The component is an Ohmic conductor.
V R
Page117

A metal wire is normally Ohmic. i.e. has constant resistance, constant current- voltage
ratio and straight line current-voltage graph.
NON-OHMIC CONDUCTORS

(a) Bulb Filament

As p.d. across bulb increases, it becomes hotter, increasing its resistance. Hence the curve
has decreasing gradient.

(b) Thermistor (semiconductor)

As p.d. across a thermistor increases, more electrons are released, so its resistance
decreases hence the curve has an increasing gradient.

(c) Diode (Semiconductor junction)

Page118

CIRCUIT COMPONENTS AND SYMBOLS

Page119
 Diode

PARALLEL AND SERIES CIRCUITS

(a) (i) Current in Series

The current is the same at all points in a series circuit. i.e. I1 = I2.

(ii) Current in Parallel

The sum of the currents in the branches of a parallel circuit equals the current entering or
Page120

leaving the parallel section. i.e

I = I1 + I2 + I3 +I4
 (a) (i) Voltage in Series

The P.d. at the terminals of a battery equals the sum of the p.d.s across the devices in the
external circuit from one battery terminal to the other. i.e.

V = V1 + V 2

(ii) Voltage (P.d.) in Parallel

The p.d.s across devices in parallel in a circuit are equal. i.e.

V = V1 + V 2

(i) Resistance in series

Page121
R = R 1 + R2

(ii) Resistance in Parallel

1 1 1 1
= + +
R R 1 R 2 R3

For two resistors in parallel

1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2

R1 R 2
i.e. R=
R1 + R2

USES OF ELECTRICITY


Heating - In iron, electric kettle, heater, water boiler e.t.c.

Lighting- In electric lights

Machines- Electrical energy is converted to kinetic energy, where it causes
machines to move
 Security- Electrical fence, alarms e.t.c.
 Communication- Telephone cables carry messages as electrical signals
Page122

POWER AND ENERGY

 Energy transferred
Power=
Time taken

W E
i.e. P= or P= ----------------------------------------------------------------------------(1)
t t

Where P is Power in watts (w)

W(E) is work/energy in Joules (J)

t is time in seconds(s)

Energy is equivalent to work done W

i.e. E= W = QV
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (2)

Since Q = It , Therefore E = ItV --------------------------------------------------------------- (3)

Substituting equation 3 into 1 we get

I tV
P= =VI ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
t
(4)

V
But R= OR V= IR ---------------------------------------------------------------
I
(5)

Substituting (5) into (4) we get

P= IRI = I2R --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (6)

V
Also I = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
R
(7)

Substituting (7) into (4) we get

2
VV V
P= = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
R R
(8)

COST OF ELECTRICITY
Page123

Cost
Total cost=Kwh ×
Kwh
 Cost
1Kwh is 1 unit, therefore: Total cost=Units ×
unit

HAZARDS OF ELECTRICITY

i) Damaged Insulation: This can result in a short circuit if wires come into
contact or a person can be shocked if he/she touches the bare wires.
ii) Overheating of Cables: The cables can catch fire.
iii) Damp Conditions: Water is a good conductor. It is dangerous to hold sockets
with wet hands.
iv) Overloading of Sockets: This result in the cables overheating because the
current becomes high.

SAFE USE OF ELECTRICITY

The Fuse

It is a short piece of thin wire which overheats and melts if too much current flows
through it. Fuses have different fuse ratings e.g. 3A, 5A, 10A, 13A and the value tells the
current needed to blow the fuse. The fuse value should always be indicated on the fuse.

The Earth wire

It is a safety wire. It connects any metal part of an appliance. If a fault develops the metal
case will become live and can shock.

Double Insulation

Some appliances like vacuum cleaners and hair dryers have an insulating plastic casing
covering metal parts inside. As the cable is insulated, this is double insulation.

THE THREE PIN PLUG

Page124
When wiring a three pin plug, the wires should be connected to the correct terminals.

The live wire: It is brown/red. It is alternating (-) and (+) as current passes i.e. current
changes direction 50 times in a second (50Hz).

Neutral wire: It is blue. It is earthed at the power station. Current passes through the wire
but voltage is zero. If you accidentally touch the neutral wire you should not get a shock.

