M.Sc.

Physics Laboratory Manual

PH5103: Mechanics and Electromagnetism

Cycle 1

Department of Physics

Indian Institute of Technology Palakkad

Contents
Introduction to Error Analysis 1

1 Hall effect in semiconductor 7

1.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Determination of e/m ratio of electron 12

2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Helmholtz Pair of Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.2 Technical data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.3 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Tube Holder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.1 Safety instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Thomson Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5.2 Safety instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5.3 Technical data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5.4 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7.1 Magnetic field mapping of the Helmoltz coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7.2 Magnetic deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3 Velocity of sound in solid bodies 22

3.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 Experiment description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 Experiment setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.5 Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4 Eddy Current Experiment: Magnet fall through a conducting tube 24

4.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3 Determining v0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.4 Determining the Conductivity of Conducting Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.5 Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2
 4.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

5 Diffraction of Laser by Ultrasonic Grating. 27

5.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

6 Appendix - I 31
6.1 A general derivation for Hall effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3
Introduction to Error Analysis
Suppose the length of an object is measured with a meter scale and the result is given
as 11.3 cm. Does it mean that the length is exactly 11.3 cm? The chances are that the
length is slightly more or slightly less than the recorded value. As the least count of the
scale is one mm (it cannot read as a fraction of a mm) the observer rounds off the result
to the nearer full mm value. Thus, any length measuring greater than 11.25 cm and less
than 11.35 cm may be erroneously represented as the length anywhere between 11.25 and
11.35 cm. The maximum uncertainty (on either side) or the maximum possible error, δl,
is 0.05 cm, which is half of the least count on the scale. The observer may read the scale
11.2 cm or 11.3 cm. The associated uncertainty is called Instrumental U ncertainty which
is a Random U ncertainty. There can be Systematic U ncertainty which is certainty not
random, either a positive or a negative uncertainty. This kind of uncertainty may results
from bad observation e.g. Parallax error and/or systematic error in the instrument e.g. a
slow or fast clock. Human errors like reading a true value of 11.3 cm as 11.2 cm or 11.4
cm is also another kind of Random U ncertainty. To reduce these kind of errors, average
values of many readings should be reported. In the teaching lab, we shall try to deal with
Random U ncertainty only.
Let us consider a glass plate with certain dimensions. To obtain the volume of the plate, we
measure the width, b with a slide calipers and the thickness, t with a screw gauge, whose
least counts are 0.1 mm and 0.01 mm respectively. Let the result obtained, after averaging
over many measurements, be

b = 2.75 cm
t = 2.52 mm = 0.252 cm
and the length(l) = 11.3 cm as measured by a meter scale with one end at zero exactly !
You may note that the coincidences on the Vernier scale and the main scale of the screw
gauge might not have been exact and represent only the nearest exact readings. Hence these
measurements also include the corresponding uncertainties each equal to half the least count.
So we have,

l = 11.3 ± 0.05 cm
B = 2.75 ± 0.005 cm
t = 0.252 ± 0.0005 cm
The reported values are average of several measurements. Note that ± 0.05 cm, ± 0.005
cm, ± 0.0005 cm are actually instrumental errors. The volume calculated from the recorded
values of l, b and t is,

V = (11.3 × 2.75 × 0.252) = 7.8309 cm3

Care has to be taken to avoid writing cm as mm, mm as cm etc. This is a personal error,
which can be certainly avoided if care is taken by the experimenter.

1
However, since each observation is subject to an uncertainty, there should also be an uncer-
tainty in evaluating the volume (V ). The random uncertainty associated with each param-
eter( l, b and t) shall propagate in the calculated value of volume (V ). The treatment of
propagated uncertainty in the computed parameter from the measured parameters is differ-
ent for dependent and independent measured quantities. We will not go into that detail. We
will try to estimated maximum propagated uncertainty. Let the maximum error in V due
to δl, δb, and δt be δV . Then,

(V ± δV ) = (l ± δl)(b ± δb)(t ± δt)

V + δV corresponds to maximum positive values of δl, δb, and δt,

(V + δV ) = (l + δl)(b + δb)(t + δt)

     
δV δl δb δt
V 1+ = l b t 1+ 1+ 1+
V l b t
Cancelling V = l × b × t , on both sides and using the approximation,

(1 + x)(1 + y)(1 + z) = 1 + x + y + z as x ≪ 1, y ≪ 1, z ≪ 1,

We obtain
δV δl δb δt
= + +
V l b t
The relative error in the product of a number of quantities is the sum of the relative
errors of the individual quantities.
δl 0.05
= = 0.0044
l 11.3
δb 0.005
= = 0.0018
b 2.75
δt 0.0005
= = 0.002
t 0.252
δV
= 0.0082
V
From the value, V = 7.8309 , we have

δV = 7.8309 × 0.0082
= 0.064213cm3

(rounded off to one significant digit).

