Waves and

Optics

Name ______________________________
Teacher ______________________________

1
 Progressive Waves
Waves
All waves are caused by oscillations and transfer energy without transferring matter. This means that a water
wave can transfer energy to you sitting on the shore without the water particles out at sea moving to the beach.
Here is a diagram of a wave; it is one type of wave called a
transverse wave. A wave consists of something (usually
particles) oscillating from an equilibrium point. The wave can
be described as progressive; this means it is moving
outwards from the source.
We will now look at some basic measurements and characteristics or waves.
Amplitude, A Amplitude is measured in metres, m
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the particles from the equilibrium position.
Wavelength, λ Wavelength is measured in metres, m
The wavelength of a wave is the length of one whole cycle. It can be measured between two adjacent peaks,
troughs or any point on a wave and the same point one wave later.
Time Period, T Time Period is measured in seconds, s
This is simply the time is takes for one complete wave to happen. Like wavelength it can be measured as the time
it takes between two adjacent peaks, troughs or to get back to the same point on the wave.
Frequency, f Frequency is measured in Hertz, Hz
Frequency is a measure of how often something happens, in this case how many complete waves occur in every
1 1
second. It is linked to time period of the wave by the following equations: T  and f 
f T
Wave Speed, c Wave Speed is measured in metres per second, m s-1
The speed of a wave can be calculated using the following equations: c  f
Here c represents the speed of the wave, f the frequency and λ the wavelength.
Phase Difference Phase Difference is measured in radians, rad
If we look at two particles a wavelength apart (such as C and G) we would see that they are oscillating in time
with each other. We say that they are completely in phase. Two points half a wavelength apart (such as I and K)
we would see that they are always moving in opposite directions. We say that they are completely out of phase.
The phase difference between two points depends on what fraction of a wavelength lies between them

B C D E F G H I J K L M
Phase Difference
½π 1π 1½π 2π 2½π 3π 3½π 4π 4½π 5π 5½π 6π
from A (radians)
Phase Difference
90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720 810 900 990 1080
from A (degrees)
Path Difference Path Difference is measured in wavelengths, λ
If two light waves leave a bulb and hit a screen the difference in how far the waves have travelled is called the
path difference. Path difference is measured in terms of wavelengths.
B C D E F G H I J K L M
Path Difference
¼λ ½λ ¾λ 1λ 1¼λ 1½λ 1¾λ 2λ 2¼λ 2½λ 2¾λ 3λ
from A
So two waves leaving A with one making it to F and the other to J will have a path difference of 1 wavelength (1λ).

2
Wave Equation
1. What is the velocity of yellow light of frequency 3.6 x 1014 Hz travelling in water if it’s wavelength is 0.61 µm?
2. If a sound wave of time period 5x10-4s is travelling at 340ms-1 in air what is its wavelength?
3. The speed of sound in a metal is 1000ms-1, what is the wavelength of the wave if the frequency is 2kHz?
4. The speed of sound in air is 330ms-1, what is the time period of sound waves of wavelength 100mm?
5. Some earthquake waves have the low frequency of 0.2 Hz and a wavelength of 40 km. What is their speed?
6. Electromagnetic waves travel at 3 x 10 8 ms-1, what is the frequency of a wave if its wavelength is 100m?
7. A radio wave of frequency 198 kHz. What is the wavelength of the waves that arrive at your radio?
8. What is the frequency of sound waves travelling in air at 340ms-1 if their wavelength is 0.21m?
9. What is the speed of sound waves in water that travel at a frequency of 35kHz with a wavelength of 45mm?
10. A microwave of frequency 6 GHz is travelling in
a vacuum. What is its wavelength?
11. The diagram shows the displacement-time
graph of an air particle as a sound wave passes.
The speed of the sound wave is 340 m s−1.
What is the wavelength of the sound wave?
Phase
12. What is the phase at A and B in degrees?

A B

360
0

13. What is the phase at A and B in radians?

B
2
0
A

1
14. Two points on a progressive wave are 3 of a wavelength apart. What is the phase difference between these
two points in degrees and radians.
15. For a light source of wavelength 660nm, what is the minimum distance between two points with a phase
𝜋
difference of 3 ?
16. The speed of sound in steel is 6000ms-1. For a sound wave of frequency 2500Hz, what is the minimum
𝜋
distance between two points with a phase difference of 4 ?
17. The speed of sound in water is 1500 m s−1. For a sound wave in water having frequency 2500 Hz, what is
𝜋
the minimum distance between two points at which the vibrations are 3 rad out of phase?

A 0.05 m

B 0.10 m

C 0.15 m

D 0.20 m

3
18. The least distance between two points of a progressive transverse wave which have a phase difference of
𝜋
3
rad is 0.050 m. If the frequency of the wave is 500 Hz, what is the speed of the wave?

A 25 m s–1

B 75 m s–1

C 150 m s–1

D 1666 m s–1

Wave Graphs/Diagrams

19. Look at the two graphs in, which

refer to the same wave.
a) State the amplitude of the wave. (1
mark)
b) Calculate the speed of the wave. (3
marks)

20. The graph shows a transverse

wave.

Figure 5
State the phase difference between the following points on the wave in degrees and
radians.
 A and F
 B and C
 C and F
 D and E
21. In the diagram below there is a knot at point P of the rope, which is showing a transverse
progressive wave travelling from left to right.

Describe what will happen to the vertical displacement of the knot in the next complete cycle.

4
22. (a) The diagram below represents a progressive wave travelling from left to right on a stretched
string.

(i) Calculate the wavelength of the wave.

answer ................................... m
(1)

(ii) The time period of the wave is 0.045s. Calculate the speed of the wave.

answer............................m s–1
(2)

(iii) State the phase difference between points X and Y on the string, giving an appropriate unit.

answer ..............................
(2)

(b) Describe how the displacement of point Y on the string varies in the next half-period.

