KANPUR UNIVERSITY’S

QUESTION
BANK
B.SC. VI SEM

METRIC
SPACES &
COMPLEX
ANALYSIS
 400+ MCQs
 Brief and Intensive Notes

DR. SHAILENDRA KUMAR & DR. PRADEEP KUMAR

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

Syllabus
Metric spaces and Complex analysis:
Unit 1 Basic Concepts:
Metric spaces: Definition and examples, Sequences in metric spaces, Cauchy sequences,
Complete metric space.
Unit 2 Topology of Metric Spaces:
Open and closed ball, Neighborhood, Open set, Interior of a set, limit point of a set,
derived set, closed set, closure of a set, diameter of a set, Cantor’s theorem, Subspaces,
Dense set.
Unit 3 Continuity & Uniform Continuity in Metric Spaces:
Continuous mappings, Sequential criterion and other characterizations of continuity,
Uniform continuity, Homeomorphism, Contraction mapping, Banach fixed point theorem
Unit 4 Connectedness and Compactness:
Connectedness, Connected subsets, Connectedness and continuous mappings,
Compactness, Compactness and boundedness, Continuous functions on compact spaces.
Unit 5 Analytic Functions and Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Functions of complex variable, Mappings; Mappings by the exponential function,
Limits, Theorems on limits, Limits involving the
point at infinity, Continuity, Derivatives, Differentiation formulae, Cauchy-Riemann
equations, Sufficient conditions for
differentiability; Analytic functions and their examples.
Unit 6 Elementary Functions and Integrals
Exponential function, Logarithmic function, Branches and derivatives of logarithms,
Trigonometric function, Derivatives of functions,
Definite integrals of functions, Contours, Contour integrals and its examples, Upper
bounds for moduli of contour integrals.
Unit 7 Cauchy’s Theorems and Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Antiderivatives, Proof of antiderivative theorem, Cauchy-Goursat theorem, Cauchy
integral formula; An extension of Cauchy integral
formula, Consequences of Cauchy integral formula, Liouville’s theorem and the
fundamental theorem of algebra.
Unit 8 Series and Residues
Convergence of sequences and series, Taylor series and its examples; Laurent series and
its examples, Absolute and uniform
convergence of power series, Uniqueness of series representations of power series,
Isolated singular points, Residues, Cauchy’s residue
theorem, residue at infinity; Types of isolated singular points, Residues at poles and
itsexamples.

Dr Shailendra Kumar and Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

Unit-I

Dr Shailendra Kumar and Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

Metric space:

Before going to discuss metric space, there are a few important questions to be noted down:

(i) for a given a set 𝑀, how we might define a distance function on 𝑀?

(ii) What would we want a "reasonable" distance to do?

Certainly, we would like to have our distance to be (defined and) nonnegative for any pair of points in 𝑀.

Let's start there:

Consider 𝑑 ∶ 𝑀 × 𝑀 → [ 0, ∞) be a nonnegative, real-valued function defined on all pairs of elements from
𝑀 and 𝑑(𝑥 , 𝑥) = 0 for any 𝑥 ∈ 𝑀. And 𝑑(𝑥 , 𝑦) = 0 should mean that 𝑥 = 𝑦.

We would most likely want our distance to also satisfy 𝑑(𝑥 , 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥 ) for all pairs of points 𝑥 , 𝑦 ∈ 𝑀.
Anything else? Well, in the hope of preserving at least a bit of the geometry granted by the familiar distances
in IR and an, we might also require one last property. The distance function should satisfy the triangle
inequality:

For each triple of points 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 in 𝑀, we ask that 𝑑(𝑥 , 𝑦) < 𝑑(𝑥 , 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧 , 𝑦). The triangle inequality is
the embodiment of that old saw, ''The shortest distance between two points is a straight line." This timid little
inequality will tum out to be immensely valuable.

Therefore, a function 𝑑 on 𝑀 × 𝑀 satisfying the following properties is called a metric or distance function
on 𝑀 if
i. 0 ≤ 𝑑(𝑥 , 𝑦) < ∞ for all pairs 𝑥 , 𝑦 ∈ 𝑀. [Non-negativity]
ii. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 if and only if 𝑥 = 𝑦. [Identity]
iii. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥) for all pairs 𝑥 , 𝑦 ∈ 𝑀. [Symmetry]
iv. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) < 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) for all 𝑥 , 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑀. [Triangle inequality]

The pair (𝑀, 𝑑) is said to be metric space i.e., a set 𝑀 with a metric 𝑑 defined on 𝑀 is called a metric space.

Indeed, thinking of 𝑑 as a “distance function” makes the three properties given in the definition of a
metric clear: the first says that the distance between two “points” is always larger than or equal to 0, and
the only way the distance between two “points” can be zero is if the two “points” are actually the same; the
“distance” from x to y is the same as the “distance” from y to x; and the distance from x to y is always less
than or equal to the sum of the distances from x and y to some intermediate “point” z.
To encourage thinking about metric spaces in this way, we will often refer to the metric d as the distance
function, and to the elements of 𝑀 as points of 𝑀 .

Note: If 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇏ 𝑥 = 𝑦. The pair (𝑀, 𝑑) is said to be pseudo metric space.

Example 1. The set of real numbers 𝑹 with the function 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦| is a metric space. More
generally, let

Dr Shailendra Kumar and Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

𝑅 = {(𝑥 , 𝑥 , 𝑥 , … . . 𝑥 ) / 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑖} denote the Cartesian product of 𝑹

with itself 𝑛 times:

The function d : Rn × Rn → R defined by

𝑑 (𝑥 , 𝑥 , 𝑥 , … . 𝑥 ), (𝑦 , 𝑦 , 𝑦 , … . 𝑦 ) = (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑦 )

is a metric o n Rn , called the Euclidean metric. When n = 1, 2, 3, this function gives precisely the
usual notion of distance between points in these spaces.

Example 2. As we said, the standard example of a metric space is Rn , and R, R2 , and R3 in particular.
However, we can put other metrics on these sets beyond the standard ones.

Define 𝑑 : 𝑅 × 𝑅 → 𝑅 by
𝑑 (𝑥 , 𝑦 ), (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) = max {|𝑥 − 𝑥 |, |𝑦 − 𝑦 |).

Then d1 is a metric on R2 called the “box” metric.

Let us prove this that 𝑑 is actually a metric.

For any points (𝑥 , 𝑦 ), (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) ∈ 𝑅 , |𝑥 − 𝑥 | ≥ 0 and |𝑦 − 𝑦 | ≥ 0. So the maximum of these

is the larger than or equal to zero as well.

Also, d1((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = 0 if and only if both |x1 − x2 | = 0 and |y1 − y2 | = 0, which means that x1 =
x2 and y1 = y2 .

Thus

d1 ((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = 0 if and only if (x1 , y1 ) = (x2 , y2 ), so d1 satisfies the first requirement in the
definition of a metric on 𝑅 .

For any (x1 , y1), (x2 , y2 ) ∈ R2 , since |x1 − x2 | = |x2 − x1 | and |y1 − y2 | = |y2 − y1 |, the maximum
of |x1 − x2 | and |y1 − y2 | is the same as the maximum of |x2 − x1 | and |y2 − y1 |, so d1 ((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ))
= d1 ((x2 , y2 ), (x1 , y1 )), which is the second requirement.

Finally, suppose (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), (x3 , y3 ) ∈ R2 . Then

|x1 − x2 | ≤ |x1 − x3 | + |x3 − x2 | and |y1 − y2 | ≤ |y1 − y3 | + |y3 − y1 |

by the triangle inequality for the absolute value function on R. Also,

|x1 − x3 | + |x3 − x2 | ≤ max{|x1 − x3 |, |y1 − y3 |} + max{|x3 − x2 |, |y3 − y2 |}

and similarly for |y1 − y3 | + |y3 − y2 |. Thus both |x1 − x2 | and |y1 − y2 | are smaller than or equal to d1 ((x1 , y1 ),
(x3 , y3 )) + d1 ((x3 , y3 ), (x2 , y2 )), so their maximum d1 ((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) is as well. This is the triangle
inequality for d1 , so we conclude that d1 is a metric on R2 .
To illustrate tis metric: take (0,0), (0,1) ∈ 𝑅 . The usual distance( with respect to the standard metric on
𝑅 ) between these is

√1 + 2 = √5 but with respect to the box metric 𝑑 is

Dr Shailendra Kumar and Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

d1 ((1, 2), (0, 0)) = max{|1 − 0|, |2 − 0|} = 2.

So, in particular, the distance from a point (x, y) to the origin (0, 0) is the larger of |x| and |y|. In general,
the distance between two points with respect to this metric is the length of the longest side of the rectangle
with one corner at the first point and the other corner at the second—this is where the name “box metric”
comes from.
Using the same basic definition, only taking the maximum of more terms, the box metric can be
generalized to give a metric on any Rn .

Example 3. Here is another metric on R2 . Define the function d2 : R2 × R2 → R by

d2 ((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2)) = |x1 − x2 | + |y1 − y2 |.
Then d2 is a metric (you should verify this!) on R2 called the “taxi-cab” metric.

The name comes from the following picture. Say you were in a taxi-cab in a city where the streets
were laid out in a grid like pattern, so that the cab could only move straight, to the left, right, or backwards,
but not “diagonally”. Then the distance between two points with respect to the taxicab metric is the distance
the cab would have to travel to get from one point to the other.
As for the box metric, the taxicab metric can be generalized to Rn for any n.

Example 4. Let 𝑋 be any set, and define the function d : X × X → R by

0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) =
1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦

This is straightforward to check that d is a metric on X , called the discrete metric. Here, the distance
between any two distinct points is always 1.
Example 5. After the standard metric spaces Rn , this example will perhaps be the most important. First, recall
that a function f : X → R from a set X to R is bounded if there is some M ∈ R such that |f (x)| ≤ M for all
x ∈ X . In other words, this says that the set {f (x) | x ∈ X } of values of f is a bounded subset of R. Note
that because of this, the set of values of a bounded function has a supremum as a consequence of the completeness
axiom for R.
Let Cb ([a, b]) denote the space of real-valued, bounded functions on the closed interval [a, b]:
Cb ([a, b]) := {f : [a, b] → R | f is bounded}.
The function d given by
d(f, g) = sup{|f (x) − g(x)| | x ∈ [a, b]}
defines a metric on Cb ([a, b]) called the supremum (or sup for short) metric. Again, you should try to verify
on your own that this is indeed a metric.