The result of the measurements is therefore

V = 7.8309 ± 0.06 cm3

An important point to be noted is that writing the volume as 7.8309 cm3 would convey
the idea that the result is measured accurate to 0.0001 cm3 . We know from the calculated

2
error that this is not the case and error is in the second decimal place itself. We are not
certain that the second decimal is 3 but it may be 3 ± 6. The volume may be anywhere in
the range 7.77 to 7.89 cm3 . As the second decimal place is subject to such an uncertainty,
it is meaningless to specify the subsequent digits. This result should therefore be
recorded only up to the second decimal place. [The error could be much larger if the least
counts themselves are taken into account].Thus
V = (7.83 ± 0.06) cm3
It is the calculation of the maximum error in the result, based on the least counts of the
different instruments used that can indicate the number of significant digits to which the
final result is accurate. Suppose we now measure the mass of a plate correct to a milligram
and the result is
m = (18.3450 ± 0.0005) g
The density d can be calculated from m and V .
m
d =
V
18.3450
= = 2.3429 g cm−3
7.83
maximum of d corresponds to maximum mass and minimum volume. Hence
 
δd m (1 + δm/m)
d 1+ =
d V (1 − δV /V )
  −1
δd δm δV
1+ = 1+ 1−
d m V
δV δm
As V
and m
are very much less than 1,
δd δm δV
= +
d m V
The relative error in the quotient of two quantities is (also equal to the sum of the individual
relative errors),
δm 0.0005
= = 0.00003
m 18.3450
δd
= 0.0077
d
δd = 0.0077 × 2.3429 = 0.02 g cm−3
Therefore,
d = (2.34 ± 0.02) g cm−3
[The error in measurements may be many times the least count if the instrument is not
properly designed. Least count may often signify readability/resolution and not the accuracy.
Repeated measurements falling outside the least counts are indicative of this].

3
Other situations
1. Suppose x is the difference of two quantities a and b, whose measurements have maximum
possible errors as δa and δb. What is δx ? Assume all parameters are positive quantities
with suitable dimensions.

x = a−b
(x ± δx) = (a ± δa) − (b ± δb)

The maximum value of the difference x corresponds to maximum a and minimum b

(x + δx) = (a + δa) − (b − δb)

= (a − b) + (δa + δb)

Cancelling x = a − b,

δx = δa + δb

In a sum or difference of two quantities, the uncertainty in the result is the sum of the
actual uncertainties in the quantities - (Not the relative uncertainties).
xy 2 δp
2. If p = ab
(1 + m), what is p
?

First δ(1 + m) = δl + δm
y 2 can be dealt with as aproduct of y abd y

δ(y)2 δy δy δy
= + = 2
y2 y y y
δp δx δ(y)2 δa δb δ1 + δm)
= + 2 + + +
p x y a b (1 + m)
δx δy δa δb δ1 + δm)
= +2 + + +
x y a b (1 + m)

3. The general formula for error propagation: If x, y and z are measured quantities with
uncertainty δx, δy and δz. We need to compute the quantity w which is some function of x,
y and z: w = f (x, y, z). The maximum propagated uncertainty in w,

∂w ∂w ∂w
δw =| | δx+ | | δy+ | | δz
∂x ∂y ∂z

Questions
• Suppose x = (a+b)
(c−d)
. To minimize the uncertainty in x, which of the four quantities
must be measured to greatest accuracy, if all four quantities a, b, c, and d are of the
same order of magnitude?

4
 • The period of a simple pendulum is measured with a stop watch of accuracy 0.1 second.
In one trial, 4 oscillations are found to take 6.4 s, in another 50 oscillations take 81 s.
In this measurement, does the relative uncertainty depend only on the least count of
the instrument (in this case the stop watch)? How can the relative uncertainty in the
period be minimized?

• The refractive index of a glass slab may be determined using a vernier microscope as
follows. The microscope is focused on a marking on an object placed on a platform and
the reading, a on the vertical scale is noted. The glass slab is placed over the object.
The object appears raised. The microscope is raised to get the image to focus and the
position on the scale, b, is again noted. The last reading, c, is found by raising the
microscope to focus on a tiny marking on the top surface of the slab. The least count
of the vernier scale is 0.01 mm. The readings a, b, and c are 6.128 cm, 6.497 cm, and
6.128 cm respectively. Calculate the refractive index and the percentage error in the
result. Express the result to the accuracy possible in the experiment, along with the
range of error.

Note
In the above case cited, we have used our judgement i.e. the ability to estimate the reading
to ONE HALF the least count of the instrument. If we take that the actual error is ONE
least count on either side of the measured quantity all the errors calculated in the above
cases would be doubled.

Least Squares Fit/Linear Regression

When the data (xi , yi ) are linearly related by, y = A + Bx the best estimates for the slope B
and intercept A of the straight line are obtained as follows: If
Py is the true value as defined by
the above equation, then one should minimize the quantity [ (y − yi ) = (yi − A − Bxi )2 ]
2
P
with respect to A and B. By differentiating this expression w.r.t. A and B, setting them to
zero and solving the two simultaneous equations, we get the best estimates of A and B as
{( yi ) ( x2i ) − ( xi ) (xi yi )}
P P P P
A= (0.1)
P ∆ P P
{N (xi yi ) − ( xi ) ( yi )}
B= (0.2)
∆
where the denominator ∆ is,
X X 2
∆=N x2i − xi (0.3)

Based on the observed points, the best estimate for the uncertainty in the measurements of
y is,
v
u
u 1 X N
σy = t (yi − A − Bxi )2 (0.4)
N − 2 i=1

5
The uncertainties in A and B are,
rP
x2
σA = σy (0.5)
r ∆
N
σB = σy (0.6)
∆
If y is expected to lie on a straight line through the origin, y = Bx, and if the measurements
of y all have the same uncertainties, then the best estimate for the constant B is,
P
xy
B = P 2 (0.7)
x

Based on the observed points, the best estimate for the uncertainty in the measurements of
y is,
v
u
u 1 X N
σy = t (yi − Bxi )2 (0.8)
N − 1 i=1

The uncertainties in B is,

σy
σB = pP (0.9)
x2

References
• Practical physics – by G.L.Squires, Cambridge University Press,4th edition, 2001.