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

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......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................
(2)

5
Oscilloscope traces
1 Calculate the frequency of the wave in the diagram if the time base is set to:
A 5.0 ms cm–1 (2 marks)
B 2.0 s cm–1 (2 marks)
C 100 ns cm–1 (2 marks)

Each square represents 1 cm.

2. An electromagnetic wave is picked up by a detector, which produces an electrical signal. This signal is
amplified and displayed on an oscilloscope screen.
Each square represents 1 cm.

a The scale on the y-axis is 2.0 V cm–1. Determine the amplitude of the electrical signal.
b The time base is set to 25 ns cm–1. Determine the frequency of the signal and hence the wavelength of
the electromagnetic wave.
c What type of electromagnetic wave is being detected?

6
3

Figure 2
Figure 2 shows two waves displayed on an oscilloscope. The oscilloscope is set to 2.0 V div–1
and a time base of 2.0 μs div–1.
a What is the amplitude of signal A? (1 mark)

b What is the period of signal A? (1 mark)

c What is the frequency of signal A? (1 mark)

d What is the amplitude of signal B? (1 mark)

e What is the period of signal B? (1 mark)

f What is the frequency of signal B? (1 mark)

On the oscilloscope in the diagram above the time base is set to 5.0 ms div–1 while the voltage is set at
5.0 V div–1. Find the period, frequency, and amplitude of the wave.

7
5.

Figure 4
The wave in Figure 4 has a frequency of 4.0 kHz and an amplitude of 2.0 mV.
a. What is the time base setting on the oscilloscope?

b. What is the volts per division setting on the oscilloscope?

8
 Longitudinal and transverse waves
Waves
All waves are caused by oscillations and all transfer energy without transferring matter. This means that a sound
wave can transfer energy to your eardrum from a far speaker without the air particles by the speaker moving into
your ear. We will now look at the two types of waves and how they are different

Longitudinal Waves
Here is a longitudinal wave; the oscillations are parallel to the direction of propagation (and energy transfer).
Where the particles are close together we call a compression and where they are spread we call a rarefaction.
The wavelength is the distance from one compression or rarefaction to the next.
The amplitude is the maximum distance the particle moves from its equilibrium position to the right of left.

Example:
sound waves,
seismic p
waves
Transverse Waves
Here is a transverse wave; the oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Where the particles are displaced above the equilibrium position we call a peak and below we call a trough.
The wavelength is the distance from one peak or trough to the next.
The amplitude is the maximum distance the particle moves from its equilibrium position up or down.

Examples: water waves,

EM waves
Seismic s waves
EM waves are
produced from varying
electric and magnetic
fields.
Polarisation
TRANSVERSE WAVES CAN BE POLARISED, LONGITUDINAL WAVES CANNOT.
Polarisation restricts the oscillations of a wave to one plane. In the diagrams the light is initially oscillating in all directions. A
piece of Polaroid only allows light to oscillate in the same direction as its
alignment.
 In the top diagram the light passes through a vertical plane Polaroid and
becomes polarized in the vertical plane. This can then pass through the
second vertical Polaroid.
 In the middle diagram the light becomes polarized in the horizontal
plane.
 In the bottom diagram the light becomes vertically polarized but this
cannot pass through a horizontal plane Polaroid.
This is proof that the waves of the EM spectrum are transverse waves. If they
were longitudinal waves the forwards and backwards motion would not be
stopped by crossed pieces of Polaroid; the bottom set up would emit light.
Applications
TV aerials get the best reception when they point to the transmission source
so they absorb the maximum amount of the radio waves.
9
Polarisation of EM waves
Q1. (a) State the characteristic features of

(i) longitudinal waves,

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

(ii) transverse waves.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................
(3)

(b) Daylight passes horizontally through a fixed polarising filter P. An observer views the light emerging
through a second polarising filter Q, which may be rotated in a vertical plane about point X as
shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1

Describe what the observer would see as Q is rotated slowly through 360°.

You may be awarded marks for the quality of written communication provided in your answer.

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 5 marks)

10
 2. The puddle of water reflects sunlight. A student knows that reflected light is partially polarised. She
looks at the reflected light from the puddle of water through a polarising filter, see Fig.22.2.

i. Explain what is meant by the term polarised waves.

You may wish to illustrate your answer with a labelled diagram.

[2]

ii. Describe how the student can use the polarising filter to determine if the reflected light from
the puddle is partially polarised. State clearly what she should observe.

[3]

Q3. (a) Define the amplitude of a wave.

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) (i) Other than electromagnetic radiation, give one example of a wave that is transverse.

.............................................................................................................
(1)

11
 (ii) State one difference between a transverse wave and a longitudinal wave.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................
(1)

(c) The figure below shows two identical polarising filters, A and B, and an unpolarised light source. The
arrows indicate the plane in which the electric field of the wave oscillates.

(i) If polarised light is reaching the observer, draw the direction of the transmission axis on filter
B in the figure below.

(1)

(ii) The polarising filter B is rotated clockwise through 360º about line XY from the position
shown in the figure above. On the axes below, sketch how the light intensity reaching the
observer varies as this is done.

(2)

(d) State one application, other than in education, of a polarising filter and give a reason for its use.

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................
(2)

12
4 a) State two properties which distinguish electromagnetic waves from other transverse
waves.

[2]

b) i. Describe what is meant by a plane polarised wave.

[2]

ii. Light from a filament lamp is viewed through two polarising filters, shown in Fig. 6.1. The arrow
beside each filter indicates the transmission axis of that polarising filter.

iii. Explain why the lamp cannot be seen by the eye.