A few remarks are in order. First, if f and g are bounded, then so is f −g, so the supremum used in the
definition of d actually exists in R. Thus, the definition of d makes sense. Now, here is what this definition
is saying: take two bounded functions f and g, and look at the distance between f (x) and g(x) over all
possible x—the distance between f and g is defined to be the “largest” such distance. (I put the word “largest”
in quotation marks since the supremum defining the sup metric is not necessarily in the set {|f (x) − g(x)| | x
∈ [a, b]} itself, but you should intuitively think of it as the largest such value.) Also, note that the same
definition works for bounded functions on all of R. The notation
sup |f (x) − g(x)|
x∈[a,b]

Dr Shailendra Kumar and Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

for the supremum used in the definition of d(f, g) is also commonly used.

Eventually, it will help to try to “visualize“ what this metric “looks like”—we will talk about this
in class as we go on. As a start, consider the functions f (x) = cos x and g(x) = − cos x on R. Draw their graphs
and ask yourself: what is the largest possible distance between the values of f and g at points x ∈ R? From
the picture it should be easy to see that the answer is 2, say when x = 0. Because of this, 2 is indeed the
distance between f and g with respect to the sup metric; the sup metric will give us a way to tell how
“close” or how “far apart“ two functions are from each other in terms of their graphs.

The upshot is that everything we learn about metric spaces in general will be applicable to each example
given above—in particular to the “space” Cb ([a, b]) whose “points” are functions f : [a, b] → R.

Sequences:

A sequence in a metric space X is an infinite list

x1 , x 2 , x 3 , . . .

of points in X . (More formally, a sequence in X can be defined as a function f : N → X , but we will

not need this point of view here.) Note that the terms in the sequence do not have to be distinct; in particular,
for any x ∈ X we can talk about the constant sequence

x, x, x, . . . .

We will use the notation (xn ) for the sequence whose n-th term is xn .
Definition 5. A sequence (xn ) in a metric space (X, d) is said to converge to x ∈ X if for every
E > 0 there exists N ∈ N such that

d(xn , x) < E for n ≥ N.

A sequence is convergent if it converges to something, and the point to which it converges is called the limit
of the sequence; we will use the notation (xn ) → x to mean that the sequence (xn ) converges to x. The
notation
lim 𝑥 = 𝑥
→

denote that x is the limit of the convergent sequence (xn ) is also common. A sequence which is not convergent
is divergent.

Before looking at examples, we say a few words about what the definition above is actually saying.
Intuitively, a sequence (xn ) converges to x if the terms of xn are getting closer and closer to x as n increases.
The given definition says this in a precise way.

First, consider any E > 0. The definition says that there is some index N so that starting at the index
and beyond, the terms in the sequence are within a distance E away from x. As E gets smaller, maybe the
index you have to start at to ensure this will get larger, but still starting at some index the terms in (xn )
are within that distance away from x.

Dr Shailendra Kumar and Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

Another way to say this is the following. Recall that the condition d(xn , x) < E says that xn is
in the E-ball around x. Starting off the definition of convergence by saying “for every E > 0” says that we
are going to consider an arbitrary ball around x. From this point of view, the definition says that given
any ball around x, starting at some index the terms in the sequence are in that ball. Again the key is that
E here can get arbitrarily small: no matter how small a ball you start with around x, eventually the terms
in (xn ) will be in there. This is precisely what it means to say that the terms in a sequence are getting closer
and closer to the limit.
Example 10. In any metric space, a constant sequence x, x, x, . . . converges to x?
Example 11. This is a standard elementary example. Consider the sequence in R with the standard
metric. Intuitively the terms of this sequence are getting closer and closer to 0—let us prove that the
sequence indeed converges to 0.
Let 𝜖 > 0. We want to find an index N where for n ≥ N we have < 𝜖

It is the Archimedian Property that tells us what N to choose: pick N ∈ N such that < 𝜖 . Then
E.if n ≥ N we have ≤ < 𝜖
We conclude that the sequence ( ) converges to 0.

Check the book for other such examples of convergent sequences in R. Let us now look at some nonstandard
examples of metric spaces:
Example 12. Suppose that (X, d) is a discrete metric space. We claim that the only convergent sequences in
X are those which are “eventually constant”: i.e. those sequences (xn ) for which there is some element x ∈ X
and N ∈ N such that xn = x for n ≥ N . In other words, a sequence is eventually constant if if terms
starting at some index and beyond are the same.

It should not be hard to show that an eventually constant sequence converges—the proof is similar to
the one showing that constant sequences always converge. Now suppose that (xn ) is a sequence in X which
converges to x ∈ X . Applying the definition of convergence to E = 1, we know that there is some index N such
that
d(xn , x) < 1 for n ≥ N.
But according to the definition of the discrete metric on a set, the distance between two points is either 1
or 0, so the only way such a distance can be less than 1 is if it is actually 0. Thus the statement above
becomes the statement that
d(xn , x) = 0 for n ≥ N.
By the first property in the definition of a metric, d(xn , x) = 0 if and only if xn = x, so we find that xn
= x for n ≥ N , and thus a convergence sequence in a discrete space is eventually constant.

Dr Shailendra Kumar and Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

In all the examples above, the sequences we considered only converged to one thing—this is not an accident.
Note that this is something we have to prove since there is nothing in the definition of a convergent sequence
which says that limit must be unique.
Proposition 1. In any metric space, limits of convergent sequences are unique.

Proof: Assume a convergent sequence (xn ) has two limits x and y and show that the two limits are the same.
To show that x = y, we must think in an “analytic” way—in other words, how do we show two things are
the same using inequalities? Note that in this case we cannot show that x ≤ y and y ≤ x, since this
only makes sense in R; in a general metric space, it is not possible to compare elements directly using
inequalities.
The only thing we have to work with in a general metric space is the metric d itself, so the question
now becomes: how do we show two elements of a space are the same using only the metric? The answer is now
clear: we show that d(x, y) = 0, and then the first defining property of a metric will tell us that x = y. Now
again we have to think a bit: it may not be possible to show directly that d(x, y) = 0, so we have to find an
“analytic” way to show this. But we know how to do this too: if we can show that d(x, y) < E for every E
> 0, it must be the case that d(x, y) = 0.
So, the end goal is now to show that if a convergent sequence (xn ) in a metric space has two limits x
and y, then d(x, y) < E for all E > 0. To do this, we find a way to bound d(x, y) by things we know how to
bound. In other words, here we use the triangle inequality to say that:

d(x, y) ≤ d(x, xn ) + d(xn , y)

for any n. The point is that now using the assumptions that (xn ) converges to x and (xn ) converges to y, we
can bound these two latter terms; in particular, if we make each latter term smaller than

2 , then their sum will be smaller than E—this is an instance of the so-called “ 2 -trick”, which we
will be seeing a lot of. Let us now give the final proof.

Proof of Proposition. Suppose that (X, d) is a metric space and that the sequence (xn ) in X con- verges to x
and y. Let E > 0. Since (xn ) → x, there exists an index N1 ∈ N such that
E
d(xn , x) < for n ≥ N1 .
2
Since (xn ) → y, there exists N2 ∈ N such that
E
d(xn , y) < for n ≥ N2 .
2
Let N = max{N1 , N2 }. Then both inequalities above hold, and so the triangle inequality gives
E E
d(x, y) ≤ d(x, xN ) + d(xN , y) < + = E.
2 2
Thus for any E > 0, d(x, y) < E. This implies that d(x, y) = 0, which in turn implies that x = y. We
conclude that the limit of a convergent sequence is unique.

Here is another basic fact:

Proposition 2. A convergent sequence in a metric space (X, d) is bounded, by which we mean that the set whose
elements are the terms in the sequence is a bounded subset of X .

Dr Shailendra Kumar and Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

Proof. Let (xn) be a convergent sequence in X , and suppose that x is its limit. We want to show that the
set {xn | n ∈ N} is contained in some ball of finite radius. Since (xn ) → x, there exists N ∈ N such that
d(xn , x) < 1 for n ≥ N.
Thus the terms in the sequence for n ≥ N are contained in the ball of radius 1 around x.
Now we make the radius larger so that the resulting ball will contain the terms x1 , x2 , . . . , xN −1 as well.
Set r = 1 + max{d(x1 , x), . . . , d(xN −1 , x), 1}. Since r ≥ 1, r is positive, and we claim that the ball of radius
r around x contains all the terms in the sequence (xn ). Indeed, as we said before,
xn is in this ball for n ≥ N since it was already contained in the smaller ball of radius 1 around x, and xi
for i = 1, . . . , N − 1 is contained in this ball since xi is contained in the possibly smaller ball of radius 1 +
d(xi , x) around x. We conclude that (xn ) is bounded.

Dr Shailendra Kumar and Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

The special case that sequences of real numbers are bounded is proven in the book, but the above now
shows that this holds in any metric space. The key is that we know that past some index the terms in
the sequence are within a distance 1 away from x, so we only need to pick a large enough radius so that the
terms before this are also in the ball of this radius; the way we did this—by constructing the radius using the
maximum of a finite collection of positive numbers—is a common technique that we will see again.
Check the book for proofs of other properties of convergent sequences in R, such as the fact that if (xn )
and (yn ) are sequences of real numbers converging to x and y respectively, then the sequence (xn + yn )
converges to x + y and the sequence (xn yn ) converges to xy. Both facts use the “ 2 -trick”; the second is tougher
to prove, but illustrates some important techniques. You can also
find a proof of this latter fact in my “Worked Examples” handout listed on the course website for
Math 104 in Summer 2010, where I also say a bit about the motivation behind the proof.
For good measure, we should also give an example showing how to prove that a sequence is
divergent using the definition of convergent itself:

Example 14. Consider the sequence (xn ) in R where xn = 2 + (−1)n . We claim that this sequence does not
converge; to be precise, we claim that no real number satisfies the definition of what it means for (xn ) to
converge to x.
To say that x ∈ R does not satisfy this definition means the following: there exists E > 0 such that for
every N ∈ N there exists n ≥ N such that

d(xn , x) ≥ E.

Indeed, this is obtained by negating the definition of convergence: negating “for every E > 0” gives “there
exists E > 0”, negating “there exists N ∈ N” gives “for every N ∈ N”, negating “for n ≥ N ” gives “there
exists n ≥ N ”, and finally negating “d(xn , x) < E” gives “d(xn , x) ≥ E”. Being able to negate statements—
i.e. write down precisely what it means for a statement to be false—will be a useful thing to know how to
do.
Let x ∈ R. We claim that E = 1 satisfies the above requirement of what it means for (xn) to not
converge to x. Indeed, now let N ∈ N. If x < 2, let n be an even integer larger than N . Then xn = 3
and d(xn , x) > 1. If x ≥ 2, let n be an odd integer larger than N . Then xn = 1 and d(xn , x) ≥ 1. Thus
in either case, we have found a term in the sequence beyond the N -th one whose distance from x is at least 1,
showing that x does not satisfy the definition of what it means for (xn ) to converge to x. Since x ∈ R was
arbitrary, we conclude that (xn ) converges to no real number, so it diverges.