The Earth wire: It is yellow/green

SWITCHES AND FUSES

These are always in the live wire. If they were in the neutral, light switches and power
sockets would be ‘live’ when switches were ‘off’ or fuses ‘blown’. You could get a shock
for example when you touch the element of a heater when it was off.

SAFETY FIRST

If an electric fault happens to the appliance

i) First switch off at the socket

ii) Pull out the plug

CIRCUITS IN PARALLEL

Every circuit in the house is connected in parallel.

The advantages are:

 Each appliance gets the maximum full voltage from the supply.
 Each can be switched on and off independently.
 Each appliance is connected to a circuit with a recommended fuse e.g. 5A for
lights, 15A for immersion heater, 30A for ring main circuit and 30A for a cooker.
Page125
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY ACTIVITY

1 The diagrams show four different circuits. Each uses the same kind of lamps and batteries. All the
lamps are lit.

(a) Explain why lamp E is the brightest lamp. [2]

(b) In which circuit is the current in the battery the smallest? [1]

(c) In circuit 2, when switch S is opened, are lamps B, C and D lit or not lit?

(d) On the diagram of circuit 4, draw a voltmeter connected so that it reads the voltage across lamp F.
[2]

2 The diagram shows a circuit containing two identical lamps and a resistor. Each lamp is marked 1.5 V
0.4 A. This refers to the conditions when the lamps are at normal brightness. The lamps can be operated at
normal brightness by using a 6V supply and a resistor, R.

(a) What is the potential difference between Y and Z? ……………………. [1]

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(b) What is the potential difference between X and Y? …………………… [1]

(c) What is the value of the resistance of R? [2]
(d) How much electrical energy is converted by one lamp in one minute? [3]
3 Fig.3.1 shows a circuit containing a battery of e.m.f 3.00 V, a resistor of resistance 12.0  and a
switch S.

Fig.3.1

When switch S is closed, what is

(a) the current through the circuit,

(b) the charge passing through the battery in 1.00 s,
(c) the energy output in the resistor in 1.00 s?[5]

4 In Fig.4.1 each cell has a voltage of 2.0 V

Fig.4.1

(a) What is the potential difference across points A and D? [1]

(b) What is the value of the total resistance in the circuit?[1]
(c) What is the value of the current in the circuit?[2]

5 (a)(i) How much energy is transferred by a battery of e.m.f 4.5 V when 1.0 C of charge passes though it?
(ii) How much power is developed in a battery of e.m.f 4.5 V when a current of 1.0 A is passing
through it?[4]

(b) Fig.5.1 shows a battery of e.m.f . 4.5 V connected to a resistor of resistance 18 .

Fig.5.1
Page127

Determine, for the resistor,

(i) the voltage across it,

 (ii) the current through it. [3]

6 Fig.6.1 shows a battery connected in series with a lamp and a switch S.

Fig.6.1
(a) Assume that you have a voltmeter with very high resistance and an ammeter with a very low
resistance. Redraw the circuit diagram in the space alongside Fig.6.1, showing how you would
connect the voltmeter and the ammeter in order to measure the voltage across the battery and the
current in the lamp when S is closed. [2]

(b) The voltage across the battery is found to be 2.70 V when the current in the lamp is 0.60 A.
(i) Calculate the resistance of the lamp. [3]
(ii) Calculate the energy dissipated in the lamp in 30 minutes. [3]

7 The diagram below shows the live, neutral and earth wires of a household electricity supply. Also
shown is an electric kettle.

(a) Draw lines on the diagram to show how the kettle should be connected to the supply. Include a
switch and a fuse in your drawing. [4]
(b) A 2 kW electric kettle is connected to a 240 V supply. Calculate the current which flows in the
element.

(c) Explain why the fuse fitted to this kettle should have a rating higher than the current calculated in (b).
[1]

8 (a) The amount of energy needed to transfer 40 C of charge through a resistor in 25 s is 480 J.
Calculate:
(i) The p.d. across the resistor,
(ii) The current passing through the resistor,
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(iii) The resistance of the resistor.[6]

(b) A current of 8.0 A passes through a 2 kW heater.
(i) Calculate the p.d. across the heater.
 (ii) Electrical energy costs P0.30 per unit. The heater is used for 5 h.
Calculate
1. The heat energy in kWh produced,
2. The cost of using the heater.[6]
ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS.

Understand the concept of Electromagnetic Induction.

Using a straight wire and U – shaped magnet.