[2]

iv. A third polarising filter is placed between the first two with its transmission axis at 45° to each
of the others as shown in Fig. 6.2.

13
Explain whether or not any light reaches the eye through the three filters.

In your answer you should state clearly the condition for light to be transmitted by a
polarising filter.

[3]

14
 Refraction
Refractive Index
The refractive index of a material is a measure of how easy it is for light to travel through it. The refractive index
of material s can be calculated using:
c
n
cs
where n is the refractive index, c is the speed of light in a vacuum and cs is the speed of light in material s.
Refractive Index, n, has no units
c c
If light can travel at c in material x then the refractive index is: n  n  n 1
cx c
c c
If light can travel at c/2 in material y then the refractive index is: n  n  n2
cy c
2
The higher the refractive index the slower light can travel through it
The higher the refractive index the denser the material
Bending Light
When light passes from one material to another it is not only the speed of
the light that changes, the direction can change too.
If the ray of light is incident at 90° to the material then there is no change in
direction, only speed.
It may help to imagine the front of the ray of light as the front of a car to determine the direction the light will
bend. Imagine a lower refractive index as grass and a higher refractive index at mud.
Entering a Denser Material
The car travels on grass until tyre A reaches the mud. It is harder to move through
mud so A slows down but B can keep moving at the same speed as before. The car
now points in a new direction.
Denser material – higher refractive index – bends towards the Normal
Entering a Less Dense Material
The car travels in mud until tyre A reaches the grass. It is easier to move across grass
so A can speed up but B keeps moving at the same speed as before. The car now
points in a new direction.
Less dense material – lower refractive index – bends away from the Normal
Relative Refractive Index
Whenever two materials touch the boundary between them will have a refractive
index dependent on the refractive indices of the two materials. We call this the
relative refractive index.
When light travels from material 1 to material 2 we can calculate the relative
refractive index of the boundary using any of the following:
n2 c1 sin 1
n2   
n1 c2 sin  2
1

Relative Refractive Index, 1n2, has no units

15
 Some questions may involve light travelling through several layers of
materials. Tackle one boundary at a time.
ng cw sin  w
ng    ---------------------------->
c g sin  g
w
nw
na c g sin  g
na    ---------------------------->
n g ca sin  a
g

Refraction
1. Monochromatic light passes from air into water. Which one of the following statements
is true?

A The velocity, frequency and wavelength all change

B The velocity and frequency change but not the wavelength

C The velocity and wavelength change but not the frequency

D The frequency and wavelength change but not the velocity

2 A ray of light, travelling in air, passes into a glass block at an angle of 65° to the
normal in air. The refractive index of glass is 1.5.
Calculate the angle of refraction.
3 A ray of light, travelling in glass, passes through the glass–air boundary at an angle of
25° to the normal in the glass. The refractive index of glass is 1.5.
Calculate the angle of refraction.
4 A ray of light, travelling in air, passes into water. The angle of refraction is 23°. The
refractive index of water is 1.33.
Calculate the angle of incidence.
5 The refractive index of acrylic glass is 1.49. The speed of light in air is approximately
3  108 ms−1.
Calculate the speed of light in acrylic glass.
6 A ray of light, travelling in liquid water, passes into an ice cube at an angle of 25.5° to
the normal in water. The ray of light is refracted to an angle of 25.9° to the normal in
the ice. The refractive index of liquid water is 1.33.
Calculate the refractive index of ice.
7 The speed of light in a certain glass is 1.8  108 m s-1. What is the refractive index of the
glass?
8 The refractive index of diamond is 2.4. What is the speed of light in diamond?
9 The refractive index changes with the colour of the light leading to dispersion. If the
refractive index for blue light in a certain glass is 1.639 and for red light is 1.621,
calculate the angle between the rays if they were both incident at 50o.
10 Find the relative refractive index from glass to water if the absolute indices are 1.5 and
1.3 respectively.

16
Q1.
The diagram below shows a liquid droplet placed on a cube of glass. A ray of light from air, incident
normally on to the droplet, continues in a straight line and is refracted at the liquid to glass boundary as
shown.
refractive index of the glass = 1.45

(a) Calculate the speed of light

(i) in the glass,

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(ii) in the liquid droplet.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(3)

17
 (b) Calculate the refractive index of the liquid.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 5 marks)

Q2.
The diagram, which is not to scale, shows the cross-section of a 45° right angled glass prism supported by
a film of liquid on a glass table. A ray of monochromatic light is incident on the prism at an angle of
incidence θ and emerges along the glass - liquid boundary as shown.

refractive index of glass = 1.5

(a) Calculate the speed of light in the glass.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) Determine

(i) the angle of incidence, θ,

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
18
(ii) the refractive index of the liquid.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(5)
(Total 7 marks)

19
 Total internal reflection
Total Internal Reflection
We know that whenever light travels from one material to another the majority of the light refracts but a small
proportion of the light also reflects off the boundary and stays in the first material.
When the incident ray strikes the boundary at an angle less than the critical angle the light refracts into the
second material.
When the incident ray strikes the boundary at an angle equal to the critical angle all the light is sent along the
boundary between the two materials.
When the incident ray strikes the boundary at an angle greater than the critical angle all the light is reflected and
none refracts, we say it is total internal reflection has occurred.