We emphasize that whenever we are asking whether or not a sequence converges, the “big” space we are
working in is crucial. For example, consider the sequence (xn ) defined by xn = 2 − . As a sequence in R, this
converges to 2. However, since each xn ∈ (0, 2), we can also view this as a sequence in the subspace (0, 2) of R.
In this subspace, however, (xn ) does not converge since the thing to which it should converge is not in the
space (0, 2). Thus, (xn ) is a convergent sequence in R but is a divergent sequence in (0, 2). The moral is: limits
of convergent sequences should actually exist in the space we are working in.
Let us give a final fact, which will be important later on. Note that the denseness of both Q and R\Q
in R is crucial here—indeed, this proposition will be the idea behind the more general notion of “denseness”
we will discuss later on:
Definition 6. A subsequence of a sequence (xn ) in a metric space X is a sequence (xnk ) in X
consisting of terms of the sequence (xn ) such that nk > nk t if k > k I .

The final condition simply means that the terms in the subsequence occur in the same order as they did in
the original sequence, so another way to state the above definition is the following: a subsequence of (xn ) is

Dr Shailendra Kumar and Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

a sequence (xnk ) of terms from (xn ) which occur in the same order as they did in (xn ). For example, given
the sequence (n):

1, 2, 3, 4, . . .

in R, the sequence (2n) = 2, 4, 6, . . . is a subsequence, but the sequence 4, 2, 6, 8, . . . is not since the first two
terms do not occur in the same order as they did in (n).
The key property of a subsequence is the following:

Proposition 3. Let (xn) be a convergent sequence in a metric space X . Then any subsequence of
(xn ) converges to the same limit as (xn ).
Proof. Say that (xn) converges to x ∈ X . Suppose that (xnk ) is a subsequence of (xn ) and let
E > 0. Since (xn ) → x, there exists N1 ∈ N such that

d(xn , x) < E for n ≥ N1 .

Choose N ∈ N large enough so that nk ≥ N1 for k ≥ N ; in other words, choose an index N for the subsequence
large enough so that the N -term in the subsequence is beyond the N1 -th term in the original sequence. Then
for k ≥ N , nk ≥ N1 so

d(xnk , x) < E.

We conclude that (xnk ) converges to x.

As an upshot, whenever we have a sequence in a metric space with two subsequences which converge to
different things (or with a divergent subsequence), then the original sequence does not converge. This can be
quite useful in practice: for instance, since the subsequence (x2n = 3) of the sequence (xn = 2 + (−1)n ) of a
previous example converges to 3 and the subsequence (x2n+1 = 1) converges to 1, the sequence (xn ) itself
diverges. Note that this is much simpler than the way we previously proved this fact, where we used the
precise statement of what it means for a sequence to diverge.

Cauchy Sequences

Definition 7. A sequence (xn ) in a metric space (X, d) is a Cauchy sequence if for every E > 0 there exists
N ∈ N such that
d(xn , xm ) < E for all n, m ≥ N.

It is important to compare this with the definition of convergence for a sequence. In that case, we are
talking about the sequence converging to some given point—in other words, to prove that a sequence converges
using the definition of convergence we must already have a guess as to what the sequence should converge to.
In a sense, we must already know what the limit is going to be.
The point here is that there is no such restriction in the definition of a Cauchy sequence: the definition
makes no mention of any other point, only the terms of the sequence itself. Intuitively, the definition says
that given some positive distance, eventually (i.e. past some index) the terms in the sequence will all be within
that distance apart from each other, no matter how small a distance we started with.

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Example 15. Recall that for any real number, there is a sequence of rational numbers converging to it—this
is a consequence of the denseness of Q in R. In particular, there is a sequence of rationals (rn ) converging to √2.
To be specific, consider the decimal expansion of √2:

√2 = 1.414 …
Define the sequence (rn ) by setting

r1 = 1, r2 = 1.4, r3 = 1.41, r4 = 1.414

and continuing in this manner, taking one more digit in the decimal expansion of √2 at a t i m e . Note
that each (rn) is indeed rational since it has a finite decimal expansion, and that (rn ) then does
converge to √2.

In fact, (rn ) is a Cauchy sequence. Indeed, let 𝜖 > 0.

Then if n, m ≥ N , we have
|𝑟 − 𝑟 | ≤ 𝑟 − √2 + 𝑟 − √2 < + < 𝜖.

Since (rn ) → √2, there exists N ∈ N such that 𝑟 − √2 < for each 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁.

(The first inequality is the triangle inequality.) This shows that (rn ) is a Cauchy sequence as claimed.

The above fact is not surprising—in fact, convergent sequences are always Cauchy, and the proof uses
the same 2 -trick as the example:
Theorem 1. Any convergent sequence in a metric space (X, d) is Cauchy.

Proof. Suppose that (xn ) is a convergent sequence in X , and let x be its limit. Let 𝜖 > 0 a n d c h o o s e
𝑁 ∈ 𝑵 s u c h t h a t 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑥 ) < for each 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁.

If n, m ≥ N , we have

𝜖 𝜖
𝑑(𝑥 , 𝑥 ) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥 , 𝑥) + 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑥 ) < + <𝜖
2 2

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so (xn ) is Cauchy as claimed.

Intuitively, since the terms of a convergent sequence are getting closer and closer to its limit, clearly
the terms should be getting closer and closer to each other as well. This is what the above theorem says.
Now, we can ask about the converse: must a Cauchy sequence be convergent? After all, if the terms in a
sequence are getting closer and closer to each other (i.e. the sequence is Cauchy), it is not crazy to think the
terms are then getting closer and closer to some fixed point. The answer to this boils down to some thing we
saw before: it depends on what space we are actually working in.
For instance, the sequence of rationals (rn ) of the previous example
√ converges to √2 in R, but it does not
converge in Q since the number it should converge to—namely 2—is not in Q. This is then an example of
a Cauchy sequence in Q (the definition of Cauchy only uses the terms of the sequence itself, so it does not
really matter what space we are working in) which is not a convergent sequence in Q.

The moral is: Cauchy sequences are precisely the sequences which “should” converge, only that the “point”
to which a Cauchy sequence should converge to may not actually be in the given metric space.
Definition 8. A metric space (X, d) is said to be complete if every Cauchy sequence in X converges in X.
The “converges in X ”part is the crucial point. So, Q is not complete, neither is R\Q (a sequence of irrationals
converging to a rational number in R will be Cauchy but not convergent in R\Q), and you should be able
to convince yourselves that open intervals (a, b) are also not complete.
The standard example of a complete metric space is the following:

Theorem 2. The set of real numbers R with the standard metric is complete. More generally, Rn
with the standard metric is complete.
A proof of this fact is given in the book. You can find another proof in the “Worked Examples” handout
from my Summer 2010 course. After we talk about the notion of a “closed” subset of R, we will be able to
show that closed intervals [a, b] are also complete. Another key example is the following:
Theorem 3. The space Cb ([a, b]) of bounded, real-valued functions on the interval [a, b] is complete.
The same is true if we replace [a, b] by all of R itself. The proof of this theorem (which is not easy the
first time you see it) uses the completeness of R in a crucial way: starting with a Cauchy sequence in the
space of bounded functions, we first use the completeness of R to construct the function which should be
the limit of the given Cauchy sequence, and then we show that it is indeed the limit. The proof is given in
Section 25 of the book, only it is not phrased as a statement about completeness of the metric space Cb ([a, b]).
Here is a final basic property of Cauchy sequences, analogous to a previously-mentioned property of convergent
sequences:
Proposition 5. Any Cauchy sequence in a metric space (X, d) is bounded.
Proof. The proof is essentially the same as that for convergent sequences. Suppose (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence in
X , and choose N ∈ N such that
d(xn , xm ) < 1 for n, m ≥ N.

In particular then, xn is in the ball of radius 1 around 𝑥𝑁 for n ≥ N. Thus, all terms in the sequence
are in the ball of radius
r = 1 + max{d(x1 , xN ), . . . , d(xN −1 , xN ), 1}>0

around xN, so (xn ) is bounded as claimed; to emphasize, xn for n ≥ N is in the smaller ball of radius 1
around xN , and xi for i = 1, . . . , N − 1 is in the possibly smaller ball of radius
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1 + d(xi , xN ) around xN .

As we have seen, metric spaces are not necessarily complete, and in such spaces Cauchy sequences do not
necessarily converge—the main example being Q with the standard metric. In this example, however, there
is a larger metric space—namely R—in which every Cauchy sequence in Q does now converge. We can ask
whether the same thing holds in general: given a noncomplete metric space X, does there always exist a
complete metric space containing X as a subspace?

The answer is yes(!), and the “smallest” such complete space X is called the completion of X . For example,
the completion of Q with respect to the standard metric indeed turns out to be R with the standard metric.
We will not discuss this notion further here, nor say precisely what we mean by the “smallest” complete
metric space containing a given noncomplete one. Roughly, given a noncomplete space X, we consider the set
of all possible Cauchy sequences in X and define the completion X of X to essentially be this set of Cauchy
sequences itself! To make this into a “space”, we would then have to define what we mean by the distance
between two Cauchy sequences, and show that with such a metric X is actually complete. To do everything
carefully would take us quite a while, and for a first course in analysis the payoff is not so important. Still,
you should be aware that this is an important construction in more advanced applications of analysis,
although ones you probably would not see in an undergraduate course.

