Relativistic Quantum Mechanics

Shubhrodip Das
8June 2024

Introduction to Special Relativity (STR)

Special Relativity (STR) is a theory proposed by Albert Einstein that addresses
the relationship between space and time. It postulates two key ideas:
1. The laws of physics are the same for all observers in uniform motion rel-
ative to one another (inertial frames).
2. The speed of light in a vacuum is constant and does not depend on the
motion of the light source or observer.

Spacetime
In STR, space and time are unified into a four-dimensional continuum called
spacetime. An event in spacetime is described by four coordinates: three spatial
coordinates (x, y, z) and one temporal coordinate (t).

Four-Vectors
A four-vector is an object that combines both spatial and temporal components
in relativity. For example, the position four-vector xµ is:

xµ = (ct, x, y, z)

where µ ranges from 0 to 3.

Contravariant and Covariant Vectors

Contravariant Vectors: Represented with upper indices, a contravariant vec-
tor v µ is written as:
vµ = v0 , v1 , v2 , v3

Covariant Vectors: Represented with lower indices, a covariant vector vµ

is written as:
vµ = (v0 , v1 , v2 , v3 )

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 The relationship between contravariant and covariant vectors involves the
metric tensor.

Metric Tensor
The metric tensor gµν is used to raise and lower indices of tensors. In Minkowski
spacetime, the metric tensor in the (-+++) or (+ - - -) convention is:
 
−1 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0
gµν =  0 0 1 0


0 0 0 1

Metric Tensor and Its Inverse in Minkowski Space-

time
Metric Tensor in Minkowski Spacetime
The metric tensor gµν in Minkowski spacetime is given by:

gµν = ηµν

where ηµν is the Minkowski metric tensor with components:

 
1 0 0 0
0 −1 0 0
ηµν =  
0 0 −1 0 
0 0 0 −1

Inverse Metric Tensor

The inverse metric tensor g µν satisfies g µν gνρ = δρµ , where δρµ is the Kronecker
delta.

Showing gµν = g µν
To demonstrate that gµν = g µν , we calculate g µν explicitly.

Finding g µν
Since gµν = ηµν and η µν = ηµν (due to the simple form of the Minkowski metric
where ηµν is diagonal), we have:
 
1 0 0 0
0 −1 0 0
g µν = η µν = 
0 0 −1 0 


0 0 0 −1

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Verification
To verify gµν = g µν , we check that:

gµν g νρ = ηµν η νρ = δµρ

Let’s compute ηµν η νρ :

    
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 −1 0 0  0 −1 0 0 0 1 0 0
ηµν η νρ =   = δµρ
  
=
0 0 −1 0  0 0 −1 0  0 0 1 0
0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 1

Thus, we have shown that in Minkowski spacetime, the metric tensor gµν
and its inverse g µν are indeed the same:

gµν = g µν = ηµν

This result is specific to Minkowski spacetime, where the metric tensor is

constant and diagonal with entries (1, −1, −1, −1).
Raising and Lowering Indices:
• To lower an index: vµ = gµν v ν
• To raise an index: v µ = g µν vν

Significance of the Metric Tensor

The metric tensor defines the interval between two events in spacetime and
ensures that this interval remains invariant under Lorentz transformations. This
invariance is crucial for the consistency of the theory of relativity.

Minkowski Space and Spacetime Calculations

Minkowski space is the mathematical setting for STR, combining three-dimensional
Euclidean space and time into a four-dimensional manifold. The spacetime in-
terval s between two events is given by:

s2 = −c2 (t2 − t1 )2 + (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2

or, in index notation:

s2 = gµν ∆xµ ∆xν

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Relativistic Energy and the Energy-Momentum
Four-Vector
In the context of the energy-momentum four-vector, we are dealing with rel-
ativistic energy. The energy-momentum four-vector is a fundamental concept
in special relativity, which combines energy and momentum into a single four-
dimensional vector.
The energy component E in the four-vector pµ represents the total relativis-
tic energy, which includes both the rest mass energy and the kinetic energy.
This is in contrast to non-relativistic mechanics, where the energy is usually
considered separately from the momentum.
The relation between energy, momentum, and mass in special relativity is
given by:
E 2 = p 2 c2 + m 2 c4