• A text book of Practical Physics by M.N. Srinivasan, S. Balasubramanian and R.

Ranganathan, Sultan Chand and Sons, First edition, 1990.

• J. R. Taylor, An Introduction to Error Analysis, University Science Books (1997).

6
1 Hall effect in semiconductor
1.1 Aim
• To study Hall effect and to determine

– Hall voltage VH
– Hall coefficient RH

• To determine the type of majority carriers i.e. whether the semiconductor crystal is of
n-type or p-type.

• To determine the charge carrier density or carrier concentration per unit volume in the
semiconductor crystal.

• To determine the magnitude of Poynting Vector.

• To determine the Hall angle θH .

1.2 Apparatus
Electromagnet, constant current power supply, digital Gauss meter, Hall Effect set up, n
and p hall probes.

1.3 Introduction
In 1879, E.H. Hall observed that on placing a current carrying conductor perpendicular to a
magnetic field, a voltage is observed perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the current.
It was observed that the charge carriers, which were assumed to be electrons, experienced a
sideways force opposite to what was expected. This was later explained on the basis of band
theory.
The number of conducting charges and the sign of charge carriers cannot be determined by
the measurement of conductivity of a specimen. In metals/conductors, the current carriers
are only electrons whereas in semiconductors ,both electrons and holes act as current carriers
.Therefore, in semiconductor, it is quite necessary to determine whether a material is of n-
type or p-type .The Hall effect can be used to distinguish the two types of charge carriers
and also to determine the density of charge carriers.

1.4 Theory
When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying specimen(metal or
semiconductor), a voltage is developed in the specimen in a direction perpendicular to both
the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is called Hall effect. The voltage so
generated is called Hall voltage.
We know that a static magnetic field has no effect on charges unless they are in motion. When
the charges flow, a magnetic field directed perpendicular to the direction of flow produces a
mutually perpendicular force on the charges. Consequently, electrons and holes get separated

7
by opposite forces and produce an electric field EH , thereby setting up a potential difference
between the ends of a specimen. This is called Hall potential VH .

1.5 Explanation
Consider a semiconductor in the form of a flat strip .Let a current I flows through the strip
along X-axis. P and P′ are two points on the opposite faces of a b c d and a′ b′ c′ d′ re-
spectively. If a millivoltmeter is connected between points P and P′, it does not show any
reading, indicating that there is no potential difference setup between these points. But,
when a magnetic field is applied along Y-axis, i.e. perpendicular to the direction of current,
a deflection is produced in the millivoltmeter indicating that a potential difference is set up
between P and P′. This potential difference is known as Hall voltage or Hall potential VH .

As shown in Figure 1.1, if a current is passed along X-axis, then the electrons move along
negative direction of X-axis. The force on electron due to the applied magnetic field B is
given by,

Figure 1.1

F = e(v × B)
F = e v B sin 90◦

F = evB (1.1)

where, v is the drift velocity of electron and e is the charge of electron.

Using Fleming’s left hand rule it is seen that force on the electrons will be directed to-
wards the face a b c d, i.e. along positive Z-axis ,thereby making the face a b c d negative
and a′ b′ c′ d′ positive.
If the current is carried by positively charged carriers i.e. holes, the carriers move in the
same direction as that of the current. The magnetic force causes the positive charge carriers
to move towards the face a b c d, thereby making the face a b c d positive and a′ b′ c′ d′
negative. Thus, by determining the polarities of the surface of the strip , we can determine

8
the sign of the charge carriers.

At thermal equilibrium ,when the Lorentz force exactly matches the force due to the electric
field EH (due to the Hall voltage) we have,
e VH
e v B = e EH = (1.2)
b
VH
v = (1.3)
bB
If b be the width and t is the thickness of the specimen (crystal),its cross sectional area A
is given by,

A = bt (1.4)
I
Current density, J = (1.5)
A
I = nevA (1.6)

where, n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume.

1 vA VH VH t
= = ×b t= (1.7)
ne I bBI BI
The Hall coefficient is given by,
VH t 1
RH = = (1.8)
BI ne
and charge carrier density is given by,
1
n = (1.9)
e RH
If the conduction is primarily due to one type of charge carriers , then conductivity is related
to mobility µm ,

µm = σ R H (1.10)
RH
µm = (1.11)
ρ
where , ρ is the resistivity.