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

Unit 1- Question Bank (MCQ)

1. The usual metric 𝑑 on the set of real numbers 𝑅 is

a. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 𝑦
b. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = min 1, 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)
c. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦|
d. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 + 𝑦|
Answer: (c) 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦|
2. In a discrete space (𝑋, 𝑑), every subset is
a. open and closed
b. bounded set
c. closed set
d. open set
Answer: (d) 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡
3. If 𝑑 and 𝑑 are metrices on the same set 𝑀. Then, choose the correct statement
a. 𝑑 + 𝑑 is a metric on the set 𝑀
b. 𝐦𝐢𝐧{𝑑 , 𝑑 } is a metric on the set 𝑀
c. (𝑑 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑑 ) both are metrices on the set 𝑀
d. 𝑑 𝑑 is a metric on the set 𝑀
Answer: (a)- 𝑑 + 𝑑 is a metric.
4. If 𝑑 and 𝑑 are metrices on the same set 𝑀. Then, choose the wrong statement
e. 𝑑 + 𝑑 is a metric on the set M
f. 𝐦𝐚𝐱 {𝑑 , 𝑑 } is a metric on the set M
g. (𝑑 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑑 ) both are metrices on the set M
h. neither (𝑑 ) nor (𝑑 ) is a metric on the set M
Answer: (b)- 𝐦𝐚𝐱 {𝑑 , 𝑑 } is a metric on the set M
5. Choose the correct statement
a. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦| is a metric on a set M
b. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦 | is a metric on a set M
c. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦 | is a metric on a set M
d. 𝐦𝐚𝐱 {𝑑 , 𝑑 } is a metric, where 𝑑 and 𝑑 are metrices on a set M
Answer: (a)- 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦| is a metric on a set M
6. Choose the wrong statement
e. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦| is a metric on a set M
f. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦 | is a metric on a set M
g. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦 | is a metric on a set M
h. 𝐦𝐢𝐧 {𝑑 , 𝑑 } is a metric, where 𝑑 and 𝑑 are metrices on a set M

Answer: (c)- 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦 | is a metric on a set M

7. Let 𝜌: 𝑹𝟐 × 𝑹𝟐 → 𝑹, 𝑹 is the set of real numbers. Then, the taxi-cab metric is

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

a. 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = max {|𝑥 − 𝑥 |, |𝑦 − 𝑦 |}

b. 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = min{1, d(x, y)}, 𝑑 is a metric on R
c. 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑥 | + |𝑦 − 𝑦 |
d. 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 − 𝑥 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦 )

8. A usual metric space (𝑿, 𝑑) on the set of real or complex numbers is

a. Bounded
b. Unbounded
c. Discrete
d. Unbounded and discrete both
Answer: (b)- Unbounded
9. The metric space (𝑀, 𝜌) with 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = min{𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦), 2} for any metric 𝑑 on any set M is
a. Bounded
b. Unbounded
c. Discrete
d. Unbounded and discrete both
Answer: (a)- bounded
10. The set of all rational numbers 𝑄 is a subspace of real numbers 𝑅 with respect to the Euclidean metric.
If we define discrete metric 𝜌 on 𝑄, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
a. (𝑄, 𝜌) is subspace of (𝑅, 𝑑), where 𝑑 is the Euclidean space
b. (𝑄, 𝜌) is not a subspace of (𝑅, 𝑑), where 𝑑 is the Euclidean space
c. (𝑄, 𝜌) is unbounded
d. 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒
Answer: (b)- (𝑄, 𝜌) is not a subspace of (𝑅, 𝑑), where 𝑑 is the Euclidean space
11. Let 𝑋 = 𝐹 , 𝐹 is any field and any real number and
𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = ( ∑ |𝑥 − 𝑦 | ) . Then, (𝑋, 𝑑 ) is
a. a metric space for any real number 𝑝
b. not a metric space if 𝑝 = 2
c. not a metric space if p=1
d. not a metric space if 𝑝 ∈ (0,1)
Answer: (d)- not a metric space if 𝑝 ∈ (0,1)

12. Any convergent sequence in a metric space converges to

a. a unique value
b. finitely many values
c. infinitely many values
d. two values
Answer: (a)- a unique value
13. Any convergent sequence in a metric space is
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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

a. always unbounded
b. always Bounded
c. sometimes unbounded
d. sometimes bounded
Answer: (b)- always bounded
14. Any convergent sequence in a metric space is
a. Unbounded
b. Cauchy sequence
c. Not Cauchy sequence
d. None of these
Answer: (b)- Cauchy sequence
15. Any Cauchy sequence in a metric space is
a. always unbounded
b. always Bounded
c. sometimes unbounded
d. w3sometimes bounded
Answer: (b)- always bounded

16. Let (𝑎 ) = be a sequence in 𝑀 = (0, 1). Then, (𝑎 )

a. converges in 𝑀
b. not a Cauchy sequence in 𝑀
c. unbounded
d. not converges in 𝑀
Answer: (d)- not converges in M

17. Let (𝑎 ) = be a sequence in 𝑀 = (0, 1). Then, (𝑎 )

a. converges in 𝑀
b. a Cauchy sequence in 𝑀
c. unbounded
d. converges to ∞
Answer: (b)- a Cauchy sequence in 𝑀

18. Let (𝑎 ) = be a sequence in 𝑀 = (0, 1). Then, (𝑎 )

a. Unbounded with no convergent subsequence
b. Bounded with no convergent subsequence
c. converges to ∞
d. converges in 𝑀
Answer: (b)- Bounded with no convergent subsequence
19. In any discrete metric space (𝑋, 𝑑), every Cauchy sequence is
a. not convergent in 𝑋
b. unbounded
c. always convergent in 𝑋
d. converges to 0
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Answer: (c )- always convergent in 𝑋

20. Let (𝑀, 𝑑) be a metric space, where 𝑀 = (0, 1). Then, the metric space (𝑀, 𝑑) is
a. complete space
b. not a complete space
c. every sequence in 𝑀 is convergent
d. every Cauchy sequence in 𝑀 is convergent in 𝑀
Answer: (b)- not a complete space
21. Let (𝑀, 𝑑) be a complete metric space and 𝐴 be a subset of 𝑀. Then, (𝐴, 𝑑) is complete if and only
if 𝐴 is a
a. Open set in 𝑀
b. Dense set in 𝑀
c. Closed set in 𝑀
d. Bounded in 𝑀
Answer: (c )- closed in M
22. Choose the wrong statement
a. The set of real numbers 𝑹 is complete
b. 𝑀 = (0, 1) is complete
c. Any discrete space is complete
d. The set of natural numbers N is complete
Answer: (b)- 𝑀 = (0, 1) is complete
23. In any metric space, every constant sequence (𝑎, 𝑎, 𝑎, … . ) is
a. convergent
b. not convergent
c. convergent to 𝑎
d. unbounded
Answer: (c )- convergent to 𝑎
24. Let (𝑎 ) = 2 + (−1) be a sequence in any metric space. Then, (𝑎 ) is
a. Convergent
b. Convergent to 1
c. Convergent to 2
d. Does not convergent
Answer: (d)- does not convergent
25. Let (𝑎 ) = 2 + (−1) be a sequence in a usual metric space over R. Then, (𝑎 ) is
e. Convergent and bounded
f. Convergent to 1 and bounded
g. Convergent to 2 and bounded
h. Bounded but not convergent
Answer: (d)- bounded but not convergent
26. A subsequence of any convergent sequence (𝑎 )
a. unbounded
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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

b. is not convergent
c. is convergent and converges to the same limit as (𝑎 )
d. is convergent but converges to the different limit as (𝑎 )
Answer: (c )- is convergent and converges to the same limit as of (𝑎 )
27. Let 𝑋 = 𝐹 , 𝐹 is any field and any real number and
𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = ( ∑ |𝑥 − 𝑦 | ) . Then, (𝑋, 𝑑 ) is
e. a metric space for any real number 𝑝
f. a metric space if 𝑝 =
g. a metric space if 𝑝 =
h. a metric space if 𝑝 ∈ (0,1)

Answer: (c)- a metric space if 𝑝 =

28. Let 𝑋 = 𝑙 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = sup |𝑥 − 𝑦 |.
Then, (𝑋, 𝑑 ) is
i. a metric space for any real number 𝑝
j. a metric space if 𝑝 =
k. a metric space if 𝑝 =
l. a metric space if 𝑝 = ∞
Answer: (d)- a metric space if 𝑝 = ∞
29. Let (𝑙 , 𝑑 ) be a metric space with
𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = sup |𝑥 − 𝑦 |.
Then, the value of 𝑑 (1,6), (4,2) is
a. 3
b. 5
c. 4
d. 1
Answer: (c )- 4
30. Let (𝑙 , 𝑑 ) be a metric space with
𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = sup |𝑥 − 𝑦 |.
Then, the value of 𝑑 (1,6,4), (4,3, −1) is
a. 3
b. 5
c. 4
d. 1
Answer: (b )- 5
31. Let (𝑙 , 𝑑 ), (𝑙 , 𝑑 ) and (𝑙 , 𝑑 ) be the metric spaces. Then, choose the correct one

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

a. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)

√
b. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑛 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)
c. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)
√
d. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)
√

Answer: (a)- 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)

√

32. Let (𝑙
, 𝑑 ), (𝑙 , 𝑑 ) and (𝑙 , 𝑑 ) be the metric spaces. Then, choose the correct one
a. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ √𝑛 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)
b. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑛 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)
c. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ √𝑛 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)
d. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)
√

Answer: (c)- 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ √𝑛 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)

33. Let (𝑙 , 𝑑 ), (𝑙 , 𝑑 ) and (𝑙 , 𝑑 ) be the metric spaces. Then, choose the correct one
a. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑛 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)
b. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑛 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)
c. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ √𝑛 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)
d. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑛 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)

Answer: (a)- 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑛 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)

34. Let (𝑙 ,𝑑 ), (𝑙 , 𝑑 ) and (𝑙 , 𝑑 ) be the metric spaces. Then, choose the correct one
a. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ √𝑛 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)
b. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑛 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)
c. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑛 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)
d. 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)

Answer: (a)- 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ √𝑛 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦)

35. Let 𝑋 = 𝐹 , 𝐹 is any field and any real number and

𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = ∑ |𝑥 − 𝑦 | . Then, (𝑋, 𝑑 ) is
m. a metric space for any real number 𝑝
n. a metric space if 𝑝 = 2
o. a metric space if 𝑝 =
p. a metric space if 𝑝 ∈ (0,1)
Answer: (c)- a metric space if 𝑝 = (0,1)
36. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a metric space and 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) = 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑧) for any distinct points 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋. Then,
𝑑 is a metric space
a. if 𝑝 = 2
b. if 𝑝 =
c. if 𝑝 > 1
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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

d. if 𝑝 < 1
Answer: (d)- if 𝑝 < 1
37. A function 𝑑: 𝑀 × 𝑀 → [0, ∞), 𝑀 is vector space is pseudo metric if
a. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)
b. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 iff 𝑥 = 𝑦
c. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦
d. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇏ 𝑥 = 𝑦
Answer: (d) - 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇏ 𝑥 = 𝑦
38. Let 𝐹 be a family of all Riemann integrable functions 𝑓: [0,1] → 𝑹. Then, the pair (𝐹, 𝑑), where
𝑑: 𝐹 × 𝐹 → [0, ∞) is a
a. discrete metric space
b. metric space
c. pseudo metric space
d. taxi-cab metric space
Answer: (c )- pseudo metric space
39. Let 𝑑 is a pseudo metric on 𝑋 and 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = min{1, 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦)} . Then, the pair (𝑋, 𝜌) is
a. A metric space
b. Pseudo metric space
c. Discrete metric space
d. None of these
Answer: (b)- pseudo metric space
40. Let (𝑙 , 𝑑 ) be a metric space with
𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = sup |𝑥 − 𝑦 |.
Then, the value of 𝑑 (1, −6), (4,2) is
e. 8
f. 5
g. 4
h. 1
Answer: (a)- 8
41. Let (𝑅 , 𝑑 ) be a Euclidean metric space, where
𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) . Then, the value of
𝑑 (1,6), (4,2) is
a. 5
b. 6
c. 1
d. 3
Answer: (a)- 5
42. Let (𝑅 , 𝑑 ) be a Euclidean metric space, where

