THE IMPACT OF FOOD VISUAL AESTHETICS ON CONSUMER

PERCEPTION OF A HEALTHY AND TASTY MEAL IN THE

HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM INDUSTRY

Ljubica Janjić1, Sonja Vujović2, Ivica Zdravković3, Dragana Ilić 4

*Corresponding author E-mail: janjic.ljubica@vpsle.edu.rs

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Original Article The visual appearance of food is an important attribute
when people choose food. This paper aims to examine
Received: 29 October 2022
the impact of visual aesthetics on the consumer’s
Accepted: 10 February 2023 perception of a healthy and tasty meal. The paper
consists of two empirical researches, which includes
doi:10.59267/ekoPolj2303689J
survey and experimental research. The survey results
UDC 608.34:641.56]:[338.48- indicate the connection between the visual appearance of
6:641/642 meals and the consumer’s perception of health and tasty
meals. The experimental research compare consumer
Keywords:
expectations about the meal taste based on its visual
consumer perception, visual appearance, and actual consumer experience after tasting
aesthetics, healthy meal, tasty that meal. The results show that there are differences in
meal, sensory marketing, consumer expectations, based on visual aesthetics and
hospitality they should assist the hospitality and tourism business
from acknowledging how the visual aesthetics of food can
JEL: M31, M310, L66, Z32 influence consumers’ food choice decisions. This can be an
effective technique for hospitality and tourism companies
in attracting consumers and increasing their loyalty.

1 Ljubica Janjić, spec., Lecturer, Department of the Leskovac Business School, Academy
of Vocational Studies Southern Serbia, Vlade Jovanović 8, 16000 Leskovac, Phone:
+381643693831, E-mail: janjic.ljubica@vpsle.edu.rs, ORCID ID (https://orcid.org/0000-
0003-4650-7862)
2 Sonja Vujović, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Faculty of Economics, University of Pristina,
with temporary seat in Kosovska Mitrovica, Kolašinska 156, 38220 Kosovska Mitrovica,
Phone: +38166140461, E-mail: sonja.vujovic@pr.ac.rs, ORCID ID (https://orcid.org/0000-
0002-5462-1908)
3 Ivica Zdravković, M.Sc., Practical Skills Teacher, Department of the Leskovac Business
School, Academy of Vocational Studies Southern Serbia, Vlade Jovanović 8, 16000
Leskovac, Phone: +381608742031, E-mail: zdravkovic.ivica@vpsle.edu.rs, ORCID ID
(https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7219-9758)
4 Dragana Ilić, Ph.D., Higher Lecturer, Department of the Leskovac Business School,
Academy of Vocational Studies Southern Serbia, Vlade Jovanović 8, 16000 Leskovac,
Phone: +381638908971, E-mail: ilic.dragana@vpsle.edu.rs, ORCID ID (https://orcid.
org/0000-0002-0879-4509)
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Introduction
Food perception is connected with all five human senses experience. The development
of sensory marketing indicates the beginning of a new era in the field of marketing,
in which consumer’s all five senses will be in the center of marketing strategies and
techniques. In this paper, the focus will be on the sense of sight, as well as how this sense
could be used to influence consumer decisions, especially in the field of gastronomy.
Considering the fact that gastronomic experiences are increasingly becoming the main
drivers of tourism development, the authors will try to analyze the impact of food visual
aesthetics on consumer perception of a healthy and tasty meal in the hospitality industry.
In recent decades, we have witnessed the growing interest of people in a healthy
lifestyle, which includes a healthy diet. Nutritionists recommend daily intake of a
variety of food for a healthy life, and traditional Japanese cuisine recommends that
each meal should contain five colors (red, yellow, green, black and white). People must
rely on their perceptions of food when deciding what to eat, and if they choose a variety
of colorful foods, they can meet the guidelines for a healthy diet.
This paper aims to examine the impact of visual aesthetics on the consumer’s perception of
a healthy and tasty meal. The subject of this paper is to determine the connection between
the visual aesthetics and the consumer’s perception of a healthy and tasty meal. The main
research issue is to provide an assessment of whether the appearance and content of food,
in a way inspired by aesthetics, have an impact on consumer expectations, and therefore
on their perception of food as healthy and tasty. The paper consist of two different
researches (survey and experimental research), which indicate the ways and effects of
stimulating the sense of sight in the context of perceptions and choices of healthy food
by consumers. First, the research includes the analysis of the aesthetic experience of
food and differences in the interaction of colors and flavors of meals depending on the
sociodemographic profile of consumers. In addition, an assessment of the influence of
food design on the expectations that people have from the visual experience of food and
their subsequent experience after tasting and consumption is given.
The main purpose of this paper is to broaden knowledge of gastronomy experiences
in hospitality and tourism, which should be used in everyday business improvement.
Results of the research indicate that stimulating the sense of sight can be an effective
technique for hospitality companies in attracting consumers and increasing their
loyalty. In that way, this paper should provide support for the significance of sensory
marketing to enhance the satisfaction of customers in hospitality. This paper with an
original thematic contributes to general knowledge by advancing previous research
about similar topic, and especially contributes to the literature on food decision making,
hospitality and tourism development and sensory marketing.