There is another interesting quantity called the Hall angle(θH ) defined by equation,
EH
tan θH = (1.12)
EX
EH = vx B (1.13)

Hence,
vx B
tan θH = = µm B (1.14)
EX

9
1.6 Procedure
• Mount the PCB (with mounted crystal) on one of the pillars and hall probe in another
pillar.

• Complete all the connections as shown Figure 1.2

• Switch ON the Gauss Meter and place the hall probe away from the electromagnet.
Select the range of the gauss meter as X1 and using the adjustment knob of the Gauss
Meter, adjt the reading of the Gauss Meter as zero.

DO NOT SWITCH ON THE ELECTROMAGNET AT THIS STAGE

• Switch ON the constant current source and set the current, say at 5 mA in constant
current source. Keep the magnetic field at zero as recorded by Gauss meter.

Figure 1.2: Shows the block diagram for experimental set up with connections . A crystal(n-
type or p-type) is mounted on PCB. PCB is provided with four sockets and a pot to make
the Hall voltage zero, when there is no current flowing through the crystal and also when
there is no magnetic field .The upper two sockets are connected to a constant current dc
source and the lower two to a multimeter/millivoltmeter. Hall probe with Gauss meter is
kept in the center between the electromagnet.

10
 DO NOT SWITCH ON THE ELECTROMAGNET AT THIS STAGE

• Complete the circuit diagram as shown in Figure 1.2. When a current of 5 mA is

passed through the crystal without application of magnetic field the hall voltage as
recorded by the multimeter should be zero.

• The zero set should be adjusted carefully and gradually.

DO NOT SWITCH ON THE ELECTROMAGNET AT THIS STAGE

• Bring the current reading of the constant current source to Zero by Adjusting the knob
of the constant current source.

• Switch ON the electromagnet (say at about 1 7V, 3.5A)

• Select the range of the Gauss meter as x10 and measure the magnetic flux density at
the center between the pole pieces. The tip of the Hall Probe and the crystal should
be placed between the center of the pole pieces. The pole pieces should be very close
to the crystal and the tip ofthe Hall Probe.

POLE PIECES SHOULD NOT TOUCH THE CRYSTAL OR THE TIP

OF THE HALL PROBE

FOR CARRYING OUT THE EXPERIMENT THE MAGNETIC FLUX

DENSITY SHOULD BE MORE THAN 1500 GAUSS

• Do not change the current in the electromagnet i.e. keep the magnetic field constant
for the whole of the experiment.

• Vary the current through the constant current source in small increments. Note the
current I (mA) from the constant current source passing through the sample and the
Hall voltage (mV)as recorded by the multimeter. Record these values in the observation
table.

• Reverse the direction the magnetic field by interchanging the ‘+’ and ‘-’ connections of
the coils (i.e., by interchanging Red and Black wires to the coils of the electromagnet).
Again note down the Hall Voltage for the same values of current as in step 10.

Take the magnitude of magnetic flux density. In this particular case the
hall voltage should be noted without taking care of negative sign of voltage.

• Plot VH vs B and VH vs I. Calculate Hall coefficients for the given semiconductors.

11
2 Determination of e/m ratio of electron
2.1 Aim
• Map the magnetic field for Helmholtz Coils

• Determine the velocity of the electron

• determine the e/m ratio for electron

2.2 Apparatus
• Helmholtz Pair of Coils, Thomson Tube, Tube holder with Connection.

• Power Supplies for electron beam, electric field, Magnetic field (Helmholtz Coil)

• Multimeter, Gaussmeter, electrical connectors.

2.3 Helmholtz Pair of Coils

Figure 2.1: Helmholtz Pair of Coils

2.3.1 Description
The Helmholtz coils are pair of coils to create uniform magnetic field. When the distance
between the coils is equal to the radius of the coil, the magnetic field is uniform along the
axis. In this experiment it is used to create magnetic fields for deflecting electron beams
under a constant magnetic field and are attached to the tube holder. The tube holder allows
the coils to be set up in Helmholtz configuration or at varying distances. The resulting
magnetic fields are highly uniform and can be aligned perpendicular to the axis of the tube
or in co-axial alignment.

12
The two air-filled coils are made of lacquered copper wire on a plastic bobbin with connectors
at both ends of the winding labelled (A) and (Z).

2.3.2 Technical data

• Number of winding turns (n): 320 each

• Coil radius (R): 68 mm approx.

• Maximum current though each coil: continuous - 1.0 A, short term - 1.5 A
(max. 10 min) 2.0 A (max. 3 min)

• Effective impedance: 6Ω approx.

• Connectors: 4-mm safety socket

• Magnetic field B in Helmholtz-configuration with current I through each coil :

8µ0 nI
B= √ =k∗I (2.1)
5 5R
, where k ≈ 4.2 mT/A

Figure 2.2: Setting up the coils for a transverse field

2.3.3 Operation
Setting up the coils for a transverse field
• Insert the coils into the middle of the coil slot and push them out as far as they go.
Make sure the connectors point outwards.

• For Helmholtz configuration, set the distance between the coil d = R, the outer edges
of the coil base should be flush with the dashed lines (refer to Figure 2.2).

13
 Figure 2.3: Series connection

Figure 2.4: Parallel connection

Determining the current in the coils

• Connect the multimeter in series in the current mode to measure the current (I) in
between the coil and power supply.

