Source: Torsional Vibration of Turbomachinery

Chapter

1
Introduction
1.1 Torsional Vibration Torsional vibration involves angular oscillations of the rotors of a machine. For large rotating machinery the mechanical system often consists of several rotors that are connected by relatively slender shafts and couplings. For example, Fig. 1.1 is a photograph of the generator rotor of a large steam turbine-generator. It has a large-diameter body section and relatively flexible shaft extensions. Each rotor in the system will oscillate following a torsional disturbance to the machine about its rotational axis, resulting in twisting in the shafts and to a lesser extent in the large-diameter rotor bodies themselves. For some machines involving geared rotor connections, for example, there may be several rotor axes of rotation. The twisting oscillations following severe torsional disturbances to a machine may be sufficient to cause fatigue damage to the machines shafts and other components.1 In the design of rotating machinery, torsional vibration analysis is vital for ensuring reliable machine operation due to machine stimuli that range from rarely occurring, high-level transients to continuous, relatively low levels of excitation. If shaft and rotating component failures occur on these large machines as a result of shaft torsional oscillations, the consequences can be catastrophic. In the worst case, an entire machine can be wrecked as a result of the large unbalancing forces that can arise following shaft separation and turbine blade failures, and this has actually occurred. There is also potential for loss of human life. For these reasons great attention is generally taken at the design stage to ensure that high-speed rotating machines have the required torsional capability.
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Introduction 2 Chapter One

Figure 1.1 Generator rotor photograph. (Courtesy of General Electric.)

Following some turbine-generator torsional vibration failures in the early 1970s, several major research, testing, and machine torsional vibration monitoring projects were instituted to develop both improved understanding of turbine-generator torsional vibration characteristics1,2 and corrective measures. Also, several industrial committees were established to study the problems, and these committees made corrective-action recommendations for machine and transmission system design and operation. These activities resulted in significantly improved torsional vibration analysis and shaft fatigue analytical models and improved design criteria applied in machine design. Correct application of such practices by machine designers, and improved transmission system design and operating practices, have now generally rendered turbinegenerators robust to the effects of stimuli emanating from the electrical transmission network, or from within the generator (short circuits or faults), or from problems or failure of the electrical equipment to which the generator is connected at the power plant (e.g., the main step-up transformer). Machine design, of course, involves compromises such as those to achieve performance goals (output, efficiency, etc.) and acceptable levels of stress due to rotor centrifugal and other loads and thermal effects, as well as torsional and lateral vibration. In general, it is found that the amount of torsional damping in turbomachinery is very low unless special provisions are made.2 For large machines, such as turbine-generators, it is impractical and uneconomical to employ mechanical damping devices to substantially reduce peak vibration response levels following severe transient disturbances. Hence, for these machines, it is of paramount importance at the design phase to avoid torsional resonance (particularly at or near the lower harmonics of machine operating speed frequency), and to ensure that shafts and other components are suitably sized to avoid failure or significant damage during possible severe transient disturbances.

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Introduction Introduction 3

1.2

Book Contents Summary

The book is divided as follows:

Introduction Definitions and units Summary of the types and nature of torsional disturbance experienced by turbomachines and machines driven by electric motors and description of the resulting vibration response Review of torsional damping characteristics and mechanisms A description of whats important in machinery mathematical model creation Three torsional vibration theory chapters for calculating natural frequencies, mode shapes, and steady-state and transient forced response A vibration theory application chapter using case studies Four descriptive technical chapters dealing with Torsional fatigue Torsional vibration design rules Machine modification analysis Torsional vibration measurement, monitoring, testing, and diagnostic procedures Five appendixes References