Literature review
In order to better understand the influence of sensory perception in hospitality and
tourism, it is necessary to determine how consumers get an impression of a product
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when they see it, hear it, touch it, feel its taste and smell. It is questionable if the color of
the product’s packaging, a pleasant feeling when touching it or perhaps adequate music
that contributes to the general atmosphere stimulates the consumer to choose a product.
“Through the human senses, sensory information is transmitted to the human mind and
transformed into perceptions, feelings and sensory experiences” (Hulten, 2020, 19).
Some authors emphasize the fact that, as people gain impressions of everything in their
environment using their senses and this unconsciously influences their decisions, the
importance of sensory marketing is exceptional (Krishna, Schwarz, 2014). It can be
said that “sensory marketing offers consumers a sensory experience that adds value to
their consumption” (Roggeveen et al., 2020, 7). In his book, Krishna (2011) explained
that there is a need to understand the fact that “services and products have sensual
nature, and the customer should experience all the senses - sight, taste, touch, sound
and smell”. When it comes to aesthetics, the question arises as to what is beautiful and
how to define the sense of beauty in general. For centuries, people have dealt with this
topic, but it can be said that aesthetics includes what makes an object beautiful and
what people feel when they encounter that object (Horng, Hsu, 2020).
In accordance with the new marketing paradigm, the service industry and gastronomy
are gradually applying the concept of holistic communication, which includes all five
human senses (Lin, 2019). Research shows that hospitality and gastronomy businesses
can influence consumer decisions and their overall experience by “providing the
best designs for their products, such as comfortable furniture, unique designs and
colors, music that evokes positive emotions and pleasant smells” (Shah, 2018). The
creation of impressions has always been an important part of hospitality (Buharova,
Vereshchagina, 2021). In recent times, the usage of the term gastronomy tourism for
the appellation of food-related types of tourism has increased (Dixit, Prayag, 2022),
as well as culinary tourism and food tourism (Ellis et al., 2018; Everett, 2019), which
is an expanding field (Anderson et al., 2017). Henderson (Henderson, 2004) pointed
out those experts in tourism use food as a promotional tool, so it is evident that food
affects the overall customer’s experience. Some authors explained that food represents
one of the factors of the general tourism development (Stamenković, Đeri, 2016), so
the hospitality and gastronomy are “a prerequisite for tourism development” (Ilić et
al., 2016). Considering the fact that tourism sector is one of the most powerful drivers
of economic growth (Rahmiati et al., 2019), it is obvious why the improvement of
hospitality and tourist offer is important.
The authors Schifferstein et al. (2020) connect the visual aesthetics of food with
concepts such as “sense pleasure” or “sensory enjoyment”. Delwiche (2012) claims in
his researh that “people eat with their eyes first”. People evaluate food precisely on the
basis of its visual aesthetics, and accordingly perceive that more visually appealing food
is tastier. Research related to food aesthetics has shown that several important factors
are involved in the visual presentation of food, which affects the consumer’s evaluation
of food and decision-making. Many of these factors came from “new culinary trends
and guidelines, established by gastronomes around the world” (Rowley & Spence,
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2018, 1). The importance of such research is related to the role that gastronomy and
hospitality plays in the tourism industry, which has been increasingly highlighted in
recent years in Serbia (Ćirić et al., 2022).
Visual properties of food, including color, are indeed important elements for food
choice (Renner et al., 2016; Schulte - Mecklenbeck et al., 2013). It is necessary to take
into account various factors that influence consumers’ decisions about food choices
and their perceptions of colors, such as consumer demographic factors (age, gender,
culture, education), as well as their lifestyle (Sliburite, Skerite, 2014).
Color and gastronomy are closely related to each other, and the main reason is that
the color of food represents “the most prominent visual sign, which determines the
sensory properties of food such as taste” (Spence, 2015). In this way, “color affects
consumers’ expectations about the food they search for, buy, and consume” (Spence,
2016). When deciding what and how much to eat, people generally have to rely on their
perception of food. An increasing number of authors point out that the taste experience
is mostly determined by the expectations formed on the food color base, which means
that the color of the food is decisive when choosing (Spence, Piqueras - Fiszman,
2016). Humans make decisions about food choices every day, and their food color
preferences have been formed during evolution and depend on experience and inherited
traits (Lieberman, 2006).
In addition to food color forming consumers’ taste expectations, color intensity can
be a sign of food quality (Valentin et al., 2016) as well as the nutritional value of food
(Foroni et al., 2016). In his research, Spence (2015) points to the fact that “meeting or
not meeting color expectations determines whether the consumer will like the food.”
Pereira (2021) points out that the color of the observed product affects the consumer’s
perception of the nutritional value of that product. When it comes to food coloring,
“common natural colors are green, yellow, orange, red, pink and purple” (Hutchings,
1999). The blue color is rarely used in food products and it is often associated with the
notions of “unnatural and artificial” (Spence, 2018).
It has been noticed that in recent decades, an increasing emphasis has been placed on
the choice of healthy food, so an increasing number of people strive for a healthy diet.
However, the average socio-economic and educational status of the population, the
level of health awareness and the quality of food differ from country to country (Julia
et. al, 2022). According to data available on the Statista website, consumers in the US
have made certain changes in their diet (more fruits and vegetables) and lifestyle to
improve their health. “In 2022, the global health food market was estimated at $841
billion and it is projected to grow up to $1 trillion by 2026” (Statista, 2022).
In a survey of Canadian consumers in which they were asked what they believe a
healthy meal consists of, more than half said that more fruits and vegetables make
a meal healthier (Statista, 2022). According to the “Food and Health study 2022”,
conducted by the International Food Information Council (IFIC, 2022), surveyed US
consumers showed significant differences in the perception of healthy foods. On that
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occasion, 37% of the respondents chose the attribute “fresh”, which they associate
with healthy food, then 32% chose the attribute “contains little sugar”, 29% of the
respondents chose the attribute “good source of protein”, 28% the attribute “contains
fruit or vegetables”, 27% “a good source of nutrients” and 26% of respondents associate
healthy food with the attribute “natural”. In her research, Hagen (2020, 15) conducted a
series of experiments and came to the conclusion that “people perceive the same food
as more natural if it looks more beautiful, which implies that it is healthier, in terms of
the content of positive elements (e.g. nutrients) and the absence of negative elements
(e.g. calories)”. Haws et al. (2017) found in their study that consumers believe that
what is healthy is expensive, although this is unlikely to be true for all products.
Visual aesthetic research has shown that the food color affects consumer perceptions
when it comes to a healthy meal. Thus, in his paper, Schuld comes to the conclusion that
the color of the food label has an impact on the consumer’s perception of healthy food,
where respondents chose a product with a green label as healthier, in contrast to the same
product with a red label (Schuldt, 2013). . When it comes to the perception of a healthy
meal based on color, green is usually the color that symbolizes something natural and
healthy (Michels et al., 2022). The green color has only positive implications and it is
associated with organic food, health and nature (Schuldt, 2013). The red color has some
positive associations (romance and passion), but it is predominantly associated with
negative ones, such as danger and warning (Elliot et al., 2009).
Some researches show that the visual appearance of the food served on the plate has
an influence on the formation of the consumer’s opinion about that dish (Michel et al.,
2015). Authors Piqueras - Fiszman et al. (2012) came to the result in their research that
e.g. when strawberry mousse is served in white dessert plates (compared to serving
in black dessert plates), consumers perceive it with a significantly more intense taste,
because there is a greater contrast in regard to the plate. Then, Elliot & Maier (2014)
conclude that red kitchenware has certain effects in the perception of the food and
drinks taste. Roque et al. (2018) showed that differently placed food, in certain colors,
can influence the consumer’s perception, where centrally placed dishes on a plate, with
colorful colors, are perceived as more creative and beautiful compared to monochromatic
food that is not placed centrally. Perceptions of different food colors also depend on the
context itself. Spence et al. (2010) state that as the fruit ripens and becomes sweeter, its
color changes from green to red, and that’s why some psychologists claim that people
associate the red color with sweetness, and green with acidity.