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) . Then, the value of

𝑑 (1,1), (3,1) is
a. 3
b. 0
c. 1
d. 2
Answer: (d)- 2
43. Let (𝑅 , 𝑑 ) be a Euclidean metric space, where
𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) . Then, the value of
𝑑 (1,1,1), (3,1,1) is
a. 3
b. 2
c. 1
d. 0

Answer: (b)- 2
44. Let (𝑅 , 𝑑 ) be a Euclidean metric space, where
𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) . Then, the value of
𝑑 (1,3,1,1), (1,1,1,1) is
a. 3
b. 1
c. 2
d. 0
Answer: (c)- 2

45. Let (𝑅 , 𝑑 ) be a Euclidean metric space, where

𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) . Then, the sequence

(𝑎 ) = , in 𝑅 is

a. converges to 0
b. converges to 1
c. converges to (0,0)
d. converges to (1,1)
Answer: (c )- converges to (0,0)

46. Let (𝑅 , 𝑑 ) be a Euclidean metric space, where

𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦 | + ⋯ … + |𝑥 − 𝑦 |. Then, the sequence (𝑎 ) = , in 𝑅 is

a. converges to 0
b. converges to 1
c. converges to (0,0)
d. converges to (1,1)
Dr Shailendra Kumar and Dr Pradeep Kumar
B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

Answer: (c )- converges to (0,0)

47. Let (𝑅 , 𝑑 ) be a Euclidean metric space, where 𝑑 is discrete metric.

Then, the sequence (𝑎 ) = , in 𝑅 is

a. converges to 0
b. converges to 1
c. converges to (0,0)
d. none of these
Answer: (d)- none of these i.e., not converges to (0,0)
48. Let (𝑅, 𝑑) be a metric space over a set of real numbers. Then, a sequence (𝑎 ) of real numbers
converges to another real number 𝑎, if
a. lim 𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑎) = 0
→
b. lim 𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑎) = 1
→
c. lim 𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑎) ≠ 0
→
d. lim 𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑎) = −1
→

Answer: (a) - lim 𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑎) = 0

→

49. Let (𝑀, 𝑑) and (𝑁, 𝑑) be any two metric spaces. Then, (𝑀 × 𝑁, 𝑑) is complete metric space if
a. either 𝑀 or 𝑁 is complete
b. both 𝑀 and 𝑁 are complete
c. for any metric spaces (𝑀, 𝑑) and (𝑁, 𝑑)
d. none of these
Answer: (b)- both 𝑀 and 𝑁 are complete

50. Choose the wrong statement

a. [0,1] is complete
b. 𝑵-set of natural numbers is complete
c. (0,1) is complete
d. [0, ∞) is complete
Answer: (c ) – (0,1) is complete

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

Unit 2

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

Definition 1. Let (X, d) be a metric space. For any r > 0 and x ∈ X, the r-ball or ball of radius
r around p in X is the set:
Br (x): = {y ∈ X | d(x, y) < r}
of points of X whose “distance” from x is less than r.

The name “ball of radius r” comes from the fact that in the case of R2 with the Euclidean metric,
the r-ball around a point indeed looks like a ball (or disk) of radius r centered at that point. In the case
of R, note that Br (x) = (x − r, x + r) is the interval of radius r around x.

Example 1. The ball B1 ((0, 0)) of radius 1 in R2 centered at the origin with respect to the box metric is
the region enclosed by the square with corners (−1, −1), (−1, 1), (1, −1), and (1, 1), but not including the
square itself.
With respect to the taxicab metric, B1 ((0, 0)) looks like the region enclosed by a diamond.

Example 2. Let X be a set with the discrete metric. For any x ∈ X , the ball of radius 1 around x is simply
the set containing only x. Indeed, the points y in this ball are those satisfying the condition that d(x, y)
< 1, and by the definition of the discrete metric this is only possible if d(x, y) = 0 in which case y = x.
Hence B1 (x) = {x}, and more generally you can convince yourself that Br (x) = {x} for any 0 < r < 1.
Since every y ∈ X satisfies the condition that d(x, y) ≤ 1, for any r > 1 every y ∈ X satisfies
d(x, y) < r, so the r-ball around x in this case is all of X .

Example 3. Let f : [0, 1] → R be the constant function 0: i.e. f (x) = 0 for all x ∈ [0, 1]. Let us determine
what the ball of radius 1 around f in Cb ([0, 1]) “looks like”.
A function g ∈ Cb ([0, 1]) is in this ball exactly when

d(f, g) = sup |f (x) − g(x)| < 1.

x∈[0,1]

Since f (x) = 0 for all x, this is the same as requiring that

sup |g(x)| < 1.

x∈[0,1]

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

Thus the ball of raduis 1 around f = 0 consists of those functions such that |g(x)| < 1 for all x ∈ [0, 1].
(Actually, this is not quite right, but we will skip this for now and come back to it later once we are more
comfortable with this space.)
Here’s the idea: draw a “tube” of radius 1 around the graph of the function f = 0, so this is just a “tube”
of radius 1 around the x-axis. Then the ball of radius 1 around f = 0 (essentially) consists of those functions
whose graphs lie completely within this tube. In this way, we can “picture” what this ball looks like.

Definition 2. Let (X, d) be a metric space. A subspace of X is a subset Y ⊆ X of X with the metric
obtained by restricting the one on X to Y . This just means that we take the same notion of distance as we
have in X but only allow ourselves to plug in points of Y .

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

Example 4. We can view the set of rational numbers Q as a subpsace of R with the standard Euclidean
metric d(x, y) = |x − y|. Note the following: the ball of radius 1 in R around r ∈ Q is the interval (r − 1, r +
1), but the ball of radius 1 in Q around r ∈ Q is (r − 1, r + 1) ∩ Q; i.e. the set of rational numbers in in the
interval (r − 1, r + 1). The point is that the notion of “r-ball” depends on what the “big” space is: if we
are working inside the metric space Q, then such an r-ball only consists of rational numbers since those are
the only such elements of our big space; working inside R, there are more elements in the “big” space and so
an r-ball in R will contain more numbers than an r-ball in Q.
Similarly, view (−1, 1) as a subspace of R. Then the ball of radius 2 in (−1, 1) around 0 is (−1, 1)
itself. Yes, the ball of radius 2 in R around 0 is (−2, 2), but these extra points do not exist in the “big” space
(−1, 1) we are working in.

Definition 3. A subset U of a metric space (X, d) is bounded if there exists a positive radius r > 0 and a point
x ∈ X such that U ⊆ Br (x).

In other words, a subset is bounded if there is a ball of a large enough radius which contains it; the
point at which this ball centered does not really matter since if a subset is bounded, then around any point
you can find a large enough ball which contains that subset. Indeed, suppose that
U is bounded and contained in Br (x) for some x ∈ X and r > 0. Then for any other point xI ∈ X , the ball
of radius r + d(x, xI ) around xI will also contain U ; in particular, this ball contains Br (x)
itself, which already contains U . Again, the point is that in the definition of bounded, neither the radius
nor the center point really matter—what matters is that U is contained in some ball of finite radius.

Open and Closed Sets

Now we begin talking about the topology of a metric space. “Topology” is a term which has a precise
meaning in mathematics, but we will not discuss this in full generality in this course; for us, “topology”
will simply mean “things having to do with open and closed sets”. Here are the two main definitions:
Definition 5 . A subset U of a metric space (X, d) is open in X if for any x ∈ U there exists r > 0 such that
Br (x) ⊆ U . A subset A ⊆ X is closed in X if whenever (an ) is a sequence of points in A converging to some
a ∈ X , then a ∈ A.
Let us think about these two definitions more carefully. The definition of open says the following: for any
x ∈ U , we can find a ball around x which is fully contained in U . The idea is that if x ∈ U , then any point
“close enough” to x is also in U . Note that we put no restriction on how large or small the radius r of the
ball Br (x) around x has to be, simply that such a radius exists. Intuitively, a set U is open if moving a short
distance away from a point in U keeps you inside U ; in other words, a set is open if it “surrounds” all of
its points.
The definition of closed says this: if (an ) is a convergent sequence in X whose terms happen to belong
to A, then the point to which this sequence converges is also in A. In other words, A is closed under the
process of taking limits; intuitively, a point which is “close” to A—in the sense that there are points of A
arbitrarily close to it—is actually in A.
Example 5. As trivial examples, in any metric space (X, d), both the empty set ∅ and X itself are open and
closed in X . Indeed, to say that ∅ is open in X means that around any x ∈ ∅ there should be a ball which is
fully contained in ∅—but there is no such x ∈ ∅ on which to check this condition! Thus, the empty set
trivially satisfies the definition of open, so it is open in X . On the other hand, for any x ∈ X , then any
ball around x is contained in X simply because any ball around x by definition consists of elements from the
“big” space X itself. So, the defining property of open is trivially satisfied by any x ∈ X, so X is open in
itself.
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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

Similarly, to say that ∅ is closed means that for any sequence of points in ∅ converging to something
in X , the point the sequences converges to should be in ∅—but again there are no sequences in ∅ on which
to check this condition, so ∅ is closed in X . If (xn ) is any convergent sequence in X , then the point it
converges to is certainly in X simply because this is part of what it means to say that (xn) is a “convergent
sequence in X ”. Thus, X is closed in itself.
Example 6 . Consider R with the standard metric. We claim that any open interval (a, b) is open in R and
any closed interval [a, b] is closed in R. This is good, since otherwise using the terms “open” for open
intervals and “closed” for closed intervals would conflict with the way we are now using these terms! Also,
let’s go ahead and assume that a < b in the open interval case and a ≤ b in the closed interval case since
otherwise these intervals would be empty.
To show that (a, b) is open, pick any x ∈ (a, b). We want to show that there is some ball (which in the case
of R with the standard metric means open interval) around x which is fully contained in (a, b). Drawing a
picture of the interval (a, b) and the point x in it should easily let you see that such a ball exists, but let us
makes this precise. Since a < x < b, both x − a and b − x are positive; set r = min{x − a, b − x}, which is then
also positive. We claim that the ball of radius r around x:
Br (x) = {y ∈ R | d(x, y) < r} = {y ∈ R | |x − y| < r} = (x − r, x + r),
is fully contained in (a, b). Indeed, if y ∈ (x − r, x + r), then
a≤x −r < y < x +r ≤b
where the first inequality follows from the fact that r ≤ x − a and the last from the fact that
r ≤ b − x. Hence y ∈ (a, b) for any y ∈ Br (x), so Br (x) ⊆ (a, b) and thus (a, b) is open in R.
To see that [a, b] is closed, take any convergent sequence (xn ) in R whose terms belong to [a, b].
Let x ∈ R be the limit of this sequence. Since a ≤ xn ≤ b for all n, Exercise 8.9 from our book shows that
a ≤ x ≤ b. Thus x ∈ [a, b] and hence [a, b] is closed in R.