Critical Angle
We can derive an equation that connects the critical angle with the refractive indices of the materials.
sin 1 n2 sin 1 n2
 but at the critical angle θ2 is equal to 90° which makes sinθ2 = 1  
sin  2 n1 1 n1
n
θ1 is the critical angle which we represent as θC making the equation: sin  C  2
n1
1 1
When the second material is air n2 = 1, so the equation becomes: sin  C  or n1 
n1 sin  C
Optical Fibres/Fibre Optics
An optical fibre is a thin piece of flexible glass. Light can travel down
it due to total internal reflection. Thier uses include:
 Communication such as phone and TV signals: they can
carry more information that electricity in copper wires.
 Medical endoscopes: they allow us to see down them and
are flexible so they don’t cause injury to the patient.
Cladding
Cladding is added to the outside of an optical fibre to reduce the amount of light that is lost (optical fibres are
often in bundles so light would pass from core to core if there was no cladding).
It does increase the critical angle but a narrow core ensures the angle of incidence remains high.
Consider the optical fibre with a refractive index of 1.5.
n2 1.4
With cladding n2 = 1.4 sin  C  sin  C   C  69 .0
n1 1.5
In order for TIR to take place the cladding must have a smaller refractive index than the core.

Most optical fibres also have protective layers around the cladding:

20
Problems with Optical Fibres and how they’re overcome
 Material (chromatic) Dispersion – different wavelengths travel at different speeds in the same medium
(as is shown when white light disperses into the spectrum when refracted by a triangular prism). Red
travels the quickest, blue the slowest. In an optical fibre this Material Dispersion would cause the blue
wavelengths to lag behind the red and cause pulse broadening as in the diagram below. This can be
avoided by simply using monochromatic (single wavelength) light.

 Modal (Multi-path) Dispersion – this type of dispersion is caused by pulses of light taking different routes
down the core of the optical fibre. The pulses taking the shorter route can ‘catch up’ with those taking
the longer route and cause pulse broadening. This can be avoided by using a monomode fibre which has
a core so narrow that multi-paths are very unlikely.

21
Questions on Total Internal Reflection
1. The diagram below shows three transparent glass blocks A, B and C joined together. Each glass block
has a different refractive index.

(a) State the two conditions necessary for a light ray to undergo total internal reflection at the
boundary between two transparent media.

condition 1 .....................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

condition 2 .....................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Calculate the speed of light in glass A.

refractive index of glass A = 1.80

speed of light ..................................... ms −1

(2)

(c) Show that angle  is about 300.

(2)

22
 (d) The refractive index of glass C is 1.40.

Calculate the critical angle between glass A and glass C.

critical angle ................................. degrees

(2)

(e) (i) State and explain what happens to the light ray when it reaches the boundary between glass A
and glass C.

...............................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................
(2)

(ii) On the diagram above continue the path of the light ray after it strikes the boundary between
glass A and glass C.
(1)
(Total 11 marks)

2. The figure below shows a glass prism. Light is directed into the prism at an angle of 56°.
The path of the ray of light is shown as is it enters the prism.

(a) (i) Calculate the refractive index of the glass.

answer = ......................................
(2)

23
 (ii) Calculate the critical angle for the glass-air boundary.

answer = ......................... degrees

(2)

(b) On the figure above, continue the path of the ray of light until it emerges from the prism.
(2)
(Total 6 marks)

3. The figure below shows a layer of oil that is floating on water in a glass container. A ray of light in the oil
is incident at an angle of 44° on the water surface and refracts.

The refractive indices of the materials are as follows.

refractive index of oil = 1.47

refractive index of water = 1.33
refractive index of the glass = 1.47

24
(a) Show that the angle of refraction θ in the figure above is about 50°.

(2)

(b) The oil and the glass have the same refractive index. On the figure above, draw the path of the light
ray after it strikes the boundary between the water and the glass and enters the glass. Show the
value of the angle of refraction in the glass.

(2)

(c) Explain why the total internal reflection will not occur when the ray travels from water to glass.

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................
(1)

(d) Calculate the critical angle for the boundary between the glass and air.

answer = ......................... degrees

(2)

(e) On the figure above, complete the path of the ray after it strikes the boundary between the glass
and air.
(2)
(Total 9 marks)

25
Questions on Optical Fibres

4. The diagram below shows a section of a typical glass step-index optical fibre used for communications.

(a) Show that the refractive index of the core is 1.47.

(1)

(b) The refracted ray meets the core-cladding boundary at an angle exactly equal to the critical angle.

(i) Complete the diagram above to show what happens to the ray after it strikes the boundary at
X.
(2)

(ii) Calculate the critical angle.

critical angle = .........................degrees

(1)

(iii) Calculate the refractive index of the cladding.

refractive index = .....................................

(2)

26
5.
(a) Describe the structure of a step-index optical fibre outlining the purpose of the core and the
cladding.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

(b) A signal is to be transmitted along an optical fibre of length 1200 m. The signal consists of a square
pulse of white light and this is transmitted along the centre of a fibre. The maximum and minimum
wavelengths of the light are shown in the table below.

Colour Refractive index of fibre Wavelength / nm

Blue 1.467 425

Red 1.459 660

Explain how the difference in refractive index results in a change in the pulse of white light by the
time it leaves the fibre.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

27
(c) Discuss two changes that could be made to reduce the effect described in part (b).

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 7 marks)

28
6.
Figure 1 shows a cross-section through an optical fibre used for communications.

Figure 1

(a) (i) Name the part of the fibre labelled X.

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(ii) Calculate the critical angle for the boundary between the core and X.

answer = ____________________degrees
(2)

(b) (i) The ray leaves the core at Y. At this point the fibre has been bent through an angle of 30° as
shown in Figure 1.

Calculate the value of the angle i.

answer = ____________________degrees
(1)
29
 (ii) Calculate the angle r.

answer = ____________________degrees
(2)

(c) The core of another fibre is made with a smaller diameter than the first, as shown in Figure 2. The
curvature is the same and the path of a ray of light is shown.

Figure 2

State and explain one advantage associated with a smaller diameter core.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 8 marks)

30
General Practice Questions

31
32
13.

33
14.