Conceptual framework and the development of hypotheses

The research presented in the theoretical part of the work is the motive for an attempt to
expand the framework related to the topic of food visual aesthetics. This research aims
to examine the impact of visual aesthetics on the consumer’s perception of a healthy
and tasty meal. The specific objectives of the research are reflected in: 1) providing
an assessment of whether the appearance and content of food, in a way inspired by
aesthetics, have an impact on consumer expectations, and therefore on their perception
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of food as healthy and tasty; 2) understanding how visual elements of food can
influence consumer behavior. Based on an insight into the available literature related to
the importance of the visual aspect and color contrast of the served food on consumer
attitudes about a tasty and healthy meal, the initial hypotheses were set:
H1: The visual appeal of food is positively correlated with the taste of food.
H2: Differences in the age and level of education of consumers result in certain
differences in terms of preferences in choosing healthy meals based on color as an
element of the visual experience of food.
H3: Food that is aesthetically nicely arranged and contains intense colors is positively
correlated with consumers’ expectations regarding tasty and healthy food, as well as
their intention to purchase (order) that dish.

Methodology
Starting from established hypotheses, in this paper it was used a combination of
different methods, whereby the choice of methods was determined by the topic of the
paper and research goals. The applied methodology is qualitative and quantitative, and
exploratory and explanatory research was conducted. Considering the complex nature
of sensory marketing, which includes sensory experiences, the combination of the
mentioned types of research should lead to adequate and acceptable results.
In the first phase of research, which is exploratory, authors use methods of analysis and
synthesis, as well as inductive and deductive methods. The method of data collection
is firstly used, which is based on secondary sources from domestic and international
journals and reports, and after that their analysis is performed. The combination of
collected and analyzed data, together with theoretical implications, represents the
starting point for further research development.
In the second phase, the phase of explanatory research, authors conducted experimental
and survey research, where primary data was collected. In this phase, the observation
method, comparison method, empirical method, analytical-interpretive method,
statistical method, field research (systematic observation, examination: survey and
experiment), inductive and deductive method were used. The purpose of this research
is to provide empirical evidence that supports the importance of sensory marketing in
improving consumer satisfaction in gastronomy, with a special emphasis on the sense
of sight role. By defining the theoretical and empirical implications of an adequate
approach to the sense of sight in sensory marketing, this research could help hospitality
companies to adapt to consumer expectations and their healthy lifestyles.

Materials and methods

As part of the empirical research, survey and experimental research were conducted in
order to examine the hypotheses set at the beginning.