• Series connection - When the coils are to be connected in series, connect terminal Z of
coil 1 to terminal Z of coil 2 (refer to Figure 2.3). Take into account the total current
(I) when calculating B.

• Parallel connection - When the coils are to be connected in parallel, connect terminal
A of coil 1 to terminal Z of coil 2 and terminal Z of coil 1 to terminal A of coil 2 (refer
to Figure 2.4).To calculate B the total current I should be halved since both coils have
the same resistance and half the current I/2 passes through each one.

14
 Figure 2.5: Schematic diagram of tube holder

2.4 Tube Holder

2.4.1 Safety instructions
When the tube is in operation, the terminals of the tube may be at high voltages with which
it is dangerous to come into contact.

• Only use safety experiment leads to connect up the circuitry.

• Only change circuits with power supply equipment switched off.

• Only exchange tubes with power supply equipment switched off.

2.4.2 Description
The tube holder accommodates the entire range of tubes model S designed for practical
experiments, along with their accessories such as Helmholtz coils and an auxiliary coil, and
can also serve as the base for the discharge tube.

The tube holder consists of a base plate with a holder for the tube set at an angle with
terminal panel attached. The tail-stock for the neck of the tube contains an octal plug con-
nector and a central bore. Five sockets are electrically connected to the terminal panel with
its 4-mm safety sockets. A filament protection circuit is also integrated into the neck brace
to prevent excess voltage being applied to the cathode heater circuit and thus protecting the
sensitive heater filament from damage. The relay cuts out at a filament voltage of about
10.5 V DC or about 8.5 V AC. It switches back on again when the filament voltage is once
again below the limit. Excess voltage is indicated by a red LED. The base also contains a
slot for accommodating Helmholtz coils either transversely to the tube and up to 150 mm
away from it or in standard Helmholtz configuration (marked). The ramp at the front of the

15
tube holder accommodates the Helmholtz coils in an axial configuration and also provides
a base for the auxiliary coil. The tube holder is mounted on three rubber feet and is thus
unable to slide.
Terminal Tube pin Function Comment
A1 1 Anode Connected directly
F3 3 Cathode heater Filament protection circuit
F4 4 Cathode heater Filament protection circuit connected to C5 via a 400kΩ resistor
C5 5 Depends on the tube eg. cathode Connected directly and to F4 via a 400kΩ resistor
G7 7 Depends on the tube eg. grid Connected directly

Figure 2.6: Setting up a tube

2.5 Thomson Tube

Figure 2.7: Schematic diagram of Thomson tube

16
2.5.1 Description
The Thomson tube is intended for investigating the deflection of electron beams in electrical
and magnetic fields. It can be used to estimate the specific charge of an electron e/m and
to determine the electron velocity v.

The Thomson tube comprises an electron gun which emits a narrow, focussed ribbon of
cathode rays within an evacuated, clear glass bulb. A tungsten ’hairpin’ filament hot cath-
ode is heated directly and the anode takes the form of a cylinder.

The deflection of rays can be achieved electrostatically by means of a built-in plate capacitor
formed by the pair of deflection plates or magnetically with the help of the Helmholtz coils
S magnetically. The cathode rays are intercepted by a flat mica sheet, one side of which
is coated with a fluorescent screen and the other side of which is printed with a milimetre
graticule so that the path of the electrons can be easily traced. The mica sheet is held at
10◦ to the axis of the tube by the two deflecting plates.

2.5.2 Safety instructions

Hot cathode tubes are thin-walled, highly evacuated glass tubes. Treat them carefully as
there is a risk of implosion.

• Do not subject the tube to mechanical stresses.

• Do not subject the connection leads to any tension.

If voltage or current is too high or the cathode is at the wrong temperature, it can lead to
the tube becoming destroyed.

• Do not exceed the stated operating parameters.

When the tube is in operation, the terminals of the tube may be at high voltages with which
it is dangerous to come into contact.

• Only use safety experiment leads for connecting circuits.

• Only change circuit with power supply equipment switched off.

• Only exchange tubes with power supply equipment switched off.

When the tube is in operation, the stock of the tube may get hot.

• If necessary, allow the tube to cool before dismantling.

The tube only may be used with tube holder S.

The compliance with the EC directive on electromagnetic compatibility is only guaranteed

when using the recommended power supplies.

17
2.5.3 Technical data
• Filament voltage : ≤7.5 V AC/DC
• Anode voltage : 2000 V - 5000 V DC
• Anode current : 0.1 mA approx. at 4000 V
• Deflector plate voltage : 350 V max.
• Distance between plates : 8 mm approx.
• Fluorescent screen : 90 mm x 60 mm
• Glass bulb : 130 mm diam. approx.
• Total length : 260 mm approx.

2.5.4 Operation
• The tube should not be mounted or removed unless all power supplies are disconnected.
• Press tube gently into the stock and push until the pins are fully inserted. Take note
of the unique positions of the guide pin (refer to Fig. 1).
• To remove the tube, apply pressure with the index finger of the right hand on the guide
pin until the pins loosen, then pull out the tube.