Proposition 6. Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then for any x ∈ X and r > 0, the ball Br (x) of radius r
around x is open in X .
Proof. Let y ∈ Br (x). To show that Br (x) is open in X , we must show that there is some ball Bs (y) in
X of some radius s > 0 around y which is fully contained in Br (x). Indeed, we claim that the ball of radius
s = r − d(x, y) around y will work. (Draw a picture of what these balls look like in R2 ; Br (x) is a disk
around x of radius r and Bs (y) is a disk around y ∈ Br (x) of radius s = r − d(x, y). From a well-drawn
picture, it should be intuitively clear that the disk Bs(y) is contained in the disk Br (x).)
First, since y ∈ Br (x), we know that d(x, y) < r since this is the defining inequality for points in Br
(x). Thus s = r − d(x, y) > 0. To show that Bs (y) ⊆ Br (x), let p ∈ Bs (y). Then d(p, y) < s. We claim that
d(p, x) < r, and if we can show this we are done since then p ∈ Br (x) as required. By the triangle inequality,
we have
d(p, x) ≤ d(p, y) + d(y, x) < s + d(x, y) = (r − d(x, y)) + d(x, y) = r
as needed. We conclude that Br (x) is open in X as claimed.
The fact that closed intervals [a, b] are closed in R generalizes to the fact that closed balls in a general
metric space (X, d), which are subsets of the form

{y ∈ X | d(x, y) ≤ r},
are always closed in X . Note that the difference between a closed ball and a usual ball (which we might now
call an open ball) is that in the usual definition of ball the inequality d(x, y) < r is strict whereas we allow a
non-strict inequality in the definition of a closed ball.

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

Many other examples of open and closed sets in metric spaces can be constructed based on the following
facts:

Theorem 4. Let (X, d) be a metric space. The union of any collection open sets in X is open in
X , and the intersection of finitely many open sets in X is open in X .

Proof. Suppose that {Uα } is a collection of subsets of X with each Uα open in X , and let x be in their
U
union Uα . Then there is some β such that x ∈ Uβ . Since Uβ is open in X , there is some ball Br (x) around
U
x which
U is contained in U β . Since Uβ itself
U is contained in Uα , Br (x) is contained
in Uα as well and we thus conclude that Uα is open in X .
Suppose now that U1 , . . . , Un is a finite collection of open subsets of X , and let x be in their intersection
U1 ∩ · · · ∩ Un . Then x ∈ Ui for each i = 1, . . . , n. Since each Ui is open in X , there is a ball Bri (x) of some
radius ri > 0 such that Bri (x) ⊆ Ui . Set

r = min{r1 , . . . , rn },

which is positive since each ri is. The ball Br (x) is then contained in each Bri (x), which is in turn contained
in Ui . Thus Br (x) ⊆ U1 ∩ · · · ∩ Un , showing that U1 ∩ · · · ∩ Un is open in X .

The intersection of infinitely many open sets is not open. For example: ∩ − , = {0} − 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑡.
The proof of the theorem above does not work in this example since we can no longer define r as the minimum
of a finite number of radii. Instead, we would have to use something like
r = inf {r1 , r2 , r3 , . . .},

which could now be zero even though each ri is positive, and then the “ball” of radius r = 0 around
x would actually be empty.
We have the following analog of the above theorem for closed sets:

Theorem 5. Let (X, d) be a metric space. The intersection of any collection of closed sets in X
is closed in X , and the union of finitely many closed sets in X is closed in X .

You should try to prove this on your own for practice. Again, the finiteness in the second statement
is important: for instance, the union of the infinite number of closed intervals of the ∪ −1 + , 1 + =
(−1,1) − 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 in R.

The above results suggest a deep connection between the notions of open and closed sets, and indeed we see
that the two concepts are essentially the opposites of each other in the following way:

Theorem 6. Let (X, d) be a metric space. A subset U of X is open in X if and only if the complement
X \U is closed in X ; a subset A of X is closed in X if and only if the complement X \A is open in X .
Proof. Suppose that U is open in X and let (xn) be a sequence of points in X \U converging to x ∈ X . To
show that X \U is closed in X we must show that x ∈ X \U . By way of contradiction, suppose that x ∈ U .
Since U is open in X , there is a ball B (x) of radius E > 0 around x contained in U . For this specific E, there
is some index N so that
d(xn , x) < E for n ≥ N
since (xn ) → x. But this is not possible since such xn would be in B (x) ⊂ U and X \U at the same time.
Thus we must have x ∈ X \U and hence X \U is closed in X .
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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces & Complex analysis/B030601T

Conversely suppose that X \U is closed in X and let x ∈ U . To show that U is open in X we must show
that there is some radius r > 0 so that Br (x) ⊆ U . Suppose instead that no such radius
existed. Then in particular, for each n ∈ N the ball of radius ( )
around x is not contained in U :

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

B 1 (x) % U . Thus for each n, there is some xn ∈ B 1 (x) such that xn ∈ / U . This gives a sequence
n n
(xn ) of points in X \U such that
1
d(xn , x) < for all n,
n
which implies that (xn ) → x. Since X \U is closed in X and each xn ∈ X \U , the limit x must then be in X
\U , contradicting the choice of x ∈ U . We conclude that there is a ball around x contained in U , so U is
open in X as claimed.
The second part follows directly from the first using the fact that the complement of the com- plement
of a set is that set itself: in other words, apply the first part to U := X \A and use the fact that X \(X
\A) = A.
So, the complements of open sets are closed and the complements of closed sets are open. This gives
another way of seeing, for instance, that a closed interval [a, b] is closed in R: the complement of [a, b] in R
is (−∞, a) ∪ (b, ∞), which is open since it is the union of open sets.
Example 20. Suppose that (X, d) is a discrete metric space. For any x ∈ X , we saw in Example ?? that the
ball of radius 1 around x is the set containing only x itself: B1 (x) = {x}. This implies that for any
x ∈ X , the set {x} is open in X , and since the arbitrary union of open sets is open, it follows that any
subset of a discrete space is open in that space. As a result of the previous theorem, any subset of a
discrete space is also closed in that space.

Closure, Interior, Boundary, and Denseness

The conditions given in the definitions of open and closed sets can be singled out as follows:
Definition 10. Let S be a subset of a metric space X . A point s ∈ S is said to be an interior point of
S if there exists r > 0 such that Br (s) ⊆ S. The set of all interior points of S is called the interior of S in
X and is denoted by int S. A point x ∈ X is said to be a limit point of S if there exists a sequence (xn )
in S converging to x. The set of all limit points of S is called the closure of S in X and is denoted by 𝑆̅.
Since by definition the interior of S only consists of points from S, it is always true that int S
⊆ S. The requirement that S ⊆ int S (and hence int S = S) is precisely what it means for S to be open.
Similarly, for any s ∈ S, the constant sequence s, s, s, s, . . . is a sequence in S converging to s so s ∈ S and thus
it is always true that S ⊆ 𝑆̅. The requirement that S ⊆ 𝑆̅ is precisely what it means for S to be closed. We
summarize this:
Proposition 7. A subset S of a metric space X is open in X if and only if S ⊆ int S (and hence
int S = S); S is closed in X if and only If 𝑆̅ ⊆S (and hence 𝑆̅ =S).

Again, this is just restating the definitions of open and closed sets in terms of the notions of
interior and limit points: S is open if every point in S is an interior point of S and S is closed if
every limit point of S is in S.

Example 21. Consider R2 with the standard metric and let D be any disk of radius r > 0 centered at p ∈
R2 ; D either contains no piece of its boundary circle (in which case D is an open disk), it contains all
of its boundary circle (in which case D is a closed disk), or it contains only part of its boundary circle (in
which case D is neither open nor closed in R2 ). Then regardless of whether D is open, closed, or neither,
the interior of D in R2 is the open disk of radius r centered at p and the closure of D in R2 is the closed

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

disk of radius r centered at p. (Draw some pictures to convince yourselves that, at least intuitively, this is
right!)
In the previous example, the interior of a disk D in R2 turned out to open in R2 and indeed was
the largest open subset of R2 contained in D, and the closure turned out to be closed in R2 and moreover
was the smallest closed subset of R2 containing D. This generalizes as follows:
Proposition 8. Let (X, d) be a metric space and let S be a subset of X . Then int S is open in X
and S is closed in X .
Proof of First Claim. Let x ∈ int S. We want to show there is some ball Br (x) around x contained in int
S. Since x is an interior point of S, we know there exists r > 0 so that Br (x) ⊆ S. We claim that any
point of Br (x) is actually an interior point of S, so that Br (x) ⊆ int S, proving our claim.
So, let y ∈ Br (x). Since Br (x) is open in X , there is some radius s > 0 so that Bs (y) ⊆ Br (x). But
since Br (x) ⊆ S, the smaller ball Bs (y) is also contained in S, so y is an interior point of S as required. We
conclude that int S is open in X .

The proof that S is closed in X for any S ⊆ X will be left to the homework. The tricky thing you
have to think about is the following: S is formed by taking S and throwing in all the limits of convergent
sequences in S—we are now claiming that if we take a sequence in this new space which converges to some
x ∈ S, that x itself will be in S.
So, suppose that (xn ) is a sequence in S, meaning that each term xn in this sequence is itself the limit
of some sequence in S. If (xn ) converges to some x ∈ X , we then have to show that x is itself the limit of
some sequence in S—this is kind of hard to think about at first: we know that x is the limit of the sequence
(xn ) in S, but from this we have to construct in a sequence in S (not S) converging to x. I’ll outline how
to do this on the homework.
Proposition 9. Let (X, d) be a metric space and let S be a subset of X . Then int S is the largest open
subset of X contained in S in the sense that if U is any other open subset of X contained in S, then U ⊆
int S. Also, S is the smallest closed subset of X containing S in the sense that if A is any other closed subset
of X containing S, then S ⊆ A.
We will not prove this since it will not be so important, but it gives a nice interpretation of the interior
and closure of a set. If you think about it, the above can be rephrased as follows:

Example 22. Consider Q as a subspace of R with the standard metric. Then Q has empty interior in R.
Indeed, no rational number r ∈ Q can be an interior point of Q in R since any interval in R around r will
contain an irrational number due to the denseness of R\Q in R. On the other hand, we saw in Proposition
?? that, due to the denseness of Q in R, given any x ∈ R there exists a sequence in Q converging to x.
This means that the closure of Q in R is all of R. Similarly, you can show by a similar argument that
the set of irrational numbers R\Q has empty interior in R and that the closure of R\Q in R is R.