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Survey research procedure

It must be emphasized that the survey research was conducted in four phases. In the
first phase, a study of the literature related to the definition of the concept of sensory
marketing was carried out, especially from the aspect of the sense of sight and the
perception of visually attractive food of different colors, which is considered and
experienced as healthy and tasty. In this phase, the research instrument was formulated
and an online questionnaire was created through Google Forms. The research was
carefully prepared, with clear and precise instructions to the respondents and a
questionnaire that was not standardized and which was created for the needs of this
research. Using a detailed analysis of theoretical sources of data on the given topic,
by consulting both domestic and foreign authors, key areas, factors and characteristics
were determined, on the basis of which a questionnaire was formed with questions
whose answers lead to the possibility of processing the desired data and obtaining the
necessary results. In the second phase, the research was conducted by distributing the
link for filling out the questionnaire through social networks (Facebook), as well as
through Viber and Whatsapp groups. In the third phase, statistical processing (using the
statistical software IBM SPSS 20.0 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)) and
analysis of the results obtained from the research was performed, while in the fourth
phase, positions were presented through discussion and drawing conclusions.
Survey research sample
The estimation of the sample size is based on the following criteria: a margin of error
of 5%, a confidence level of 92% and a sample frame of N=125.876, which represents
the total number of population in the city of Leskovac (according to the last census
population). The sample size was checked using the Raosoft Calculator which showed
that the recommended sample size at the 92% confidence level was 310 respodents.
According to this, the sample size in this research was 310 respondents from the
territory of Leskovac, who filled out an online questionnaire in the period from April to
June 2022, and participation in this research was anonymous.
Measurement scales and data analysis in survey research
The questionnaire consists of three parts, where the first part is based on a nominal and
ordinal scale, the second - on a five-point Likert scale, and the third - on an ordinal scale. The
first part of the questionnaire represents the general part and refers to socio-demographic
data. It contains eight questions that gain insight into the gender, age, education, amount
of monthly income, as well as the status of the respondent. Then there are questions
related to a special diet and the possible existence of a color recognition disorder, as well
as the question of the frequency of going to a restaurant (ordering food). The second part
of the questionnaire represents its main part and contains a list of attributes that can be
used to evaluate the respondents’ perceptions and attitudes about the impact of visual
aesthetics and food color on the consumer’s perception of a healthy and tasty meal. In this
part, the respondents choose one answer on a scale from 1 to 5, with options ranging from
1 (“I totally disagree”) to 5 (“I totally agree”). The third part of the questionnaire contains
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a presentation of different types of meals (five types of salads and four types of pureed
sauces), where each respondent chooses one answer (one salad and one pureed sauce),
which best reflects his perception of whether it is a healthy and a delicious meal. A scale
of 1 to 3 is given here, with options 1 (“Not a healthy meal”), 2 (“I have no opinion”)
and 3 (“Healthy meal”). In addition, in this part of the questionnaire, respondents choose
one of five salads and one of four mashed sauces, which they consider the healthiest. The
meals were prepared exclusively for the purposes of this research, after which each of
them was photographed separately (from the same angle, with the same camera), on a
white background and served on a white plate.
Survey research methods
Different methods were used during the statistical processing of the collected data.
Descriptive statistics methods used percentage, frequency distribution, measures of
central tendency (arithmetic mean) and measures of dispersion (standard deviation).
Cross-tabulation analysis was performed in order to find the relationship between
age and level of education according to the specific attribute. The exploratory factor
analysis (EFA) was performed using the principal component method and Varimax
rotation in order to associate each attribute to at most one factor. After that, a multiple
regression analysis was conducted, in order to measure influence of visual aesthetics
and food color on consumer’s perception of healthy and tasty meal.
Considering the fact that an essential feature of any questionnaire is its reliability, the
measuring instrument for checking the internal consistency of the scale used in this
research is Cronbach’s alpha (α) coefficient, which can have a value between 0 and
1. Tavakol and Dennick (2011) provided guidelines for interpretation values of the
Cronbach alpha (α) coefficient, where values in the interval between 0.7 and 0.8 are
marked as adequate. In this survey research, the Cronbach alpha coefficient is 0.715
(it refers to all attributes), which indicates acceptable reliability of the measuring
instrument and leads to the conclusion that the variables in this research have good
internal consistency.
Experimental research
Based on the literature review, it can be expected that the consumer perceives a meal
as healthy and tasty not only based on the ingredients it contains, but also based on the
visual appearance of that meal. For this reason, an experimental study was conducted,
which was designed to compare consumer expectations regarding the taste of a meal
based on the visual appearance of the meal, and the actual experience of the consumer
after tasting that meal. In this research, which was conducted in April 2022, 20
respondents participated, who filled out questionnaires and performed tastings under
identical conditions. Each participant, after taking his position at the set table, received
a specially prepared meal, his cutlery, a napkin and a questionnaire. Before starting
the meal tasting, each participant was asked to first fill out a first questionnaire about
the visual appearance of the meal. The first questionnaire contained six questions on
the basis of which the respondents’ expectations of whether a meal is healthy and tasty
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based on its visual appearance could be assessed. After tasting the meal, the subjects
completed a second questionnaire, which tests the subjects’ actual experience after
tasting it and their experience through seven different questions. The meal contains
food of different and intense colors (green, red, orange...), especially aesthetically
arranged and positioned on a white plate.

Results
Survey research results
Descriptive statistical analysis
An overview of the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents is given in the
Table 1, with detailed data on their total number and percentage. According the total
number of respondents (n=310), 73.9% are women and 26.1% are men. Due to this
difference in gender structure, it was not observed if gender affects food preferences
based on visual appearance, because the data would not be appropriate.
Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents

Variable Frequency Valid %

Gender
Male 81 26,1
Female 229 73,9
Age
18-24 88 28,4
25-34 61 19,7
35-44 80 25,8
45-54 60 19,4
55-64 19 6,1
65 and more 2 0,6
Employment status
Employed 207 66,8
Unemployed, but looking for work 46 14,8
Unemployed, but not looking for work
57 18,4
(student, housewife, pensioner)
Education level
Primary school 1 0,3
Gymnasium/High School 95 30,6
Higher education 149 48,1
Master’s degree 54 17,4
PhD 11 3,5
Monthly income
up to 300 EUR 72 23,2
300-470 EUR 78 25,2
470-640 EUR 89 28,7
640-810 EUR 34 11,0
over 810 EUR 37 11,9

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Variable Frequency Valid %

Do you have color blindness (color recognition disorder)?

yes 3 1,0
no 305 99,0

Source: Author’s calculations, based on data analysis in SPSS 20.0.