34
 Diffraction
Diffraction
When waves pass through a gap they spread
out, this is called diffraction. The amount of
diffraction depends on the size of the
wavelength compared to the size of the gap.
In the first diagram the gap is several times
wider than the wavelength so the wave only spreads out a little.
In the second diagram the gap is closer to the wavelength so it begins to spread out more.
In the third diagram the gap is now roughly the same size as the wavelength so it spreads out the most.

Coherence
Waves are said to be coherent if they:
 Are the same frequency
 Have a constant phase difference (sometimes referred to as a constant phase relationship)

Light waves from a light bulb, a candle, the Sun are not coherent. Lasers are a reliable source of coherent light and
will be very useful to demonstrate the effects in the following sections of this chapter.

Superposition
Here are two waves that have amplitudes of 1.0:

If these 2 waves were to meet in the same space at the same time then they would superpose.

Superposition is the process by which two waves combine into a single wave form when they overlap.

The Principle of Superposition states that when two waves meet their displacements add at each point to give a
resultant wave. Therefore the nature of the resultant wave depends on the phase difference between the two
combining waves. The example below shows 2 waves each of amplitude 1.0, slightly out of phase superposing to
form a resultant with an amplitude of around 1.5.

35
There are 2 main types of superposition:
 Constructive Superposition – this creates a resultant wave of large amplitude and is caused by waves that are
in phase (phase difference is 0˚). If these were light waves the result would be bright light, if they were sound
waves then the sound would be loud.

 Destructive Superpostion – this creates a resultant wave of zero (or very small) amplitude and is caused by
waves that are in anti-phase (phase difference is 180˚). If these were light waves the result would be darkness,
if they were sound waves then the sound would be quiet (silent).

36
 Double Slit Interference
Interference
Interference is a special case of superposition where the waves that combine are coherent. The waves overlap
and form a repeating interference pattern of maxima and minima areas. If the waves weren’t coherent the
interference pattern would change rapidly and continuously.
Path Difference
Path Difference is an important concept to fully understand interference. It is simply the difference in distance
travelled by 2 waves. Consider the situation below:

The 2 waves are arriving at the detector in phase and therefore will superpose constructively. The wave on the
left has travelled a total of 6λ and the wave on the right has travelled a total of 5λ. Therfore:

Path Difference = 6λ - 5λ = 1λ

For coherent waves if the path difference is a whole number of wavelengths (nλ) then this leads to them arriving
1 3 5
in phase and superposing constructively. If the path difference is an odd integer of ½ λ (e.g λ, 𝜆 𝜆) then the
2 2 2
waves will arrive 180˚ out of phase and superposing destructively.

37
Young’s Double Slit Experiment
In 1801 Thomas Young settled a debate started over 100
years earlier between Newton and Huygens by
demonstrating the interference of light. Newton thought
that light was made up of tiny particles called corpuscles
and Huygens thought that light was a wave, Young’s
interference of light proves light is a wave. Here is
Young’s double slit set up, the two slits act as coherent
sources of waves

Interference occurs where the light from the two slits

overlaps. Constructive interference produces bright
areas, while deconstructive interference produces dark
areas. These areas are called interference fringes.

Fringes
The pattern consists of a series of symmetric, equally spaced bright and dark fringes about a central bright fringe
which is directly behind the midpoint. As we move away from the centre of the screen we see the intensity of the
bright fringes decreases.

Explaining the Double Slit Interference Pattern

The bright and dark fringes can be explained in terms of path difference of the waves from the 2 slits, phase
difference between the waves on their arrival at the screen and superposition.

Central Bright Fringe Other Bright Fringes Dark Fringes

Path Difference 0 nλ (n + ½ )λ
Phase Difference 0˚(or rad) 0˚(or rad) 180˚ (or π rad)
Superposition Constructive Constructive Destructive

38
What is the path difference in terms of λ in the 2 cases below?

Double Source Experiment

The interference of sound is easy to demonstrate with two speakers connected to the same signal generator.
Waves of the same frequency (coherent) interfere with each other. Constructive interference produces loud
‘fringe’s, while deconstructive interference produces ‘quiet’ fringes. Similarly the double slit diffraction pattern
can be demonstrated with microwaves.

Derivation
We can calculate the separation of the fringes (w) if we
consider the diagram to the right which shows the first
bright fringe below the central fringe. The path
difference between the two waves is equal to one
whole wavelength (λ) for constructive interference.
If the distance to the screen (D) is massive compared to the separation of the sources (s) the angle (θ) in the
large triangle can be assumed the same as the angle in the smaller triangle.
Opposite  w
sin   For the small triangle: sin   For the large triangle: sin  
Hypotenuse s D
w  w  D
Since the angles are the same we can write  sin   or  which rearranges to: w
D s D s s
Fringe Separation, Source Separation, Distance to Screen and Wavelength are measured in metres, m

39
Young’s Slit Experiment Questions
w = λD/s

w = fringe spacing (m)

λ = wavelength (m)

D = Screen distance (m)

s = spacing between slits (m)

1. In a double slit experiment, a screen is positioned at a distance of 0.80m from two slits, as shown in the
diagram. Light of wavelength 590nm is directed at the slits normally to give an interference pattern on the
screen with two fringes 4.8mm apart. Calculate the slit spacing.

2. Monochromatic light of wavelength 600nm is directed normally at four parallel narrow slits spaced at 0.1mm
apart. The two outer slits are blocked off. The transmitted light falls on a screen 1.8m from the slits, the
screen being placed at right angles to the direction of the incident beam. Calculate the fringe spacing.

3. Use the equation for Young’s Slit experiment to explain

a. With the slits closer together, the fringes are further apart
b. Interference fringes for blue light are closer together than for red light
c. In an experiment to measure the wavelength of light, it is desirable to have the screen as far as
possible from the slits.