 Connect a loop of copper wire in series with a sensitive galvanometer

 Move the wire in different directions (1 -6).
 Observe the deflection of the metre.

Observation. : The meter deflects only when the wire is moved up (direction 1) or down
(direction 2).The deflection of the galvanometer shows that current flows in the circuit.
This current must have been induced by the magnetic field, because there is no current
source in the circuit itself. To explain this Faraday suggested that:

A voltage is induced in a conductor whenever it cuts magnetic field lines. i.e moves
across them, but not when it moves along them or is at rest. Faraday’s law.

This effect is known as the dynamo or generator effect. To find the direction of the
induced current in the circuit above we use Fleming’s right hand rule.

Hold the thumb and the first fingers of the right hand at right angles to each other with
the First finger pointing in the direction of the Field and the thuMb in the direction of
Motion of the wire, then the seCond finger points in the direction of the induced Current.
Page129
 Using a coil and a magnet.

 Connect the coil in series with a sensitive meter as shown in the figure below.
 Move the N pole of a bar magnet in and out of the coil and watch the metre.
 Investigate how the direction of the induced current depends on the pole of the
magnet used and the direction of motion of either the magnet or the coil.
 Investigate how the magnitude of the induced current depends on:
(a) the speed of the relative motion
(b) the number of turns in the coil
(c) the strength of the magnet.

Observation: The metre shows that current is induced in the coil in one direction as the
magnet moves in and in the opposite direction as it is removed. There is no deflection
when the magnet is at rest. The results are the same if the coil is moved instead of the
magnet, i.e. relative motion is needed.
The induced current or voltage increases with the increase of:

 the speed of motion of the magnet or coil

 the number of turns on the coil
 the strength of the magnet.
Page130

The direction of the induced current in the circuit above can be found by a law due to
scientist, Lenz.
The above diagram shows how the current induced in the coil produces a magnetic pole
at the end of the coil which opposes the motion of the magnet. As the N pole of the
magnet approaches, the N pole caused by the induced current in the coil repels it and
thereby opposes its motion. The reverse effect happens when the magnet is moved away;
a S pole caused by the current induced in the opposite direction attracts the magnet N
pole so preventing it from moving away.

Conclusion: The direction of the induced current is such as to oppose the change
causing it. Lenz law.

Alternating Current Generator (A.C Generator- Dynamo)

The current which is reversing direction periodically is called Alternating

Current (a.c). An a.c generator changes Kinetic energy into electrical energy. The output
electromotive force is an alternating e.m.f. The generator consists of a rectangular COIL
of copper wire which rotates between the poles of a magnet. The ends of the coil are
joined to two SLIP RINGS on the axle. Two CARBON BRUSHES press against the slip
rings. Carbon brushes connect the rings to the rest of the circuit. As the coil is rotated, it
cuts the magnetic field lines and an e.m.f is induced in it.

Page131
As the coil moves through the vertical position with ab uppermost, ab and cd are moving
along the lines and no cutting of lines of forces occurs. The induced em.f is zero. When
the coil is horizontal, the e.m.f produced is highest because the rate of cutting lines of
forces is greatest. Again when the coil is vertical with dc uppermost, the e.m.f is zero.
After this the direction of e.m.f reverses because during next half rotation, the motion of
ab is directed upwards and dc downwards.
An alternating voltage is generated which acts first in one direction and then the other, it
will cause a.c to flow in a circuit connected to the brushes. The frequency of an a.c is the
number of complete cycles it makes each second measured in hertz (Hz). The main
supply is an a.c of 50 Hz.
Page132
TRANSFORMERS.

Mutual Induction: When current in a coil is switched on or off or changed an e.m.f and
current are induced in a neighbouring coil. This effect is called Mutual Induction.

When the switch is made on or off, a kick is observed in the galvanometer. A current is
induced in the coil 2 when the current in coil 1 is changing. Coil 1 is known as the
primary coil and coil 2 is known as the secondary coil. When the current in the primary
coil is switched on, the soft iron core become magnetised and the magnetic field grows
around it. The field lines will cut coil 2 and voltage is induced on it. Once the current in
primary has reached a steady value, magnetic field is no longer changing in primary
hence any induction on coil 2. When the current in coil 1 is switched off, the field dies
away, the galvanometer will deflect in the opposite direction.