According to the age structure, the largest percentage of respondents are those between
18 and 24 years old (28.4%) and between 35 and 44 years old (25.8%) and then
follow respondents between 25 and 34 years (19.7%), respondents between 45 and 54
years (19.4%) and those between 54 and 65 years old (6.1%). The largest number of
respondents are employed (66.8%), have completed higher education (48.1%) and have
a monthly income from 470 to 640 EUR (28.7%). Mostly of respondents (25.2%) go
to a restaurant or order food once a month, 93.5% do not have any special diet and only
1% of respondents have color recognition disorder.
Using descriptive statistical analysis, the arithmetic mean and standard deviation for ten
attributes were calculated, as shown in Table 2. The goal of this analysis is to determine
the homogeneity of the respondents’ attitudes. The highest value of the arithmetic mean
is for the attitude: “I enjoy observing the beautiful things”, which means that the largest
number of respondents agree with this attribute. Respondents have the lowest degree
of disagreement with this statement, given that it has the smallest standard deviation.
The least accepted statement is “An aesthetically arranged meal is a tasty and healthy
meal”, where the value of the arithmetic mean is the lowest, and at the same time the
value of the standard deviation is the highest, which indicates the greatest degree of
disagreement among respondents with this attribute.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics results
Arithmetic Standard
Attribute
Mean Deviation
1 I enjoy observing the beautiful things. 4,76 ,516
2 I pay attention to the colors and design of the served dish. 4,38 ,790
3 The appearance of the served food is very important to me. 4,09 ,958
Colorfulness and high color contrast are associated with the freshness
4 3,78 1,153
of the meal.
5 Colorful and food with intense colors is a healthy meal. 3,35 1,223
6 If I choose a healthy meal, I will choose colorful food. 3,23 1,200
7 If I choose a meal, I will decide for a healthier dish. 3,56 1,155
8 I am willing to pay more for a healthier meal. 3,82 1,159
A visually appealing meal whets my appetite and encourages a
9 4,16 1,004
willingness to taste and consume the dish.
10 An aesthetically arranged meal is a tasty and healthy meal. 2,95 1,257

Source: Author’s calculations, based on data analysis in SPSS 20.0.

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The third part of the questionnaire contains photos of mixed salads of different colors,
which were prepared to search the relationship between colors, color combinations,
the visual appeal of the salad and the respondent’s perception of whether it is a healthy
meal. Salad 1 contains green color, salad 2 - red color, salad 3 - green, red and light
brown colors, salad 4 - orange, green and red colors and salad 5 - red and green colors.
The results of descriptive statistics shows that the highest value of the arithmetic mean
and the smallest standard deviation is for salad 5, around which there is the greatest
agreement among respondents. The lowest value of the arithmetic mean and at the
same time the highest value of the standard deviation exists with salad 3, so this salad
is the least accepted, with the greatest disagreements among respondents. Looking at
the frequencies and percentages of responses, for each salad, the largest percentage
of respondents perceive it as a healthy meal. Authors also calculated the frequencies
and percentages of selected salad, which the respondents perceive as the healthiest.
The largest number of respondents chose salad 4 as the healthiest (28.7%) and salad 5
(27.1%). Given that each of the observed salads contains components of intense colors,
it can be said that the result indicates that the respondents perceive a meal with intense
colors as a healthy meal.
In addition to salads, in this part of the questionnaire, various pureed sauces were
presented (puree sauce 1 - orange color, puree sauce 2 – red color, puree sauce 3 –
yellow color, puree sauce 4 – green color). In this case, a descriptive statistical analysis
was applied again, and the results shows that the highest value of the arithmetic mean
and the lowest standard deviation is for the sauce 4, where is the highest agreement
among the respondents. The lowest value of the arithmetic mean and, at the same time,
the highest value of the standard deviation exists for pureed sauce 2, which leads to the
conclusion that this pureed sauce is the least accepted. By looking at the frequencies
and percentages of responses, pureed sauce 1 and pureed sauce 4 are perceived by
the largest number of respondents as a healthy meal, while with pureed sauce 2 and
pureed sauce 3, the largest number of respondents do not have an opinion, which leads
to the conclusion that food that is orange and green color is perceived by respondents
as healthy. Authors calculated the frequencies and percentages of selected pureed
sauce, which respondents perceive as the healthiest. The largest number of respondents
chose pureed sauce 4 (51.3%), which is green color, and the smallest number chose
pureed sauce 2 (9.4%), which is red color. If we analyze these results, we come to the
conclusion that respondents perceive a meal that is green color as extremely healthy, in
contrast to a meal with red color. These results partially confirm the third hypothesis.
Cross-tabulation analysis
Using the cross-tabulation method, the relationship between age and level of education
was examined according to the attribute “If I choose a healthy meal, I will choose
colorful food”. The obtained results indicate that the largest percentage of respondents
aged between 18 and 24 years (40.9%) and between 55 and 64 years (57.9%) do not
have an opinion, while in other age groups the largest percentage expresses agreement
with the attribute (Table 3). The assumption is that the population of young consumers
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(between 18 and 24 years old) has limited financial resources, which they also need for
other pleasures, so the visual appearance of the meal is not of great importance to them,
but only that it tastes good.
Consumers between the ages of 25 and 55 are mostly employed, engaged in work
and have a formed awareness of the importance of healthy nutrition, so they pay
more attention to intensive colored dishes, which they perceive as healthy. However,
members of the oldest category of respondents do not decide about the attribute, and the
reason for this may be their potential lack of interest in the visual appearance of food.
If we observe the level of education, there are evident differences in the responses of
respondents with a high school (46.3%), as well as respondents with higher education
(38.9%), where the highest percentage agrees with the attribute, unlike respondents
with master’s degree (42.6%) and doctorate (45.5%), who do not have an opinion.
Table 3. Cross-tabulation of sociodemographic characteristics by attribute