Now, instead view Q as a subspace of itself with the standard metric. Since “open balls” are now
allowed to consist only of rational numbers, any ball in Q around a rational number will be contained
in Q, so any point of Q is an interior point of Q in Q. Thus the interior of Q as a subspace of itself is Q.
Similarly, one can check that the closure of Q in Q is Q. Indeed, viewing any metric space X as a subset of
itself, the interior of X in X is X and the closure of X in X is X .
Definition 11. A subset S of a metric space X is dense in X if its closure in X is all of X.

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This definition gives the following concrete characterization: S is dense in X if for any x ∈ X there is
a sequence of points in S converging to x. The idea is that if S is dense in X, then points of X can be
“approximated” arbitrarily well by points in S.
Example 23. We have already used the term “dense” before when saying that Q is dense in R or that R\Q
is dense in R. As Proposition ?? shows, “dense” in the previous sense indeed means dense in this new sense;
in other words, Q is dense in R since 𝑄̅ = R and similarly for the irrationals.
In fact, to make the connection between this new notion of denseness and the previous way in which
we used “dense” clearer, we have the following:
Proposition 11. A subset S of a metric space X is dense in X if and only if every nonempty open set
in X contains an element of S.
The proof is given in the “Worked Examples” handout from Summer 2010. The idea is that if S is
dense in X, then you can find points of S “everywhere” in X .
Example 24. Let C ([a, b]) denote the space of continuous real-valued functions on [a, b]. (Ad- mittedly,
we have not defined “continuous” yet, but you can back to this example after we have done so.) This is
a metric space with the sup metric—we will see later that the sup metric makes sense in this setting since
such functions are always bounded. Then the set of polynomial functions on [a, b] is dense in C ([a, b]).
This is known as the “Weierstrass Approximation Theorem” and is Theorem 27.5 in the book; the
statement is book is not phrased in terms of “denseness” but we will see that this is exactly what the
precisely means.
Definition 12. Let S be a subset of a metric space X . A point x ∈ X is a boundary point of S if for
any r > 0, the ball Br (x) of radius r around x contains an element of S and an element of X \S. The set
of all boundary points of S is called the boundary of S and is denoted by ∂S.
So, to say that x is a boundary point of S means that there are points of S arbitrarily close to x and
there are points of the complement of S arbitrarily close to x. Intuitively, this is what the “boundary”
of S should “look” like, at least in the following example:

Example 25. Let S be any subset of R2 . The boundary of S is then precisely what you normally visualize
as the boundary of S drawn in the plane. For example, the boundary of a disk (open, closed, or neither)
is precisely the boundary circle. In R, the boundary of any interval (a, b), [a, b], [a, b), or (a, b] is {a, b},
again what you normally think of as the boundary of an interval.
The notions of open and closed sets now become much more intuitive when we state what they mean in
terms of boundaries:

Proposition 12. Let S be a subset of a metric space X . Then S is open in X if and only if S contains
no piece of its boundary: i.e. S ∩ ∂S = ∅; S is closed in X if and only if it contains all of its boundary:
i.e. ∂S ⊆ S.

The proof of this really just involves unwinding some definitions. We first prove a lemma, saying that
any point of S is either an interior point of S or a boundary point of S; note also that int S and ∂S have
nothing in common:
Lemma 1. Let S be a subset of a metric space X . Then S ⊆ int S ∪ ∂S.
Proof. Let s ∈ S. If there exists r > 0 such that Br (s) ⊆ S, then s ∈ int S so s ∈ int S ∪ ∂S and we are
done. Otherwise, for any r > 0 Br (s) is not contained in S. This means that there is some p ∈ Br (s)

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

which is not in S, so Br (s) contains an element of S (namely s itself ) and an element not in S (namely
p). Thus s ∈ ∂S so s ∈ int S ∪ ∂S as required.

Proof of Proposition. Suppose that S is open in X . Then for any s ∈ S, s ∈ int S, so s /∈ ∂S since int S and
∂S are disjoint. Thus ∂S contains no element of S, meaning that S ∩ ∂S = ∅ as required. Conversely, suppose
that S ∩ ∂S = ∅. If s ∈ S, by the lemma we must have s ∈ int S or s ∈ ∂S. But since S and ∂S have nothing
in common, we must have s ∈ int S. Thus any point of S is an interior point, meaning that S is open in X
.
Now suppose that S is closed in X and let p ∈ ∂S. As problem 5 on homework 5 shows, p ∈ S. Since S
is closed, S = S and thus p ∈ S. Thus ∂S ⊆ S as required. Conversely suppose that
∂S ⊆ S and let s ∈ S. If s ∈ int S, then s ∈ S. Otherwise, s ∈ S\ int S so s ∈ ∂S by the same homework
problem. Since S contains its boundary, we have s ∈ S. Thus S ⊆ S, showing that S is closed in X .

Note that this is precisely how we visualize open and closed sets in R2 , as ones which contain no piece
of their boundary curves (in the open case) or all of their boundary curves (in the closed case). In general,
a set which isn’t open nor closed will contain some but not all of its boundary.
The above also suggests a relation between the boundary of a set and its closure—indeed we have:

Proposition 13. For any subset S of a metric space X , ∂S ⊆ S; in other words, any boundary point of
S is also a limit point of S.

Unit 2-Question Bank (MCQ)

1. The derived set of any set 𝐴 is

a. the set of all limit points of 𝐴
b. the set of all interior points of 𝐴
c. the set of all exterior points of 𝐴
d. the set of all boundary points of 𝐴
Answer: (a)- the set of all limit points of 𝐴
2. Arbitrary intersection of closed set in a metric space is
a. Open
b. Closed
c. Open and closed both
d. None of these
Answer: (b)- closed
3. Arbitrary intersection of open set in a metric space is
a. Open
b. Closed
c. Open and closed both
d. May or may not open
Answer: (d)- May or may not open
4. Arbitrary union of closed set in a metric space is
a. Open
b. Closed

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

c. Open and closed both

d. May or may not closed
Answer: (d)- May or may not closed
Answer: (b)- closed
5. Every subset of a discrete metric space is
a. Open
b. Closed
c. Open and closed
d. Neither open nor closed
Answer: (c )- open and closed both
6. The complement of a closed set is
a. Closed
b. Open
c. Neither open nor closed
d. None of these
Answer: (b)- open
7. The complement of an open set is
a. Closed
b. Open
c. Neither open nor closed
d. None of these
Answer: (a)- closed
8. The set of natural numbers is
a. Open
b. Closed
c. Dense
d. None of these
Answer: (d)- none of these
9. A set 𝐴 in a metric space (𝑀, 𝑑) is said to be dense if
a. 𝐴̅ = 𝐴
b. 𝐴̅ = 𝑀
c. 𝐴̅ ≠ 𝑀
d. 𝐴̅ = 𝜙

Answer: (b)- 𝐴̅ = 𝑀
10. A set 𝐴 in a metric space (𝑀, 𝑑) is said to be dense if
a. 𝐴̅ = 𝐴
b. (𝐴 ) ≠ 𝜙
c. (𝐴 ) = 𝜙
d. 𝐴̅ ≠ 𝑀

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Answer: (c )- (𝐴 ) = 𝜙
11. The interior of a set 𝐴 is
a. Smallest closed set
b. Smallest open set
c. Largest open subset of 𝐴 contained in 𝐴
d. Largest open set containing 𝐴
Answer: (c )- Largest open subset of 𝐴 contained in 𝐴
12. The closure of a set 𝐴 is
a. Smallest closed set
b. Smallest open set
c. Smallest closed subset of 𝐴 contained in 𝐴
d. Smallest closed set containing 𝐴
Answer: (d )- Smallest closed set containing 𝐴
13. Choose the correct statement:
a. 𝐴̅ ⊂ 𝐴
b. 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴̅
c. 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴
d. 𝑁 ≠ 𝜙

Answer: (c )- 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴̅
14. Choose the wrong statement:
a. 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴̅
b. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵
c. 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
d. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵

Answer: (c )- 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵

15. Choose the correct statement:

a. The set of natural numbers is open
b. The set of rational numbers is open
c. The set of rational numbers is closed
d. Every finite set in a metric space is closed
Answer: (d)- Every finite set in a metric space is closed
16. The closure of a set 𝐴 is
a. =∪ {𝐹 ∶ 𝐹 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 ⊂ 𝐴}
b. =∩ {𝐹 ∶ 𝐹 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐹 }
c. =∩ {𝐹 ∶ 𝐹 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐹 }
d. =∩ {𝐹 ∶ 𝐹 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 ⊂ 𝐴}
Answer: (c )- =∩ {𝐹 ∶ 𝐹 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐹 }

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

17. The interior of a set 𝐴 is

a. =∪ {𝐺 ∶ 𝐺 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 ⊂ 𝐴}
b. =∪ {𝐺 ∶ 𝐺 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐺 }
c. =∩ {𝐺 ∶ 𝐺 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐺 }
d. =∪ {𝐺 ∶ 𝐺 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 ⊂ 𝐴}
Answer: (d )- =∪ {𝐺 ∶ 𝐺 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 ⊂ 𝐴}
18. Which of the following statement about open and closed sets is true:
a. Every open set is also closed
b. Every closed set is also open
c. The intersection of a closed set and an open set is open
d. The union of a closed set and an open set is closed
Answer: (c ) - The intersection of a closed set and an open set is open
19. In a metric space (𝑋, 𝑑), which of the following statement is not true:
a. The empty set and 𝑋 are both open and closed
b. Every finite set is both open and closed
c. The complement of open set is closed
d. The complement of a closed set is open
Answer: (c ) - The intersection of a closed set and an open set is open
20. The interior of a set A is:
a. The set of all limit points of A
b. The set of all boundary points of A
c. The largest open set contained in A
d. The smallest closed set containing A
Answer: (c )- The largest open set contained in A
21. Which of the following statements is true regarding dense sets?
a. A set is dense if it contains no isolated points
b. A set is dense if its closure is equal to its complement
c. A set is dense if it has no limit points
d. A set is dense if its closure is the entire space.
Answer: (d)- A set is dense if its closure is the entire space.
22. The closure of a set A is:
a. The set of all boundary points of A
b. The largest open set contained in A
c. The smallest closed set containing A
d. The set of all limit points of A
Answer: (c )- The smallest closed set containing A
23. An open set is defined as:
a. A set without any elements