A TRANSFORMER uses the process of mutual induction. A transformer consists of a

primary coil, a secondary coil and a soft iron core. In a transformer, alternating current is
supplied to the primary coil, this will sets changing magnetic field in the core. Changing
magnetic field will induce changing current in the secondary coil. A transformer can step
up or step down the output voltage. There are two types: Step up and Step down
transformers.

Step – up transformer: In a step up transformer, the output voltage is higher than input
voltage. The number of turns in a secondary coil is more than the number of turns in the
primary coil.

Vs > V p
Ns > N p

Step- down transformer: In a step down transformer, the output voltage is lower than
the input voltage. The number of turns in the secondary coil is less than the number of
Page133

turns in the primary coil.

 Vs < V p
Ns < N p

Transformer equation: Vp/Vs = Np/Ns = Is/Ip

Where:
Vp = primary voltage
Vs = secondary voltage
Ns = No. of turns in secondary coil
Np = no. of turns in primary coil
Is = current in secondary coil
Ip = current in primary coil

This equation is for an Ideal transformer. This is the transformer which is 100 %
efficient. That is the input power is equal to the output power, no energy loss.

Energy loss in a transformer. In practice, a transformer is not 100 % efficient; there is

small energy loss in the transformer arising from the following causes.

Resistance of the windings: The windings of copper wire have some resistance and heat
is produced by the current in them. This will result in energy loss as heat. The
overheating can be prevented by oil- cooling.

Eddy Currents: Eddy currents are the currents induced in a piece of metal when it cuts
magnetic field. Iron core is in the changing magnetic field and eddy currents are induced
on it which causes heating. This is reduced by using a laminated core.
Leakage of field lines: This happens when the field lines produced by the primary may
not cut the secondary coil, especially if the core has some air gap or is badly designed.

Power Transmission: Power stations which generate electrical energy are connected to
all the places where electricity is needed. This network of cables, which are mostly
carried overhead on pylons, is known as the NATIONAL GRID.
When transmitting power from the station to the consumer, care has to be taken to ensure
that there is no power loss. The power fed into the transmission lines is
Pin = IVin. The power reaching the consumer is Pout = IVout . The power loss is due to the
heating effect of current in the wire which is Ploss = I2R .

Pout = Pin - Ploss

Page134
IVout = IVin – I2R , as the same current flows all round the circuit we can divide by I
giving

Vout = Vin – IR, where IR is the voltage drop along the wire.

To minimise the voltage drop IR, it is clear that both I and R should be kept as low as
possible. The resistance of the wires R, is kept low by using thick wires with large cross
sectional area. The power can be transmitted in wires at low current if the voltage is
made high. For example: 24 W of power was supplied. At 12 V the maximum current in
the wires is:

I = P/V =24/12 = 2 A.

At 240 V, I = P/V = 24/240 = 0.1 A.

This shows how effective it is to transmit electrical power at a high voltage. In summary,
to avoid power loss in power transmission,
 The power is transmitted at high voltage, hence low current.
 Wires must have low resistance.

ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS ACTIVITY

1 Fig.1.1 shows the apparatus used to investigate electromagnetic induction.

Fig.1.1

When the North Pole of magnet is pushed into the coil, the pointer of the galvanometer deflects to
the left and back to zero.

(a) What happens to the pointer of the galvanometer when the magnet is,
(i) kept stationary inside the coil,[1]
(ii) Pulled back out of the coil [1]
(iii) The south pole of the magnet is pushed into the coil [2]
(b) Write down three ways of increasing the size of the deflection.[3]
Page135
2 Fig.2.1 shows a wire connected to a centre-zero galvanometer. Part of the wire is held
between the poles of a magnet.

Fig.2.1

When the wire is moved vertically downwards with a speed of 0.5 m/s, the galvanometer needle
is deflected 2 divisions to the left.

(a) On Fig.2.1, show the direction of the current in the wire during the downward motion.
[1]
(b) Describe the deflection of the galvanometer needle when the wire is moved
(i) Vertically downwards at 0.25 m/s,
(ii) Vertically upwards at 1 m/s.[3]

3 (a) Sketch the voltage - time graph for two complete rotations of an a.c. generator on the
axes below.