Energy-Momentum Four Vector

The contravariant form of the energy-momentum four-vector pµ is given by:
 
µ E
p = , px , py , pz
c
The covariant form of the energy-momentum four-vector pµ is given by:
 
E
pµ = , −px , −py , −pz
c

Need for Relativistic Measurements in Quantum

Mechanics
Relativistic measurements are crucial in quantum mechanics, especially when
dealing with high-energy particles or particles moving at speeds close to the
speed of light. The integration of relativistic principles into quantum mechanics
led to significant advancements, such as the development of Quantum Field
Theory (QFT) and the Dirac equation.

Consistency with Special Relativity

Classical quantum mechanics, described by the Schrödinger equation, does not
account for relativistic effects. The Schrödinger equation is based on non-
relativistic approximations, which become inaccurate at high velocities or en-
ergies. To ensure consistency with the principle of relativity, the quantum me-
chanical framework must respect the invariance of physical laws under Lorentz
transformations. This means that the equations describing quantum systems
must be compatible with the structure of spacetime as described by special
relativity.

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High-Energy Phenomena
In high-energy physics, particles often move at speeds close to the speed of light.
Experiments involving particle accelerators, such as those conducted at CERN,
involve particles accelerated to relativistic speeds. At these high energies, non-
relativistic quantum mechanics fails to accurately describe the behavior of par-
ticles. Relativistic quantum mechanics becomes necessary to correctly predict
and understand phenomena such as particle collisions, decay processes, and the
creation and annihilation of particles.

Quantum Field Theory (QFT)

Quantum Field Theory (QFT) unifies quantum mechanics and special relativ-
ity. It provides a framework for understanding how particles interact and how
forces are mediated at the quantum level. QFT treats particles as excitations in
fields that pervade space and time, inherently incorporating relativistic princi-
ples. This framework is essential for describing fundamental interactions in the
Standard Model of particle physics.

Historical Realization of the Need for Relativistic

Quantum Mechanics
The Failure of the Schrödinger Equation
In the early 20th century, it became apparent that the Schrödinger equation,
which successfully describes many quantum phenomena, had limitations. Specif-
ically, it could not account for the fine structure of the hydrogen atom’s spectral
lines. These discrepancies hinted at the need for a more comprehensive theory
that includes relativistic effects.

Dirac Equation and Electron Spin

Paul Dirac, in 1928, formulated the Dirac equation, which incorporates special
relativity into the description of electron behavior. The Dirac equation not only
accurately described the fine structure of the hydrogen atom but also predicted
the existence of electron spin and antimatter (positrons). This was a signifi-
cant breakthrough, demonstrating that incorporating relativity into quantum
mechanics led to predictions that matched experimental observations.

Antimatter and Particle Physics

The prediction and subsequent discovery of antimatter provided strong evidence
for the necessity of relativistic quantum mechanics. The existence of positrons
(the antimatter counterpart of electrons) confirmed that the Dirac equation and
the relativistic approach were correct. This discovery opened new avenues in

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particle physics, leading to the development of quantum electrodynamics (QED)
and other quantum field theories.

Summary of Relativistic Principles in Quantum

Mechanics
Spacetime and Four-Vectors
Spacetime is a four-dimensional continuum where events are specified by three
spatial coordinates and one temporal coordinate. Four-vectors combine these
spatial and temporal components, transforming consistently under Lorentz trans-
formations.

Metric Tensor
The metric tensor gµν defines the spacetime interval and ensures invariance
under Lorentz transformations. It is used to convert between contravariant and
covariant vectors, maintaining the consistency of physical laws across different
reference frames.