4. In a Young’s slit experiment, filters were placed in front of a white light source to investigate the effect of
changing the wavelength of the light. At first a red filter was used (wavelength = 600nm) and the fringe
separation was found to be 2.4mm. A blue filter was used (wavelength = 450mm). What would the fringe
separation become?

5. Yellow sodium light of wavelength 589nm is used in a double-slit experiment. The slit separation is 0,2mm and
the screen is placed 1.20m from the slits. What will be the separation of the fringes which appear on the
screen?

6. Interference fringes are formed on a screen when monochromatic light is passed through two narrow slits
which are close together. State how, if at all, and explain why the separation of the fringes increases if
a. The screen is moved closer towards the slits
b. The slits are made narrower but the separation is unchanged
c. A more intense light source is used
d. Light of longer wavelength is used
e. The separation of the slits is increased

7. In a double slit experiment using light from a helium-neon laser (wavelength = 630 nm), a student obtained
the following data.
Width of 10 fringes = 1.5cm
Separation of slits = 1.0mm
Slit to screen distance = 2.40m

If the student moved the screen to s distance of 4.8m, what would the fringe separation be?

40
Q1.
A laser emits light of wavelength 6.3 × 10–7 m and is used to illuminate a double slit which has a
separation of 2.4 × 10–4 m. Interference fringes are observed 4.2 m from the slits.

(a) Calculate the fringe separation.

(2)

(b) The double slit acts as a pair of coherent sources. Explain what is meant by coherent sources.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(c) The diagram shows the light from the slits, S1 and S2, meeting at P where the first dark fringe is
observed.

Explain why a dark fringe is observed at P.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 7 marks)

41
Q2.
The diagram below shows the paths of microwaves from two narrow slits, acting as coherent sources,
through a vacuum to a detector.

(a) Explain what is meant by coherent sources.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) (i) The frequency of the microwaves is 9.4 GHz.

Calculate the wavelength of the waves.

wavelength = ____________________ m
(2)

(ii) Using the diagram above and your answer to part (b)(i), calculate the path difference
between the two waves arriving at the detector.

path difference = ____________________ m (1)

42
(c) State and explain whether a maximum or minimum is detected at the position shown in the diagram
above.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

(d) The experiment is now rearranged so that the perpendicular distance from the slits to the detector
is 0.42 m. The interference fringe spacing changes to 0.11 m.

Calculate the slit separation. Give your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures.

slit separation = ____________________ m

(3)

(e) With the detector at the position of a maximum, the frequency of the microwaves is now doubled.
State and explain what would now be detected by the detector in the same position.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 14 marks)

43
 Single Slit Interference
Here is the diffraction pattern from light being shone through a single slit. There is a central maximum that is
twice as wide as the others and by far the brightest. The outer fringes are dimmer and of equal width.

Decreasing the width of the slit would:

 Increase the amount of diffraction and therefore increase the spacing.

 Allow less light through and therefore decrease the intensity of the fringes.

The single slit effect is the reason why the fringes in the double slit pattern decrease in intensity moving away from
the central fringe. The double slit pattern essentially contains a single slit effect within it.

If we use three, four or more slits the interference maxima become brighter, narrower and further apart and the
single slit effect becomes less prominent. Eventually we can get rid of the single slit effect completely by using
diffraction gratings.

44
 Diffraction Gratings
Diffraction Grating
A diffraction grating is a series of narrow, parallel slits. They usually
have around 500 slits per mm.
When light shines on the diffraction grating several bright sharp
lines (maxima) can be seen as shown in the diagram to the right.
The first bright line (or interference maximum) lies directly behind
where the light shines on the grating. We call this the zero-order
maximum. At an angle of θ from this lies the next bright line called
the first-order maximum and so forth.

The intensity pattern is similar to that of the double slit pattern, but each maximum has the same intensity.

Explaining the Interference Pattern

The pattern can be explained in the same way as that of the double slit.

The bright and dark fringes can be explained in terms of path difference of the waves from the 2 slits, phase
difference between the waves on their arrival at the screen and superposition.

Central Maximum (n=0) Other Maxima (n = 1, 2,3 etc) Minima

Path Difference 0 nλ (n + ½ )λ
Phase Difference 0˚(or rad) 0˚(or rad) 180˚ (or π rad)
Superposition Constructive Constructive Destructive

The order (n value) of the maximum literally represents the path difference of the waves involved. The reason why
can be seen in the derivation of the diffraction grating equation.

45
Derivation (you are required to know this)
The angle to the maxima depends on the wavelength of the light and the separation of the slits. We can derive an
equation that links them by taking a closer look at two neighbouring waves going to the first-order maximum.

Setting up the triangle PQY we can see that PQ is d, the grating spacing, the angle QPY is equal to θ and the side QY
represents the path difference between the 2 light beams. If the 2 light waves are going to superpose constructively
at a maximum then QY must be equal to a whole number of wavelengths (nλ). Then it follows that:

Opposite
sin  
Hypotenuse

𝑛𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑑

d sin   n
The Grating Spacing, d
The grating spacing, d represents the distance between the slits on the diffraction grating and is consequently very
small number such as 2.0x10-6m. However, it is important to note that in questions the value given is often the
number of lines per mm (or m) on the diffraction grating e.g. 500lines per mm, let’s call this L. This value needs to be
converted to d and can be done in the following way:

1
d =
𝐿 𝑥 1000

NB: If L is given in lines per m then there is no need to multiply by 1000

e.g.
L = 500 lines per mm
1
d =
500 𝑥 1000

d = 2 x 10−6 𝑚

46
Diffraction Grating Questions

A grating is labelled '500 lines per mm'.