If I choose a healthy meal, I will choose colorful food

I do not agree I have no I completely

I do not agree I agree
at all opinion agree
Age
18-24 13,6% 14,8% 40,9% 19,3% 11,4%
25-34 6,6% 8,2% 29,5% 31,1% 24,6%
35-44 12,5% 13,8% 31,2% 25,0% 17,5%
45-54 10,0% 15,8% 36,7% 13,3% 25,0%
55-64 5,3% 15,8% 57,9% 15,8% 5,3%
65 and more 0,0% 0,0% 50,0% 50,0% 0,0%
Education level*
PS 0,0% 0,0% 100,0% 0,0% 0,0%
G/HS 7,4% 7,4% 35,9% 22,1% 24,2%
HE 14,1% 15,4% 31,5% 22,1% 16,8%
MD 7,4% 14,8% 42,6% 24,1% 11,1%
PhD 9,1% 27,3% 45,5% 9,1% 9,1%

*Note: PS - Primary school; G/HS - Gymnasium/High School; HE - Higher education; MD -

Master’s degree
Source: Author’s calculations, based on data analysis in SPSS 20.0.
The possible reason for the existence of these differences can be explained by the view
that people with a higher level of education are more careful in giving answers, in the
sense that they do not give an opinion without prior checking. In addition, it must be
taken into account that there are probably other factors that influence the perception
of a meal as healthy, which are not only related to intense and colorful colors, so that
consumers cannot define their attitude only based on color as an element of visual
healthy meal experience. By interpreting the results obtained through this analysis, the
second hypothesis was proven.

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Exploratory factor analysis

In order to perform exploratory factor analysis, it is necessary to determine the
justification of its application, that is, the appropriateness of the data. An examination of
the correlation matrix revealed many coefficients of values 0.3 and above. The Kaiser-
Meyer-Olkin measure (KMO) was used to test the appropriateness of the data for all
variables together. This indicator ranges from 0 to 1, with values less than 0.5 indicating
the inappropriateness of the correlation matrix for factor analysis, i.e. a value of 0.6 is
recommended as the minimum amount acceptable for good factor analysis (Tabachnick
& Fidell, 2007). The value of this indicator is 0.740, as can be seen in Table 4. Bartlett’s
sphericity test showed us a statistically significant value (p=0.000), which means that
there is a statistically significant correlation between the variables. In this way, the
justification of the application of exploratory factor analysis was confirmed.
Table 4. KMO and Bartlett’s test
The value of the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin indicator ,740
Bartlett’s test value 880,777
Df 45
Sig. ,000

Source: Author’s calculations, based on data analysis in SPSS 20.0.

As a factor extraction method, the Principal component method (PCA) was used, in
order to reduce the number of attributes into a smaller one. PCA is an approach that can
be used to extract the number of underlying factors (Pallant, 2013).
As a criterion for choosing the number of factors, the Kaiser criterion was used, which
retains only those factors whose characteristic value is greater than 1. In this case,
PCA publicized the existence of three factors, because only the first three components
have the characteristic value greater than one (Table 5). The total variance of 62.50%
is achieved from these three factors, which is above the recommended value of 60%
(Janković-Milić & Jovanović, 2019). The first characteristic value is equal to 3.380 and
explained 33.80% of the variance in the original data. The second characteristic value
is equal to 1.489 and explains 14.88% of the variance, and the third characteristic value
is equal to 1.381 and explains 13.80% of the variance.
Table 5. Characteristic values, total explained variance in % and cumulative in %
Extraction sums of squared Rotation sums of square
Initial characteristic value
loadings loads
Components

Cumulative

Cumulative

Cumulative
Variance

Variance

Variance
Total

Total

Total
in %

in %

in %

in %

in %

in %

1 3,380 33,805 33,805 3,380 33,805 33,805 2,482 24,818 24,818

2 1,489 14,887 48,692 1,489 14,887 48,692 2,078 20,782 45,600
3 1,381 13,809 62,501 1,381 13,809 62,501 1,690 16,901 62,501

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Extraction sums of squared Rotation sums of square

Initial characteristic value
Components loadings loads

Cumulative

Cumulative

Cumulative
Variance

Variance

Variance
Total

Total

Total
in %

in %

in %

in %

in %

in %
4 ,819 8,192 70,693
5 ,733 7,332 78,025
6 ,626 6,264 84,289
7 ,544 5,437 89,726
8 ,406 4,060 93,786
9 ,324 3,242 97,028
10 ,297 2,972 100,000

Source: Author’s calculations, based on data analysis in SPSS 20.0.