2.6 Theory
J. J. Thomson determined charge-to-mass ratio (e/m) of electron in 1897 withe the help
of a cathode ray tube (Thomson Tube). He passed the cathode ray beam (electron beam)
through an uniform electric field (vecE) and magnetic field (B) ⃗ such that the E⃗ and vecB
are mutually perpendicular and they are perpendicular to the electron beam. Suppose, the
e-beam is moving with an uniform velocity ⃗v = vx̂; applied electric field is E ⃗ = E ŷ and
⃗ = B ẑ. Velocity of electron beam and magnitude of the fields can be tuned.
magnet field is B
Due to the magnetic field one electron of charge e and velocity ⃗v = vx̂ experiences Lorentz
force F⃗B = −evB ŷ. In the absence of the electric field the electron will maintain a circular
path in the x − y plane. It is called Cyclotron M otion. The path of the luminous beam
in the cathode ray tube will be circular, the deflection being in a plane perpendicular to
the magnetic field. Suppose, an electron of mass m and charge e moving perpendicular to a
uniform magnetic field B at velocity v is deflected by the Lorentz force Bev onto a circular
path of radius r. To maintain the circular path,
mv 2
Bev = (2.2)
r
The velocity (v) is dependent on the anode voltage UA applied in the tube such that:
r
2eUA
v= (2.3)
m

18
 Solving equations 2.2 and 2.3 simultaneous gives the following expression for the specific
charge e/m:
e 2UA
= (2.4)
m (Br)2
UA can be measured directly, B and r can be determined experimentally.

At fixed anode voltage the radius decreases with increasing magnetic field. With a fixed
magnetic field the radius increases with increasing anode potential, indicating a higher ve-
locity.
Now if electric field is switched on and the strength of electric field is tuned such a way that
the force due to electric field on each electron F⃗E = eE ŷ is equal and opposite to F⃗B . Net
Lorentz Force is zero. This shall result zero defection of the cathode ray beam. Thomson
determined the e/m of electron in this method.

eE = evB

The velocity v is
E
v= (2.5)
B
where E = UP /d, UP is the voltage applied between the capacitor plate and d is the distance
between the plates. The specific charge e/m can be calculated using 2.2 and 2.5 :
e E
= 2 (2.6)
m B r

2.7 Measurements
2.7.1 Magnetic field mapping of the Helmoltz coil
• Set up only the coils in Helmholtz geometry with parallel connection as in Figure 2.8,
don’t need to make other connections.
• Apply a current within safety limit, measure the magnetic field along the axis with the
help of the scale assembly and Gausssmeter.
• Change the distance between the coils and measure the magnetic field.
• Plot the magnetic field vs. position and prove the field uniformity for Helmholtz ge-
ometry.

2.7.2 Magnetic deflection

• Set up the tube as in Figure 2.8.
• Turn on the high-tension power supply, apply a anode voltage (UA ) within the safety
limit.

19
 Figure 2.8: Det d e/m by means of field compensation

• Apply a current to Helmholtz coils and observe the path of the beam.

• Measure the radius of curvature of the beam

Calculating r
The radius of curvature r can be obtained directly from point A at which the electron beam
emerges from the luminescent screen (refer to Figure 2.9).

According to the Pythagorean theorem:

r2 = c2 + b2 = c2 + (r − a)2 = c2 + r2 − 2ra + a2

c 2 + a2
r= (2.7)
2a
Thus, for emergence along k = k ′ = 80mm, we can say:
2
c 2 + a2 = d 2 = k ′ + e 2
1 1
a2 = f 2 = g 2 = (k − e)2
2 2

20
 Figure 2.9: To determine r

(802 mm2 + e2
r=√ (2.8)
2(80mm − e)

where e can be read directly from the scale.

Calculation of e/m by means of field compensation

• Make the electric field connection as per in Figure 2.8. Apply the electric field to
produce zero deflection such that net Lorentz force is zero.

• Note down the current through the coil, deflection of beam in the scale and electric
field corresponding to the zero deflection.

• Repeat the procedure for three different currents through Helmholtz coil.

• Change the Anode voltage (UA ) and repeat the whole experiment set.

• Perform the experiment for total three set of UA .

• Compute the e/m from the measured data set. You may use Least square fitting.

21
3 Velocity of sound in solid bodies
3.1 Aim
• To determine the velocity of sound in aluminum, copper, brass and steel rods.

• To determine the Young’s modulus of the respective rods.

3.2 Experiment description

The object of this experiment is to determine the velocity of sound in aluminum, copper,
brass and steel rods. This measurement exploits the multiple reflections of a brief sound
pulse at the rod ends. The pulse is initially generated by tapping the top end of the rod
with a small hammer, and initially runs downward. The pulse is reflected several times in
succession at the two ends of the rod, whereby the pulses arriving at one end are delayed
with respect to each other by the time ∆t. As ∆t is the sum of the transit time out and
back, we can calculate the velocity of sound c using the rod length s as
2s
c= (3.1)
∆t

3.3 Experiment setup

The metal rods rest on the piezoelectric body, which converts the pressure oscillations of the
sound pulses into electrical oscillations. These are recorded at input B of Sensor-CASSY.

22
3.4 Procedure
• Load settings

• Start the measurement with (software waits for the trigger signal).