1. Calculate the spacing of the slits in the grating.
2. Monochromatic light is aimed straight at the grating and is found to give a first-order
maximum at 15°. Calculate the wavelength of the light source.
3. Calculate the position of the first-order maximum when red light of wavelength 730
nm is shone directly at the grating.
4. The longest visible wavelength is that of red light with λ = 750 nm. The shortest visible
wavelength is violet where λ = 400nm. Use this information to calculate the width of
the angle into which the first-order spectrum is spread out when white light is shone
onto the grating.
A grating is illuminated with a parallel beam of light of wavelength 550 nm. The first-order
maximum is in a direction making an angle of 20° with the straight-through direction.
5. Calculate the spacing of the grating slits.
6. What would be the angle of the first-order maximum if a grating of slit spacing of 2.5 ×
10-6 m were used with the same light source?
7. Calculate the wavelength of light that would give a second-order maximum at θ = 32°
with a grating of slit spacing 2.5 × 10-6 m.
8. A monochromatic laser beam of wavelength of 600 nm is directed at a diffraction
grating with slit spacing 2.5 μm. Find the angle from the centre of the 2nd order fringe
produced.
9. Monochromatic light of wavelength 450 nm is directed at a diffraction grating. The 1st
order maxima is observed at an angle of 21.2°. What is the spacing of the lines in the
diffraction grating?
10. Monochromatic light is directed at a diffraction grating with 500 lines per mm. The 2nd
order maxima is detected at an angle of 42° from the straight-through position. What
is the light’s wavelength?
11. Light of wavelength 610 nm is directed at a diffraction grating that has 700 lines per
mm. Calculate the number of diffracted orders produced.

47
Q1.
For a plane transmission diffraction grating, the diffraction grating equation for the first order beam is:

λ = d sin θ

(a) The figure below shows two of the slits in the grating. Label the figure below with the distances d
and λ.

(2)

(b) State and explain what happens to the value of angle θ for the first order beam if the wavelength of
the monochromatic light decreases.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(c) A diffraction grating was used with a spectrometer to obtain the line spectrum of star X shown in
the figure below. Shown are some line spectra for six elements that have been obtained in the
laboratory. Place ticks in the boxes next to the three elements that are present in the atmosphere
of star X.

(2)
48
 (d) The diffraction grating used to obtain the spectrum of star X had 300 slits per mm.

(i) Calculate the distance between the centres of two adjacent slits on this grating.

answer = ______________________ m
(1)

(ii) Calculate the first order angle of diffraction of line P in the figure above.

answer = ______________________ degrees

(2)
(Total 9 marks)

Q2.
A narrow beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 590 nm is directed normally at a diffraction
grating, as shown in the diagram below.

(a) The grating spacing of the diffraction grating is 1.67 × 10–6 m.

(i) Calculate the angle of diffraction of the second order diffracted beam.

answer ____________________ degrees

(4)

49
 (ii) Show that no beams higher than the second order can be observed at this wavelength.

(3)

(b) The light source is replaced by a monochromatic light source of unknown wavelength.
A narrow beam of light from this light source is directed normally at the grating.
Measurement of the angle of diffraction of the second order beam gives a value of 42.1°.

Calculate the wavelength of this light source.

answer ____________________ m
(2)
(Total 9 marks)

Q3.
The diagram below shows a section of a diffraction grating. Monochromatic light of wavelength λ is
incident normally on its surface. Light waves diffracted through angle θ form the second order image
after passing through a converging lens (not shown). A, B and C are adjacent slits on the grating.

(a) (i) State the phase difference between the waves at A and D.

______________________________________________________________

(ii) State the path length between C and E in terms of λ.

______________________________________________________________

50
 (iii) Use your results to show that, for the second order image,
2λ = d sin θ, where d is the distance between adjacent slits.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(3)

(b) A diffraction grating has 4.5 × 105 lines m–1. It is being used to investigate the line spectrum of
hydrogen, which contains a visible blue-green line of wavelength 486 nm. Determine the highest
order diffracted image that could be produced for this spectral line by this grating.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 5 marks)

51
Interference Practice Questions

4.

5.

6.

52
7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

53
 Stationary (Standing) Waves
Stationary/Standing Waves
When two waves of the same frequency travel in opposite
directions they can superpose to form a standing (or stationary)
wave. Here is the experimental set up of how we can form a
standing wave on a string. The vibration generator sends
progressive waves down the string at a certain frequency, they
reach the end of the string and reflect at the same frequency. On
their way back the two waves travelling in opposite direction
superpose to form a standing wave made up of nodes and
antinodes.
Nodes Positions on a standing wave with zero (or very small)
amplitude caused by destructive superposition.
Antinodes Positions on a standing wave where there is maximum
amplitude caused by constructive superposition.

Standing Waves Progressive Waves

Amplitude Maximum at antinode and zero at nodes The same for all parts of the wave
Frequency All parts of the wave have the same frequency All parts of the wave have the same frequency
Wavelength Twice the distance between adjacent nodes The distance between two adjacent peaks
Phase All points between two adjacent nodes in Points one wavelength apart in phase
phase
Energy No energy translation Energy translation in the direction of the wave
Waveform Does not move forward Moves forwards

Harmonics
As we increase the frequency of the vibration generator we will see standing
waves being set up. The first will occur when the generator is vibrating at the
fundamental frequency, f0, of the string.
First Harmonic f = f0 λ=2L
2 nodes and 1 antinode
Second Harmonic f = 2f0 λ=L
3 nodes and 2 antinodes
Third Harmonic f = 3f0 λ=⅔L
4 nodes and 3 antinodes
Forth Harmonic f = 4f0 λ=½L
5 nodes and 4 antinodes

Stationary Waves - Useful Facts to Remember

 The distance between 2 successive nodes (or 2 successive antinodes) is half a wavelength.
 Particles oscillate in phase if they are separated by an even number of nodes.
 Particles oscillate 180˚ out of phase if they are separated by an odd number of nodes.
 The speed of a stationary wave along a string remains constant when moving through the harmonics (as
long as the tension remains constant).