Machinery modeling, presented in Chap. 5, provides information on how to construct torsional vibration mathematical models for rotating machinery based on geometric and material property information. The importance of properly accounting for abrupt diameter changes in shafts and other types of discontinuity is discussed. The different types of coupling used on rotating machinery are reviewed and are subdivided into rigid and flexible categories; the latter types of coupling provide additional flexibility and damping. Torsional systems with and without gears are covered. Needed transformations for converting mathematical models with several rotational velocities (due to gears) to an equivalent single rotational velocity model are described in detail, and an application example is given. Torsional stiffness and inertia finite element matrices are developed in Chap. 6 from first principles for the cases of elements having two nodes (one at each end) and three nodes (at ends and middle). Point inertia and distributed inertia finite elements are developed. For distributed inertia elements, the finite elements are derived for the cases

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Introduction 4 Chapter One

of linear and quadratic shape functions. Chapter 6 also shows how the global stiffness and inertia matrices are assembled from the individual element matrices. Also provided is a table of equations for obtaining values of polar moments of inertia, radii of gyration, torsional stiffness, and torsional stresses from geometric and physical data for commonly occurring cylindrical and annular component configurations. The derivations are given in App. B. The required system equations for computing the machine torsional natural frequencies and mode shapes are developed in Chap. 7. It illustrates with examples the benefit of employing distributed inertia finite elements in comparison to traditional lumped inertia representations. Orthogonality of normal modes is discussed, and a method for systematically reducing the size of a very large eigenvalue problem is covered (this is sometimes referred to in the literature as eigenvalue economization). The required matrix equations and solutions using modal analysis theory for both steady-state and transient response are developed in Chap. 8. The benefits of using modal analysis transformations are covered in detail. The problem to be solved in each case is calculation of the magnitudes of the angular responses at each model node and the corresponding shaft response torques for given torsional inputs.

For steady-state response, the applied torque inputs are the amplitudes and phases at each node and the frequency of the applied torques. For transient response, the applied torque inputs at each node are the torque-time histories and the angular displacement and velocity initial conditions.

Chapter 9 provides solutions to case studies dealing with forming finite element global inertia and stiffness matrices, and natural frequency and forced response calculations. Some of these studies are based on calculations that actually need to be performed in the design of large rotating machinery. The calculations range in complexity from those that are routinely performed by design engineers to more challenging ones conducted by engineers working on new machine design and development. Chapter 10 gives a basic introduction to torsional fatigue and defines a torsional fatigue estimation methodology. Several key references are cited for those readers who wish to explore the subject of fatigue in more depth. Chapter 11 provides in general terms machine torsional vibration design rules in terms of natural frequency separation margins from

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Introduction Introduction 5

forcing frequencies and forced response criteria. The turbine-generator class of machinery is used as an example. Chapter 12 provides information on how to detune a rotating machine if natural frequency separation margins are discovered to be unacceptable for reliable performance. Chapter 13 covers methods commonly used to measure torsional vibration, torsional vibration monitoring, and torsional vibration testing and briefly describes some of the procedures and tools used to diagnose vibration problems. There are five appendixes:

Appendix A gives the development of a single-speed equivalent model and associated transforms for analyzing a multispeed geared system, and a numerical example is given for illustration. Appendix B gives the mathematical derivations of equations used for calculating moments of inertia and torsional stiffness and stress that are used in the text. Appendix C provides an introduction to vibration analysis covering the characteristics of single-degree-of-freedom, continuous, and nonlinear torsional systems. The exact continuous system solutions for uniform cylinders with various boundary conditions are derived and are utilized in several of the case studies to define the accuracy of the finite element-based procedures defined in the text. Appendix D documents all aspects of matrix algebra that are used in the chapters on vibration analysis. Appendix E presents a computer program that was developed for use in the case studies. The program is based directly on the vibration analysis methods developed in Chaps. 6 through 8. It can be used to calculate natural frequencies and mode shapes and steady-state and transient responses from inputs of geometry, material properties, modal damping values, and definition of torsional stimuli. For fatigue analysis, an output option in a transient response analysis is a listing of shaft torque reversal values. The program can be adapted to execute on personal computers equipped with FORTRAN compiler software. The reference list supplements information provided in the text.

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Introduction

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