It is hard to name the components after extraction based on their factor loadings, so the
factors were rotated in order to interpret them. To support in the understanding of these
three factors, orthogonal Varimax rotation was conducted, which is the most common
rotation method.
Table 6. Factor rotation using the Varimax method
Components
1 2 3
Colorfulness and high color contrast are associated with the
4 ,613
freshness of the meal.
5 Colorful and food with intense colors is a healthy meal. ,886
6 If I choose a healthy meal, I will choose colorful food. ,825
10 An aesthetically arranged meal is a tasty and healthy meal. ,686
1 I enjoy observing the beautiful things. ,657
2 I pay attention to the colors and design of the served dish. ,748
3 The appearance of the served food is very important to me. ,798
7 If I choose a meal, I will decide for a healthier dish. ,884
8 I am willing to pay more for a healthier meal. ,871
A visually appealing meal whets my appetite and encourages a
9
willingness to taste and consume the dish.

Source: Author’s calculations, based on data analysis in SPSS 20.0.

By using the Varimax method, only those factor weights that are greater than 0.5 would
be taken into account in the further analysis (Table 6). The main goal of Varimax rotation
is to associate each variable to at most one factor. In order to make the interpretation
of the meaning of every factor the variables that have the greatest loadings on a factor
are analysed in terms of their similarity regarding the measured construct. After the
mentioned rotation, a matrix was obtained on the basis of which it is possible to
determine the factor weight value for each factor. Four attributes (4, 5, 6 and 10) are

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attached to the first factor. Attributes from 1 to 3 are associated with the second factor,
and statements 7 and 8 with the third factor. Attribute 9 is not associated with any of the
three listed factors, as its factor weight is below the required level of 0.5.
Therefore, it was determined by exploratory factor analysis, using the PCA extraction
method, that three factors can be distinguished from the 10 given attributes: Factor 1 -
variety of colors; Factor 2 - visual aesthetics and Factor 3 - healthy meal.
Results of multiple regression analysis
In order to determine the influence of the observed three factors on consumer’s
perception of a healthy and tasty meal, a multiple regression analysis was conducted.
As a dependent variable related to consumer perception, attribute 5 was chosen - “If I
choose a healthy meal, I will choose colorful food.” On the other hand, three factors
were set as independent variables: variety of colors, visual aesthetics and healthy meal.
Regression model indicators are shown in the Table 7. Observed model is representative
(Sig = 0.000), the coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.623, which means that 62.3%
of the variability of the dependent variable is explained by the three independents
variables (factors). This means that consumer’s perception is influenced by all three
mentioned independent variables: variety of colors, visual aesthetics and healthy meal.
Results of the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) shows that the independent variables
statistically significantly predict the dependent variable, considering that F (3, 306)
= 168.386, p < 0.0005. This indicate that the coefficient of determination differs from
zero and that the regression of the influence of all three independent variables on
consumer perception is statistically significant. The regression analysis results indicate
that the factor that refers to the variety of colors individually the most contributes to
consumer’s perception of a healthy and tasty meal (ß = 0.762, p = 0.000). Also, visual
aesthetics (ß = 0.086, p = 0.015) and healthy meal (ß = 0.146, p = 0.000) have a positive
and statistically significant impact to consumer’s perception. In this way, the third
hypothesis was confirmed.
Table 7. Multiple regression analysis results

Variable β T Sig.

Variety of colors 0.762 21.658 0.000

Visual aesthetics 0.086 2.453 0.015
Healthy meal 0.146 4.138 0.000

Source: Author’s calculations, based on data analysis in SPSS 20.0.

Together with the results of the factor and multiple regression analysis, the results
obtained by analyzing the respondents’ answers regarding the given meals (various
salads and puree sauces) and their selection in accordance with the perception of these
meals as healthy, confirm the third hypothesis.

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Experimental research results

Descriptive statistical analysis
After data collection in experimental research, analysis was performed, whereby the
statistical software IBM SPSS 20.0 was used to process the views of respondents.
Using descriptive statistical analysis, the arithmetic mean and standard deviation were
calculated for all six attributes in the first questionnaire (which the respondents filled
out before tasting the meal), as well as the response frequencies with percentages. The
highest values of the arithmetic mean are for the questions “How artistically arranged
is this dish?” and “How delicious does this dish look like?” with the lowest values of
the standard deviation. The least accepted statement is “The preparation of this dish is
simple”, where the value of the arithmetic mean is by far the lowest, and at the same
time the highest value of the standard deviation, which points to the highest degree
of disagreement among the respondents with this attribute. After tasting this specially
prepared meal, the plate with any leftover of food was removed and the respondents
were given another questionnaire.
The data collected using the second questionnaire was processed using the same
statistical software, and the results of the descriptive statistics were considered.
Analyzing this data, it was determined that the largest percentage of respondents liked
the taste of the meal extremely much, while the data from the first questionnaire must be
taken into account, where 90% of them declared that they felt hungry after just seeing
the meal. In addition to this, an attempt was made to determine which colors were
remembered by the respondents, and if the meal contained those colors. The answers
were relatively consistent, with most respondents claiming that the meal contained
orange, red, green and white colors, while there was no blue color. If we compare these
answers with the actual appearance of the meal, they completely match. By comparing
the results of the first and second questionnaires, we can come to the conclusion that a
large number of respondents (95%) liked the presentation and arrangement of the meal
(first questionnaire), and after tasting the dish, 95% of the respondents declared that the
dish was delicious. These experimental research results confirm the first hypothesis.

Discussions
In the present paper the relationship between food visual aesthetics with consumer
perception of a healthy and tasty meal was investigated. By applying various statistical
methods, which were used in empirical researches in this paper, all initial hypotheses
have been confirmed (Table 8).