• Tap the top end of the first metal rod with the small hammer (to generate the trigger
signal).

• Repeat the experiment with a different metal rod, or delete a faulty measurement with
Measurement → Delete Current Measurement Series.

• Determine the time differences ∆t of the minima or maxima by finding the peak centers
or by measuring the difference directly. As ∆t is the sum of the transit time out and
2s
back, we can calculate the velocity of sound c using the rod length s as c = ∆t .

3.5 Parameters
• Density of Steel : 7800 Kgm−3

• Density of Aluminium : 2700 Kgm−3

• Density of Copper : 8930 Kgm−3

• Density of Brass : 8600 Kgm−3

23
4 Eddy Current Experiment: Magnet fall through a
conducting tube
4.1 Aim
• To determine the conductivity of the conducting tube

• To determine the drag-coefficient for the magnet (optional)

4.2 Theory
When a permanent magnet is released through a metallic pipe, the magnetic flux changes
as it falls. As per Faraday’s law, the flux change induces an emf and then an electric cur-
rent through the surface of the metal pipe. The electric current produces a magnetic field
to oppose the action of the induced emf thus creating a damping force proportional to the
velocity (in the first order) on the magnet.

The net force on the magnet can be given as (see Ref. 1. for details)

dv
m = mg − kv (4.1)
dt
where g is the acceleration due to gravity and k is the damping (drag) coefficient. If v0 is
the initial velocity then the velocity at any time t can be found by integrating eq 4.1 as
 mg  −( mk )t mg
v(t) = v0 − e + (4.2)
k k
and integrating eq 4.2 gives the distance x(t) as

kv0 m − m2 g) kv0 m − m2 g) −( mk )t mg
 
x(t) = − e + t (4.3)
k2 k2 k

here x(t) is the length of the conducting tube between the coils.

Rearranging the equation we will get,

     
x 2 v0 t v0 k −( mt )k
k − + k+1= 1− e (4.4)
m2 g mg m mg

The drag coefficient k can be found by solving eq 4.4.

4.3 Determining v0
The velocity v0 can be determined as follows:

Drop the test magnet through a non-conducting PVC pipe and determine the time of
flight t0 for the magnet to drop from the other end using the same set-up of coils and the

24
Cassy software.

Theoretically this time should be equal to

 1/2
2L
t0 = (4.5)
g

You may compare the experimental result with the result obtained from the theoretical
expression in eq 4.5.

4.4 Determining the Conductivity of Conducting Pipe

In order to determine the conductivity of the metal pipe, the experiment in section 2 is per-
formed by varying the mass of the magnet and the time t for the magnet to fall is determined
for each case using the cassy software.

A plot of t vs 1/M is made which is a straight line. It can be shown that (see ref. 2),
the time of flight and the mass of the magnet are related by the equation

√ s 3  
2 ln (c/b) 2 1
t= 2 2 2
ϕ0 Lσ (4.6)
π g c −b M

where c and b are the outer and inner radius of the conducting pipe, ϕ0 is the maximum
flux through the magnet, L is the length of the conducting pipe and σ is the conductivity.

Thus the slope is

√ s 3
2 ln (c/b) 2
slope = 2 ϕ Lσ (4.7)
π g c 2 − b2 0

from where the conductivity σ can be determined.

4.5 Parameters
• External diameter of pipe : 12 mm

• Internal diameter of pipe : 10 mm

• Length of the pipe : 50 cm

• Diameter of magnet : 8 mm

25
4.6 References
• Study of magnet fall through conducting pipes using a data logger – A. K. Thottoli et
al. , S N Applied Sciences 2019, 1:1050.

• Study of the conductivity of a metallic tube by analysing the damped fall of a magnet
– J. Iniguez et al. Eur. J. Phys. 25 (2004) 593-604.

26
5 Diffraction of Laser by Ultrasonic Grating.
5.1 Aim
• Determination of wavelength and velocity of ultrasonic wave in a liquid

• To find bulk modulus of the given liquid

• To find compressibility of the liquid.

5.2 Apparatus
Optical rail, laser source with power supply and kinematic laser mount, glass tank with liquid
and glass tank holder, Piezoelectric crystal with crystal mount , RF Oscillator, Screen, graph
paper, mirror with stand, vernier calipers.

5.3 Theory
Acousto-optics is a branch of physics that studies the interactions between sound waves and
light waves. The diffraction of monochromatic light by an ultrasonic grating (Read about
ultrasonic grating ) is an useful method to find out wavelength of the light or velocity
of propagation of the sound in a the medium if wavelength of the light is known. Here we
use an RF signal applied to a piezo-electric transducer, bonded to a suitable crystal, which
will generate an acoustic wave of certain known frequency . The ultrasonic waves generated
by the transducer travels down a medium (here liquid) and produces periodic compression
and rarefaction of the medium which travels with the sound wave. Separation between two
successive compression or rarefaction is the wavelength (Λ) of the sound wave. The velocity
of ultrasonic wave in a liquid is given by,

V = νΛ (5.1)

where ν is the frequency of the crystal oscillator and Λ is the wavelength of ultrasonic wave.