Energy-Momentum Four-Vector
The energy-momentum four-vector pµ combines the energy and momentum of
a particle, and its inner product gives the invariant mass:
 2
E
pµ pµ = − p2x − p2y − p2z = m2 c2
c

Differential Operator
The four-gradient ∂ µ is a contravariant vector defined as:
 
1 ∂
∂µ = , −∇
c ∂t
Conversely, the covariant form ∂µ is:
 
1 ∂
∂µ = ,∇
c ∂t
The four-gradient is crucial for formulating relativistic wave equations and
ensures that these equations are Lorentz invariant. It allows us to express
derivatives with respect to spacetime coordinates compactly. The d’Alembertian
operator, or wave operator, is used in relativistic quantum mechanics:
1 ∂2
□ = ∂ µ ∂µ = − ∇2
c2 ∂t2
This operator is used in formulating relativistic wave equations like the
Klein-Gordon and Dirac equations.

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Inner Product of Four-Vectors
The inner product (or Minkowski inner product) of the contravariant vector pµ
and the covariant vector pµ is given by:
pµ pµ = gµν pµ pν
For the Minkowski metric gµν in the (+ - - -) convention, we have:
 
1 0 0 0
0 −1 0 0
gµν = 0 0 −1 0 


0 0 0 −1
In index notation, this means:
 2
µ E
p pµ = − p2x − p2y − p2z
c

Mathematical Computation
Let’s explicitly compute the inner product:
1.Contravariant Vector:
 
E
pµ = , px , py , pz
c
2.Covariant Vector:  
E
pµ = , −px , −py , −pz
c
3.Inner Product:
  
E E
pµ pµ = + px (−px ) + py (−py ) + pz (−pz )
c c
2 
E
pµ pµ = − p2x − p2y − p2z
c
Using the energy-momentum relation from special relativity:
E 2 = p2 c2 + m2 c4
where p2 = p2x +p2y +p2z . Now, substitute E 2 from this relation into our equation:
 2
E E2
− p2x − p2y − p2z = 2 − p2
c c
p2 c2 + m2 c4
= − p2
c2
= p2 + m2 c2 − p2
= m2 c2
Thus, we have shown that:
pµ pµ = m2 c2

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Conclusion
The inner product of the covariant and contravariant energy-momentum four-
vectors yields m2 c2 , which is consistent with the special relativity. This result is
derived from the fact that the Minkowski inner product of the four-momentum
vectors accounts for the energy and momentum in such a way that it aligns with
the fundamental energy-momentum relation.

Non-Relativistic Quantum Mechanics

In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, we deal with probability density (ρ) and
probability current density (j) separately.

Probability Density (ρ)

In the non-relativistic case, the probability density is given by:

ρ = ψ∗ ψ

where ψ is the wave function of the particle.

Probability Current Density (j)

The probability current density describes how probability flows in space. It’s
given by:
ℏ
j= (ψ ∗ ∇ψ − ψ∇ψ ∗ )
2mi

Relativistic Quantum Mechanics

In relativistic quantum mechanics, we combine both the probability density and
the probability current density into a single object called the probability four-
current (J µ ). This ensures that probability behaves consistently with special
relativity.

Probability Four-Current (J µ )
The probability four-current is a four-vector that includes both the probability
density (ρ) and the probability current density (j). It’s written as:

J µ = (ρ, j)

So, in relativistic quantum mechanics, we don’t calculate the probability

density separately as ψ ∗ ψ like in the non-relativistic case. Instead, we consider
both the probability density and the probability current density together within
the probability four-current.

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Intuitive Explanation
Think of the probability four-current as a comprehensive description of how
probability behaves in spacetime. It tells us not only how dense the probability
is at a certain point (ρ), but also how it’s flowing or moving around in space
(j).