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Table 8. Summary results

Empirical
Hypotheses Analysis Results
research
H1: The visual appeal of food is positively Experimental Descriptive
Confirmed
correlated with the taste of food. research statistical analysis
H2: Differences in the age and level of education
Descriptive
of consumers result in certain differences in terms
Survey statistical analysis
of preferences in choosing healthy meals based Confirmed
research Cross-tabulation
on color as an element of the visual experience
analysis
of food.
Exploratory factor
H3: Food that is aesthetically nicely arranged and
analysis
contains intense colors is positively correlated
Survey Multiple regression
with consumers’ expectations regarding tasty Confirmed
research analysis
and healthy food, as well as their intention to
Descriptive
purchase (order) that dish.
statistical analysis

Source: Author’s calculations

Perceived differences in terms of preferences in choosing healthy meals based on the
visual experience of food, indicate variability of eating behavior within consumers of
different sociodemographic profiles. Furthermore, the results revealed that increased
perceived meal with intense colors, that was aesthetically arranged, was associated with
the consumer’s intention to order the meal. The results of experimental research, which
show the positive correlation between visual appeal and the taste of food, provide the
support to the fact that focusing on visual cues is a natural approach to making food
choices (Renner et al., 2016; Schulte - Mecklenbeck et al., 2013).
It was shown in a survey, that the working women with a university degree are the most
interested in the visual aesthetics of food. The respondents emphasized the importance
of visual aesthetics and the presence of intense colors in food, as well as that this directly
affects their perception of that food as healthy and tasty, but it is difficult to explain in
detail the exact influence of visual aesthetics on food choice. Based on the obtained
results, it is emphasized that people are interested in food visual aesthetics, vivid colors
and a healthy meal. These results confirm assumptions from previous literature and can
be used for future research in this field.

Conclusion
The conducted research is an attempt to determine the impact of the meal visual
aesthetics on the consumer’s perception of a healthy and tasty meal. Through an
analysis of different literature sources, as well as empirical research conducted for the
purposes of writing this paper, it was determined that the visual appearance of food
affects its visual appeal, as it contributes to the identification of food ingredients and
generates expectations about the taste, freshness and quality of the meal. The results
of the empirical research provide evidence for the idea that there are differences in
consumer expectations regarding healthy and tasty meals, based on visual aesthetics

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and colors. These results are in accordance with the knowledge obtained in the papers
of a significant number of authors, which refer to the fact that the visual appearance of
food affects the expectations of consumers regarding the taste of food (Ab Karim, Chi,
2010; Fieldhouse, 2013; Carrillo et al., 2011; Spinelli et al., 2014).
One of the main conclusion is that sociodemographic differences among consumers
result in significant differences in terms of preferences in choosing healthy meals based
on the visual experience of food. Also, the same research suggests that food, which
is aesthetically arranged and contains intense colors, is positively correlated with
consumers’ expectations regarding tasty and healthy food, as well as their intention to
purchase (order) that dish. The results showed the importance of visual aesthetics and
the presence of intense colored ingredients in food, as well as that it directly affects
consumer perception of that food as healthy and tasty. It can be said that this research
complements the existing knowledge about the visual attractiveness and aesthetic
experience of food on consumers, especially in the context of the food colors. The
paper identifies the connection between the visual and real experience of delicious and
healthy food, after tasting, which leads to the conclusion that the visual appeal of food
is one of the attributes that influence the consumer’s decision-making about the choice
of food, with the open question if it is the dominant factor.
Theoretical and practical implications
Theoretical implications will complement the existing knowledge on sensory marketing,
especially on the influence of the sense of sight on food choice. In addition, the results
of this research have numerous practical implications in the field of sensory marketing,
gastronomy and hospitality in general. Managers of hospitality companies must not
ignore the fact that the visual aspect and the first impression of the appearance of the
food on the plate influence the expectations related to the taste of the food. The first
sight of food stimulates the appetite and the intention to order an aesthetically arranged
and visually appealing meal. Bearing in mind that the human senses, especially the
sense of sight, play a key and determining role in consumer behavior, the task of the
restaurateur becomes clear: to intrigue the guest and awaken his senses, even before
the first bite, with an attractive and aesthetically appealing presentation of food on
the plate. Starting from the well-known that “the eyes eat”, it is not wrong to say that
the visual aesthetics of the served food becomes a significant factor in attracting and
motivating consumers to return again and again to the offer of hospitality facilities
and to recommend it to others, inspired by their own positive experience. Frequent
repeated visits of consumers (guests) depend from the quality of gastronomic offer and
their satisfaction with tasty, but also attractively designed and served food. Hence, by
increasing the level of satisfaction of their visitors and the visual aspect of a deliciously
prepared meal, restaurants get the opportunity to improve their competitiveness in the
market and increase the level of profitability.

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Limiting circumstances
There are certain limitations that should be taken into account in future research. In
some future research, the influence of consumers’ personal characteristics and their
lifestyle on their perception of the visual appearance of the meal should be studied. Also,
the influence of other factors should be taken into account, such as the combination of
colors, the balance between colors, the color and shape of the plate, the position, the
color of the background, and also the general atmosphere during the tasting. In particular,
the connection between different color combinations and food characteristics, such as
healthy and fresh food, should be research in detail. It must be also emphasized that
understandings and attitudes related to the perception of visual aesthetics are different
not only within certain groups of people, but also in different cultures and countries,
which can be the inspiration for some future research by the authors.

Conflict of interests
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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