[3]

(b) State three ways of increasing the size of the induced electromotive force in an a.c.
generator. [3]

4 Fig.4.1 shows two coils of copper wire wound on a soft – iron rod. Each coil can easily
slide on the rod. Coil P is connected in series to a battery and a switch S. Coil Q is connected to a
sensitive centre – zero meter. As S is closed, a deflection is seen on the meter for a short time;
during this time the coils slide apart a little.
Page136
 Fig.4.1

(a) Explain briefly why there is a deflection on the meter.

(b) State and explain what you would expect to observe as S is opened.
(c) What would be the effect on the change you have described in (a) if the soft-iron rod were
removed and a wooden rod put in its place? [6]

5 Fig 5.1 represents a simple type of transformer. The coil on the left is connected to an a.c.
power source. At the instant shown, the current is at its maximum positive value.

Fig.5.1

(a) The current in the left-hand coil goes through one complete cycle. State briefly
(i) the changes in the current
(ii) The changes in the magnetic field
(iii) Effects on the right-hand coil [5]

6 (a) Fig.6.1 shows a transformer connected to a power supply and a milliammeter.

Fig.6.1

(i) What type of transformer is this?

(ii) Explain why the milliammeter deflects momentarily when the switch is closed.[2]
(iii) Explain why there is no deflection when the switch remains closed.[2]
(iv) A 240 V a.c source replaces the supply shown in Fig.5.1
Calculate the output voltage [2]
Page137

7 Fig.7.1 shows a transformer connected to a 12 V a.c. supply. It is being used to light a 6

V lamp.
 Fig.7.1

(i) What type of transformer is this?

(ii) What is a.c.? How is it different from d.c.?[3]
(iii) Explain why the transformer works with a.c. supply but not with a d.c. battery.[2]
(iv) There are 120 turns on the primary coil. If the transformer is 100 % efficient, how
many turns should the secondary coil have to make it light the 6 V lamp normally?
[3]
(v) The current passing in the primary coil is 0.25 A. Calculate the current passing
through the lamp[3]
(iv) The primary coil and secondary coils are both wound on the same core. What is the core
made of?[2]

8 Fig.8.1 represents the generation and distribution of electricity.

Fig.8.1

(a) (i) What type of transformer is T?

(ii) What will be the main item of equipment in substations A and B?
(b) Explain
(i) the advantage of transmitting power at a very high voltage[3]
(ii) why the soft iron core in the transformer is laminated.[2]
Page138
 ATOMIC PHYSICs

RADIOACTIVITY: It is the disintegration (breaking apart) of an unstable atomic nucleus. Radioactivity is random, i.e. it
can occur at any time releasing any number of emissions. Three types of emissions are produced; alpha particle (α),
beta particle (β) and gamma rays (γ).

Examples of Radioactive materials are: Uranium-238, Carbon -14, Cobalt -60, Thorium -232, Plutonium-244, and
Potasium-40

Background Radiation

 Various rocks in the earth, including granite contain small percentages of radioactive uranium, Thorium and
Potassium compounds.
Note; Uranium, Thorium and Potassium are the only three naturally occurring radioactive materials.
 Our bodies also contain traces (small amounts) of radioactive materials as do the bricks and other building
materials that are used to build our homes, schools and work places.
 In addition to these sources we are also exposed to gamma radiation from the sun.
These sources of natural radiation constitute the background radiation. We are exposed to background radiation all
the time, because it is very low it causes no risk to our health.

Dangers of Radioactivity

 Beta and gamma rays can easily pass through the skin and can damage or even kill cells.
 They can cause mutations in a cell’s DNA which may lead to cancer.
 Extremely large doses of radiation can cause radiation burns.
Safe HANDLING of radioactive substances

 Radioactive materials are lifted with forceps or long tongs. In industry they are handled by mechanical tongs
operated by remote control equipment from behind thick walls made of lead.
 They are stored or transported in lead or concrete walls.
 Workers wear radiation doze badges to check on the amount of radiation they are exposed to
NATURE OF EMISSIONS

(i) Alpha Particle

4
It consists of two neutrons and two protons but no electrons, therefore it is a helium nucleus ( 2He 2+). The helium
nucleus releases two electrons to become an alpha particle.

(ii) Beta Particle

0
These are streams of high energy electrons (−1e ).

(iii) Gamma rays

These are electromagnetic waves, with wavelength much shorter than that of light.