Conclusion
In summary, in relativistic quantum mechanics, we don’t calculate the proba-
bility density (ρ) separately as in non-relativistic quantum mechanics. Instead,
we consider both the probability density and the probability current density
together within the probability four-current (J µ ). This approach ensures that
probability behaves consistently with special relativity, providing a more accu-
rate description of quantum systems in high-energy or high-velocity scenarios.

Klein-Gordon Equation
Need for a New Equation
As physicists explored the quantum realm, it became clear that the Schrödinger
equation, which describes how quantum states evolve over time, wasn’t sufficient
for particles moving at relativistic speeds. The Schrödinger equation is non-
relativistic, meaning it does not account for the effects of special relativity,
which are crucial at high velocities.

Origin of the Klein-Gordon Equation

To derive a relativistic wave equation, we start with the relativistic energy-
momentum relation:
E 2 = p2 c2 + m2 c4
In quantum mechanics, energy (E) and momentum (p) are represented as
operators acting on the wave function (ψ):
∂
E → iℏ
∂t
p → −iℏ∇
Substituting these operators into the relativistic energy-momentum relation
gives:
 2
∂ 2
iℏ = (−iℏ∇) c2 + m2 c4
∂t
Simplifying, we obtain:
∂2ψ
−ℏ2 = −ℏ2 c2 ∇2 ψ + m2 c4 ψ
∂t2

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 Dividing through by −ℏ2 results in the Klein-Gordon equation:

∂2ψ m2 c4
2
= c2 ∇2 ψ − 2 ψ
∂t ℏ
or,
1 ∂2 m2 c2
 
2
− ∇ + ψ=0
c2 ∂t2 ℏ2
Using the d’Alembertian operator, the Klein-Gordon equation can be written
more compactly as:
m2 c2
 
□+ 2 ψ=0
ℏ
where the d’Alembertian operator □ is defined as:

1 ∂2
□= − ∇2
c2 ∂t2
To demonstrate the continuity equation for the probability four-current using
the four-gradient operator, we start with the definition of the probability four-
current and apply the four-gradient operator to it. We will show that this results
in a zero divergence, indicating the conservation of probability.
The probability four-current J µ is defined as:

J µ = (ρ, j)

where:
• ρ is the probability density.
• j is the probability current density.

The four-gradient operator ∂µ in covariant form is defined as:

 
1 ∂
∂µ = ,∇
c ∂t

Relativistic Probability Four-Current

The Klein-Gordon equation for a scalar field ϕ is:

m2 c2
 
□+ 2 ϕ=0
ℏ

where the d’Alembertian operator □ is:

1 ∂2
□ = ∂ µ ∂µ = − ∇2
c2 ∂t2

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Current Conservation and Four-Current
To derive the probability four-current, we start from the Klein-Gordon equation
and its complex conjugate:

m2 c2
 
□+ 2 ϕ=0
ℏ

m2 c2
 
□+ 2 ϕ∗ = 0
ℏ
Multiply the first equation by ϕ∗ and the second equation by ϕ:

m 2 c2
 
∗
ϕ □+ 2 ϕ=0
ℏ

m2 c2
 
ϕ □+ 2 ϕ∗ = 0
ℏ
Subtract the second equation from the first:

ϕ∗ □ϕ − ϕ□ϕ∗ = 0

Express the d’Alembertian operator □ in terms of the four-gradient ∂ µ :

∂ µ (ϕ∗ ∂µ ϕ − ϕ∂µ ϕ∗ ) = 0

This can be written as a continuity equation:

∂µ J µ = 0

where the four-current J µ is defined as:

iℏ
Jµ = (ϕ∗ ∂ µ ϕ − ϕ∂ µ ϕ∗ )
2m
The factor in relativistic quantum mechanics, the probability four-current
J µ is defined as:
J µ = (ρ, j)
Here, µ runs over the spacetime indices, so:

J µ = j 0 , j 1 , j 2 , j 3 = (ρ, jx , jy , jz )

ℏ
Jµ = (ϕ∗ ∂ µ ϕ − ϕ∂ µ ϕ∗ )
2mi
The components are:
• The time component (probability density) J 0 :
ℏ
J0 = ϕ∗ ∂ 0 ϕ − ϕ∂ 0 ϕ∗


2mi

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 • The spatial components (probability current density) J:

ℏ
J= (ϕ∗ ∇ϕ − ϕ∇ϕ∗ )
2mi

These components together form the four-current J µ , which satisfies the

continuity equation:
∂µ J µ = 0

Probability Density and Current (Klein-Gordon Equation)

1. Klein-Gordon Equation:

m 2 c2
□ϕ + ϕ=0
ℏ2
1 ∂2
− ∇2
where□ =
c2 ∂t2
2. Probability Density ρ: The probability density for the Klein-Gordon
equation as:
∂ϕ∗
 
iℏ ∂ϕ
ρ= ϕ∗ −ϕ
2m ∂t ∂t
3. Probability Current j: The probability current is:
ℏ
j= (ϕ∗ ∇ϕ − ϕ∇ϕ∗ )
2im
4. Four-Current j µ : Combine the probability density and current into a
four-vector:
j µ = (ρ, j)
Here, µ runs over the spacetime indices, so:

j µ = j 0 , j 1 , j 2 , j 3 = (ρ, jx , jy , jz )

Using the notation :

∂ϕ∗
   
iℏ ∂ϕ ℏ
j µ = (ρ, j) = ϕ∗ −ϕ , (ϕ∗ ∇ϕ − ϕ∇ϕ∗ )
2m ∂t ∂t 2im

5. Continuity Equation: The continuity equation in relativistic form is:

∂µ j µ = 0

In expanded form:
∂ρ
+∇·j=0
∂t

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Step-by-Step Process
Step 1: Starting with the Klein-Gordon Equation
m2 c2
□ϕ + ϕ=0
ℏ2

Step 2: Define Probability Density ρ

∂ϕ∗
 
iℏ ∗ ∂ϕ
ρ= ϕ −ϕ
2m ∂t ∂t

Step 3: Define Probability Current j

ℏ
j= (ϕ∗ ∇ϕ − ϕ∇ϕ∗ )
2im

Step 4: Formulate Four-Current j µ

j µ = (ρ, j)

Step 5: Verify Continuity Equation

∂µ j µ = 0
∂ρ
+∇·j=0
∂t

Explanation
iℏ
1. Relativistic Probability Density: The term 2m ensures that the proba-
bility density ρ has the correct units and respects the symmetry between ϕ and
its complex conjugate ϕ∗ . This density is derived from the time component of
the Klein-Gordon current.
2. Relativistic Probability Current: Similarly, the spatial part of the
current j is constructed to be consistent with the probability interpretation and
ensures the continuity equation holds in a relativistic framework.
3. Four-Current: Combining ρ and j into j µ aligns with the principles of
relativity, ensuring that probability conservation is maintained in all reference
frames.
4. Continuity Equation: The equation ∂µ j µ = 0 encapsulates the conser-
vation of probability, where ∂µ denotes the four-dimensional divergence.

∂ρ
+∇·j=0
∂t
By following these steps and using the notations, we align the Schrödinger
equation’s non-relativistic expressions with the relativistic framework of the
Klein-Gordon equation.

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Special Beauty of the Klein-Gordon Equation
The Klein-Gordon equation is significant because it:
• Incorporates Special Relativity: It is consistent with the principles
of special relativity, meaning it correctly describes particles moving at or
near the speed of light.
• Describes Scalar Fields: It applies to spin-0 particles (scalar fields),
like the Higgs boson.
• Maintains Lorentz Invariance: The equation remains invariant under
Lorentz transformations, ensuring its consistency in all inertial frames.