When this sound wave gets reflected at the bottom (flat glass plate) of the cell [See
Fig. 5.1]. The incident and reflected waves interfere and a standing waves pattern is formed
with nodes and antinodes at regular interval. This standing wave generates a periodic vari-
ation of density in the medium in the form of rarefaction and compression which act like
a diffraction grating for laser light. Any incident laser beam will be diffracted by this grating

General criteria for maxima in the diffraction of light by a grating is,

nλ
d= (5.2)
sin θ
where d is spacing between two slits, n is the order of diffraction, λ is the wavelength of the
laser used and θ is the angle of diffraction.
Spacing between two slits (d) in the ultrasonic grating is given by periodicity in the variation

27
 Figure 5.1: Optical system for observation of diffraction by ultrasonic waves

of density in the medium, i.e. distance between two successive compression. Hence the
equation of diffraction is given by,
nλ
Λ= (5.3)
sin θ
We can find the angle of diffraction (θ) by the equation,
 
−1 D
θ = tan (5.4)
L

D is the distance from central spot to nth order spot and L is the distance measured from
the crystal oscillator to the detector.
We can calculate wavelength of the ultrasound wave and velocity of propagation through the
medium using equation 5.1 and 5.2, respectively.
By knowing the velocity of ultrasonic wave we can calculate the bulk modulus (β) of
the liquid. Bulk modulus of a medium represents how resistant it is against compression.
Newton-Laplace equation relates β with velocity of sound in that medium which is given by,

β = ρV 2 (5.5)

where ρ is the density of the liquid and V is the velocity of the ultrasonic wave.
Compressibility of a medium is inverse of bulk modulus, given by,
1
K= (5.6)
β

28
Figure 5.2: Experimental arrangement for measuring velocity of sound by ultrasonic wave

5.4 Procedure
• Fix the laser mount on the optical rail and it tight firmly.
• Place the diode laser on the mount properly and fix it
• Place the glass tank holder on a rail. Fill the glass tank with liquid and keep it on the
tank holder.
• Fix the crystal on the mount and keep it fully immersed in the liquid. Connect it to
the RF oscillator. Connecting wires are connected to the crystal.
• Connect the RF Oscillator.
• Fix cell mount with linear translation stage on the rail and it tight firmly.
• Set the mirror and screen suitably to observe the fringe with measurable separation.
• Switch on the laser. Align the crystal and laser so that laser beam is parallel to the
face of the crystal. Adjust the kinematic setup provided on the laser mount to get the
beam in the field of standing wave generated.
• Observe the diffraction pattern on the screen by adjusting the frequency of the oscillator
until you get a diffraction pattern of different orders on both sides of the central bright
spot.
• The main source of relative uncertainty is coming from ratio of fringe width with the
fringe separation distance. You should try to minimize that with suitable placement
of mirror and screen.
• Find the position of the maximum intensities. Find the theta for different orders of
maxima in the diffraction pattern.

29
• Find the wavelength of the unltrasound and velocity of the propagation.

• Repeat the experiment for another frequency of the crystal oscillator, compare the two
velocities.

• Find out compressibility (given density = ......) and bulk modulus of the liquid.

• Perform the experiment with two different liquids.

30
6 Appendix - I
6.1 A general derivation for Hall effect
Here, we aim to construct a careful model for electric currents under electric and magnetic
fields from a classical perspective.
• Imagine that the charge carriers move in a medium that offers some resistance due to
scattering between the carriers and impurities in the material and between the carriers
and vibrations of the atoms (phonons) in the material.
• When a field is applied the charge carriers are accelerated by the applied fields. But
they often undergo scattering and loss energy. If we assume the average time between
scattering events to be τ , then on an average the retarding force acting on the charge
carriers is given by
m⃗v
F⃗retard = −
τ
Under the influence of electric and magnetic fields, the force equation becomes

d⃗v 
⃗ − m⃗v
⃗ + (⃗v × B)

m =q E
dt τ
where ⃗v is the average velocity over all the charge carriers.
• At steady state, the time derivative of ⃗v will vanish. i.e.,
  m⃗v
⃗ ⃗
q E + (⃗v × B) − =0
τ
Resolving the above vector equation into its components, we get

⃗ =ˆi + Ey ĵ + Ez k̂; B
⃗v = vx î + vy ĵ + vz k̂; E ⃗ = Bz k̂

m
qEx + qvy Bz = vx
τ
m
qEy − qvx Bz = vy
τ
m
qEz = vz
τ

qτ qτ
vx = Ex + vy Bz
m m
qτ qτ
vy = Ey − vx Bz
m m
qτ
vz = Ez
m

31
 Since the average velocity component along the three directions are known, we can de-
termine the components of the current density J⃗ as

J⃗ = ne⃗v
Jx = nevx ; Jy = nevy ; Jz = nevz

Substituting the values for vx , vy , vz , we get

σ
Jx = (Ex + ωc τ Ey )
1 + (ωc τ )2
σ
Jy = (Ey − ωc τ Ex )
1 + (ωc τ )2
Jz = σEz
nq 2 τ q
Here, σ = ; and ωc = Bz
m m

Question: Check that for the case Jy = Jz = 0; you get the simplified equation
used in your lab experiment analysis.

32