PENETRATION AND IONISATION POWERS

Penetration powers are due to the way they interact with matter and ionization occurs when the emissions knock off
electrons from atoms (making ions).

Alpha (α) particles are stopped by a thin sheet of paper or even 5cm of air at normal atmospheric pressure, so they
are the least penetrating of the three.

Since they are large, carry two positive charges and slow moving, they are the strongest ionizers.

Beta (β) particles are more penetrating than alpha particles, they are blocked by 3 mm of aluminum sheet and go up
Page139

to 1 m of air at normal atmospheric pressure. Since they carry less charge and move faster than alpha particles, they
are less ionizing.
Gamma (γ) rays are the most penetrating. They can be reduced but not stopped by lead. Since they are the fastest
and carry no charge, they are the least ionizers.

IONISATION EFFECTS

Ionizing emissions damages the complex chemicals necessary for the functioning of the cell. If this damage is
significant, the cell will die. For radiation outside the body, gamma radiation is the most hazardous because of its high
penetration so it can reach the interior of the body, whereas the highly ionizing alpha emission will be stopped by the
dead skin cells, so it will cause little or no harm to the living cells beneath the skin.

For radiation inside the body i.e. if swallowed by mistake or breathed in. The highly ionizing alpha particle will cause
more harm than gamma rays

EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC FIELD ON EMISSIONS

EFFECTS OF MAGNETIC FIELD ON EMISSIONS

METHOD OF DETECTION

Geiger- Müller (GM) tube is an instrument specially designed to detect the radioactive radiations i.e. (alpha beta and
gamma).

It operates on the basis of ionization effect of the radiations

If an alpha particle enters the tube, it ionizes the gas inside. This sets a high voltage spark across the gas and a pulse
of current in the circuit flows. A beta particle or burst of gamma radiation has the same effect.
Page140

When the radiation from a radioactive source is measured, the reading always includes any background radiation. So
an average for the background alone must be found and subtracted from the total.
USES OF RADIOACTIVITY

(i) TRACERS: Radioisotopes can be detected in very small (safe) quantities, so they can be used as tracers.
Their movements can be tracked or traced .e.g. checking the function of body organs, tracking a plant’s
uptake of fertilizer from roots to leaves or detects leaks in underground pipes.
(ii) RADIOTHERAPY: Used to treat cancer.
(iii) RADIOCARBON DATING: To determine the age of a sample.
(iv) NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS: Used to produce electricity.
(v) STERILISING: Medical equipment’s such as needles, syringes and dressings are sterilized by a
radioactive source.
(vi) CONTROLLING POPULATION OF PESTS: They are sterilized
.
ATOMIC PHYSICS activity

1 Fig.1.1 shows apparatus used to detect radiation.

Fig.1.1

(a) The G-M tube detects some radiation with no radioactive source nearby.

(i) What is the name of this radiation?

(ii) Where does this radiation come from? [2]

(b) Name the three types of radiation emitted by radioactive sources. [3]
(c) A teacher demonstrates the activity of a radioactive source. State two precautions she should
observe when handling the source.[2]

2(a) Complete Table 1 to show the nature of each emission and state whether the ionising effect of each
emission is small, medium or large.

Particle or nature Ionising effect

radiation
Alpha emission

Beta emission

Gamma
emission
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Table 1 [6]
(b) A radioactive source Q, emits alpha, beta and gamma radiation. The radiation travels between charged
plates P1 and P2. Draw in the paths followed by each radiation and label each path accordingly.

[3]

3(a) Name the type of radiation, alpha, beta or gamma, which

(i) is most penetrating ……………………………………………………….
(ii) has a positive charge ……………………………………………………..
(iii) is not deflected by either an electric field or a magnetic field
(iv) has the greatest ionising effect ………………………………………….[4]
(b) State the name of the apparatus used to detect radioactive emissions.[1]

4 Iodine-131 is sometimes used as a tracer for medical purposes. State why beta-emitters are better than
alpha-emitters for this use. [2]

5(a) What is the nature of -emission?

(b) Alpha, beta and gamma emissions cause ionisation.

(i) What is ionisation?
(ii) Which emission causes the greatest ionisation of air?[2]
(iii) Fig.6.1 shows a beam of alpha, beta and gamma emissions passing near a positively charged plate.

Fig.6.1

On Fig.6.1, label the path that represents the direction that would be followed by each radiation.
[3]

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