Drawbacks of the Klein-Gordon Equation

Despite its successes, the Klein-Gordon equation has notable limitations:

• Negative Probability Densities: Solutions to the equation can yield

negative probability densities, which are not physically interpretable. The
Klein-Gordon equation for a scalar field ϕ is:

m2 c2
 
□+ 2 ϕ=0
ℏ

where □ = ∂ µ ∂µ .
To analyze this, consider a plane wave solution of the form:

ϕ(x, t) = e−i(k·x−ωt)

Substitute this solution into the Klein-Gordon equation:

∂2 m2 c2
 
− 2 + ∇2 + 2 e−i(k·x−ωt) = 0
∂t ℏ

Calculate the derivatives:

∂ 2 −i(k·x−ωt)
− e = −(−iω)2 e−i(k·x−ωt) = ω 2 e−i(k·x−ωt)
∂t2

∇2 e−i(k·x−ωt) = −(ik)2 e−i(k·x−ωt) = −k2 e−i(k·x−ωt)

Plug these into the Klein-Gordon equation:

m2 c4
 
2 2 2
ω −k c + 2 e−i(k·x−ωt) = 0
ℏ

This simplifies to:

m2 c4
ω 2 = k2 c2 +
ℏ2

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Solutions for ω:
This equation has two solutions for ω:
r
m2 c4
ω = ± k2 c2 +
ℏ2
These correspond to positive and negative energy solutions:
r
m2 c4
ω+ = + k2 c2 + 2
ℏ
r
m 2 c4
ω− = − k2 c2 + 2
ℏ
Probability Density
In the Klein-Gordon theory, the probability density J 0 is given by:

∂ϕ∗
 
iℏ ∂ϕ
J0 = ϕ∗ −ϕ
2m ∂t ∂t

Consider the plane wave solutions for ϕ:

ϕ+ = e−i(k·x−ω+ t)

ϕ− = e−i(k·x−ω− t)
Calculate J 0 for ϕ+ :
∂ϕ+
= −iω+ e−i(k·x−ω+ t)
∂t
∂ϕ∗+
= iω+ ei(k·x−ω+ t)
∂t
Then,
∂ϕ+
ϕ∗+ = ei(k·x−ω+ t) (−iω+ e−i(k·x−ω+ t) ) = −iω+
∂t
∂ϕ∗+
ϕ+ = e−i(k·x−ω+ t) (iω+ ei(k·x−ω+ t) ) = iω+
∂t
Thus,
iℏ ℏω+
J0 = (−iω+ − iω+ ) =
2m m
Negative Probability Density
For ϕ− :
∂ϕ−
= −iω− e−i(k·x−ω− t) = iω+ e−i(k·x+ω+ t)
∂t

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 ∂ϕ∗−
= iω− ei(k·x−ω− t) = −iω+ ei(k·x+ω+ t)
∂t
Then,
∂ϕ−
ϕ∗− = ei(k·x+ω+ t) (iω+ e−i(k·x+ω+ t) ) = iω+
∂t
∂ϕ∗
ϕ− − = e−i(k·x+ω+ t) (−iω+ ei(k·x+ω+ t) ) = −iω+
∂t
Thus,
iℏ ℏω+
J0 = (iω+ + iω+ ) = −
2m m
We see that for the negative energy solution ϕ− , the probability den-
sity J 0 is negative. This is problematic because probability density
should always be positive. This negative probability density arises di-
rectly from the solutions to the Klein-Gordon equation, highlighting
a fundamental issue when trying to interpret this equation proba-
bilistically.

• Difficulty with Spin: It doesn’t adequately describe particles with spin,

such as electrons. For these, the Dirac equation is more appropriate.

• Second-Order Time Derivative: The second-order time derivative

makes it harder to interpret the equation in terms of probability density
and current, unlike the first-order Schrödinger equation.
Last updated: June 13, 2024

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