54
The First Harmonic Frequency on a String
The speed of a stationary wave on a string depends on the tension in the string, T measured in Newtons and its mass
per unit length, µ measured in kgm-1.

𝑻
𝒄= √
𝝁

Since c = fλ, this becomes

𝑻
𝒇𝝀 = √
𝝁

Rearranging for f

𝟏 𝑻
𝒇= √
𝝀 𝝁

For the first harmonic the length of the string (distance between the 2 nodes) is half the wavelength

Therefore the wavelength is twice the length of the string:

𝟏 𝑻
𝒇= √
𝟐𝑳 𝝁

It is important to remember that this equation only works for the first harmonic frequency (the second harmonic
frequency would be double this, the third harmonic frequency would be triple this and so on).

Mass Per Unit Length, μ

The mass per unit length quantity is the one that students tend to struggle with most in this equation. It is important
that you can deal with it especially when the value is not given in kgm-1 in the question or when the value is not given
directly. Sometimes the density and/or cross sectional area may be given in which case you need to use the following:
𝝁 = 𝝆𝑨

55
Stationary Waves Questions
1. How do stationary (standing) waves form?
2. What are the positions of zero and maximum displacement (amplitude) called?
3. What is meant by saying that the sources must be coherent to produce interference effects?
4. If two points on a wave have a phase difference of 1080°, are they in phase or out of phase?
5. What is the principle of superposition?
6. What effect results from the superposition of two waves in phase?
7. A stationary wave is produced on a stretched wire 0.8 m long that vibrates in its first harmonic
mode. What is the wavelength of the stationary wave.
8. a) Explain what is meant by a stationary wave.
The frequency of microwaves generated on one side of a microwave oven is 2.45 GHz.
b) Calculate the wavelength of these microwaves.
c) Microwaves reflect from the sides of the oven, a stationary wave pattern is set up. With the aid of
a diagram, give a simple illustration of this process, showing the positions of nodes and antinodes.
d) In the above case, calculate the distance between the nodes inside the oven.
e) If a bar of chocolate is placed in the microwave oven (no turntable used), what effect would be
seen after about 30 seconds of irradiation?
9. A stationary sound wave is generated in a hollow pipe has both ends open (this means that there is
an antinode at both ends). The length of the pipe used is 1.2 m and the speed of sound in air is 330
m/s.
a) Draw the two diagrams to illustrate i) first and ii) second harmonic of the modes of vibration in
the open pipe; mark on your diagrams the positions of the nodes and antinodes.
b) Calculate the frequency of the first harmonic, the second harmonic and the third harmonic for
this open system.
One end of the pipe is now closed.
c) Calculate the fundamental frequency and the first harmonic for this closed system.
d) Comment on the quality of sound resulting from both open and closed pipes.
10. The frequency f of waves travelling along a string or wire, of length L, under tension T, is given by:

1 𝑇
𝑓= √
2𝑙 𝜇

where μ is the mass per unit length of the string or wire in kg/m.
a) What would happen to the frequency of a wave generated if i) the tension in the string or wire is
doubled or ii) the length of the string is doubled?
The string is stretched between two points 0.65 m apart.
b) Calculate the frequency of the fundamental where the tension in the string in 100 N and the
mass per unit length is 3.5 kg/m.
c) What would be the effect on the frequency if a lighter string is used?

56
Extra Practice
1.

2.

3.

57
Q1.
Figure 1 represents a stationary wave formed on a steel string fixed at P and Q when it is plucked at its
centre.

Figure 1

(a) Explain why a stationary wave is formed on the string.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

(b) (i) The stationary wave in Figure 1 has a frequency of 150 Hz. The string PQ has a length of 1.2 m.
Calculate the wave speed of the waves forming the stationary wave.

Answer ____________________ m s–1

(2)

(ii) On Figure 2, draw the stationary wave that would be formed on the string at the same
tension if it was made to vibrate at a frequency of 450 Hz.

Figure 2

(2)
(Total 7 marks)

58
Q2.
The diagram below shows one position of a guitar string stretched between points X and Y.
The string vibrates at a frequency of 330 Hz.

(a) State the phase relationship between points A and B on the string.

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) Points X and Y are 0.66 m apart.

Calculate the speed of the wave along the string.

speed = _________________ m s−1

(2)

(c) The total mass of the string is 3.1 g and the total length of the string is 0.91 m.

Show that the tension in the string when it is sounding the harmonic shown in the diagram above
is about 70 N.

(3)

59
 (d) The string is fixed at one end and wrapped around a tuning peg of radius 3.0 mm at the other. The
tuning peg needs to be turned through 3 complete rotations to increase the tension in the string
from 0 to 70 N in part (c).

Discuss, by estimating the energy stored in the string, whether there is a significant risk to the
guitar player when the string breaks.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 9 marks)

3.

4.

5.

60
Acknowledgements:
The notes in this booklet come from TES user dwyernathaniel. The original notes can be found here:
https://www.tes.com/teaching-resource/a-level-physics-notes-6337841
Questions from multiple areas (including progressive waves, longitudinal and transverse waves, refraction,
total internal reflection) come from Bernard Rand (@BernardRand). His original resources can be found
here:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1-2qNVLwGzJ_7AjQK9N0z4BQBIRmSHAwG
Questions in the superposition section come from the IoP TAP project. The original resources can be found
here:
https://spark.iop.org/episode-320-superposition#gref
Questions in the diffraction section come from the IoP TAP project. The original resources can be found
here:
https://spark.iop.org/episode-323-diffraction#gref
Extra Questions and diagrams have been taken from AQA A-level Physics e-textbook Hodder which is
available via i-site.

61