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b. A set that contains all its limit points

c. A set that contain all its boundary points
d. A set that does not contain its endpoints
Answer: (d ) - A set that does not contain its endpoints
24. The closure of an open set is:
a. Always open
b. Always closed
c. Sometimes open, sometimes closed
d. Neither open nor closed
Answer: (b)- Always closed
25. A point x is called an interior point of a set A if:
a. Every neighborhood of x contains a point of A
b. There exists a neighborhood of x entirely contained in A
c. x is not a limit point of A
d. x is not an accumulation point of A
Answer: (b)- There exists a neighborhood of x entirely contained in A
26. If a set A is both open and closed in a topological space X, then:
a. A is empty
b. A is dense in X
c. X is empty
d. 𝐴̅ ≠ 𝜙
Answer: (a)- A is empty

27. The boundary of a set A is:

a. The set of all limit points of A
b. The intersection of the closure of A and the closure of its complement
c. The set of all isolated points of A
d. The set of all points in A that are not interior points of A
Answer: (b)- The intersection of the closure of A and the closure of its complement
28. Which of the following is true about the union of two dense sets in a metric space (𝑋, 𝑑):
a. The union of two dense sets is always dense in X
b. The intersection of two dense sets is always dense in X
c. The union of two dense sets is always open
d. The union of two dense sets may or may not be dense in X depending on the sets
Answer: (a)- The union of two dense sets is always dense in X
29. A set is said to be nowhere dense if:
a. It contains no isolated points

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b. Its closure has an empty interior

c. It has no limit points
d. Its boundary is empty
Answer: (b)- Its closure has an empty interior
30. The complement of a dense set is:
a. Always dense
b. Always closed
c. Sometimes dense, sometimes closed
d. Neither dense nor closed
Answer: (c )- Sometimes dense, sometimes closed
31. Which of the following statements about dense sets in a metric space is true:
a. A dense set has no limit points
b. Every non-empty subset of a metric space is dense
c. A dense set can have isolated points
d. The intersection of two dense sets is always empty
Answer: (c )- A dense set can have isolated points

32. Let X be a metric space and A be a dense subset of X. Which of the following is true:
a. Every open set in X intersects A
b. A contains no limit points
c. The closure of A is the empty set
d. A is a finite set
Answer: (a)- Every open set in X intersects A
33. Which of the following is an example of a dense set in the metric space R:
a. The set of even integers
b. The set of odd integers
c. The set of natural numbers
d. The set of irrational numbers
Answer: (d)- The set of irrational numbers
34. Which of the following is an example of a dense set in the metric space R:
a. The set of even integers
b. The set of odd integers
c. The set of natural numbers
d. The set of rational numbers
Answer: (d)- The set of rational numbers
35. Every finite subset of real numbers is:
a. Open
b. Dense

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c. Nowhere dense
d. Both open and closed
e. Answer: (c )- Nowhere dense
36. Which of the following is an example of a dense set in the metric space 𝑅 :
a. The set of points with both coordinates rational
b. The set of points with both coordinates irrational
c. The set of points with at least one rational coordinate
d. The set of points with at least one integer coordinate
Answer: (c)- The set of points with at least one rational coordinate
37. In a metric space, if a subset A is dense, then:
a. A must contain all the limit points of the space
b. A must be a closed set
c. A must intersect every open set non-trivially
d. A must be bounded
Answer: (c )- A must intersect every open set non-trivially
38. Which of the following statements about dense sets in a metric space is false:
a. A dense set can have a countable number of elements
b. A dense set can be nowhere dense
c. A dense set can have isolated points
d. A dense set can have an empty interior
Answer: (d)- A dense set can have an empty interior
39. Let X be a metric space and A be a dense subset of X. Which of the following is true:
a. The complement of A is closed in X
b. Every point of A is an isolated point
c. The interior of A is empty
d. A is compact
Answer: (a)- The complement of A is closed in X
40. If A and B are dense subsets of a metric space X, then:
a. The intersection of A and B is always empty.
b. The union of A and B is dense in X
c. The closure of A and B is always finite
d. A and B cannot have any limit points
Answer: (b)-The union of A and B is dense in X
41. Which of the following statements about the Cantor set is true:
a. The Cantor set contains all rational numbers
b. The Cantor set contains all irrational numbers
c. The Cantor set is a countable set
d. The Cantor set is a perfect set

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Answer: (d)- The Cantor set is a perfect set

42. Let (X, d) be a metric space, and let 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑋 be a non-empty subset. Which of the following
statements about the diameter of A is true:
a. The diameter of A is always less than or equal to the diameter of X
b. The diameter of A is always greater than or equal to the diameter of X
c. The diameter of A is always less than or equal to the sum of the diameters of its elements
d. The diameter of A is always greater than or equal to the maximum distance between any two
points in A
Answer: (d)- The diameter of A is always greater than or equal to the maximum distance between
any two points in A
43. Consider a metric space (X, d) and two non-empty subsets 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑋. Which of the following
statements about the diameter of the union of A and B is true:
a. The diameter of 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the always less than or equal to the sum of the diameters of A and B
b. The diameter of 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the always greater than or equal to the sum of the diameters of A and
B
c. The diameter of 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the always less than or equal to maximum of the diameters of A and
B
d. The diameter of 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the always less than or equal to minimum of the diameters of A and
B
Answer: (d) The diameter of 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the always less than or equal to minimum of the diameters
of A and B
44. Let (X,d) be a metric space and 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋. Which of the following statements about open balls
𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) and closed balls 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) is true:
a. The open ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) always contains its closure 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟)
b. The open ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) always a subset of its closure 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟)
c. The open ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) its closure 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) are always are disjoint sets
d. The open ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) its closure 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) have the same radius

Answer: (b)- The open ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) always a subset of its closure 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟)
45. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a metric space and 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋. Which of the following statements about open balls
𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) and closed balls 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) is true:
a. The open ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) is always a closed set
b. The open ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) is always bounded set
c. The closed ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) is always a open set
d. The closed ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) is always a closed set

Answer: (d)- The closed ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) is always a closed set

46. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a metric space and 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋. Which of the following statements about open balls
𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) and closed balls 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) is true:
a. The open ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) is always a open set
b. The open ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) is always bounded set
c. The closed ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) is always a open set

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

d. The closed ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) is always a open set

Answer: (a)- The open ball 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) is always a open set
47. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a metric space and 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑋 Which of the following statements is true:
a. Every limit point of A is an interior point of A
b. Every interior point of A is a limit point of A
c. Every limit point of A is a boundary point of A
d. Every interior point of A is a boundary point of A
Answer: (b)- Every interior point of A is a limit point of A

48. The set {1, , , … … , , … } is

a. Open
b. Closed
c. Both open and closed
d. Neither open nor closed
Answer: (d)- Neither open nor closed
49. A closed interval is a
a. Open set
b. Closed
c. Dense set
d. Both open and closed
Answer: (b)-closed

50. The limit point of set {1, , , … … , , … } is

a. 0
b. 1
c. -1
d. ∞
Answer: (a)- 0

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Unit III

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Continuous Functions:

We finally come to the notion of what it means for a function from one metric space to another to be
continuous. Indeed, studying properties of continuous functions is one of the main reasons why we study
metric spaces at all. In other words, although metric spaces are interesting in their own right, more important
is understanding how different metric spaces are related to each other, and the notion of continuity allows
us to do this. In particular, one of the punchlines in this section of these notes is the so-called “Extreme
Value Theorem", which says that a real-valued continuous function on a compact space always has a
maximum and a minimum; as we will see in the rest of the course, this fact is one of the main reasons
underlying why calculus works.

You've probably seen the so-called 𝜖 − 𝛿 definition of continuous in a previous calculus before. If you're
like me, at the time this definition made no sense and seemed to come out of nowhere. Naively, a continuous
function is one whose graph has no “jumps". However, this does not work so well when dealing with
arbitrary metric spaces since it is not always easy to picture such spaces let alone the graphs of functions
between them. A better intuition is the following: a continuous function is one with the property that points
which are “close" together in the domain get sent to points which remain “close" together. This is exactly
what goes wrong when a function “jumps": points which were close to begin with can be sent to points
which are far apart. The definition of continuous we will give precisely encodes this intuitive idea; we will
then relate it to the _-_definition and also give a third equivalent characterization of continuity.

Definition. A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑀 → 𝑁 from a metric space (𝑀, 𝑑 ) to a metric space (𝑁, 𝑑 ) is said to be
continuous at 𝑝 ∈ 𝑀 if it has the property that whenever (𝑝 ) → 𝑝 in M, 𝑓(𝑝 ) → 𝑓(𝑝) in N. We say f
is continuous if it is continuous at each 𝑝 ∈ 𝑀 Hopefully the notation used above is clear: M and N are both
metric spaces, and we use M and N as subscripts when denoting their respective metrics. The given
definition says exactly what we wanted “continuous" to mean: if points 𝑝 are getting closer and closer to
p, then the points 𝑓(𝑝 ) obtained after applying the function are getting closer and closer to f(p).

Example. Suppose that M is a discrete metric space and let N be any metric space. We claim that any
function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑀 𝑡𝑜 𝑁 is continuous. Indeed, to check that f is continuous at 𝑝 ∈ 𝑀, we must check whether
or not it is true that 𝑓(𝑝 ) → 𝑓(𝑝) in N if (𝑝 ) → 𝑝 in M. However, we already know that the only
convergent sequences in a discrete space are those which are eventually constant. So, if (𝑝 ) → 𝑝 in M,
then 𝑝 = 𝑝 for pn past some index, and thus 𝑓(𝑝 ) = 𝑓(𝑝) past that same index. Hence (𝑓(𝑝 )) is
eventually constant and thus converges to f(p), showing that f is continuous at p. Since 𝑝 ∈ 𝑀 was arbitrary,
f is continuous as claimed. More interestingly, I invite you to determine which functions into a discrete
metric space are continuous: i.e. supposing that M is any metric space and N is discrete, which functions
𝑓 ∶ 𝑀 → 𝑁 are continuous? It is possible to give a concrete description of such functions.

For example, the fact that (𝑥 + 𝑦 ) → 𝑥 + 𝑦 if (𝑥 ) → 𝑥 and (𝑦 ) → 𝑦 in R implies that the sum of
continuous functions 𝑹 → 𝑹 is continuous, and similarly the fact that (𝑥 𝑦 ) → 𝑥𝑦 if (𝑥 ) → 𝑥 and
(𝑦 ) → 𝑦 in R implies that the product of continuous functions 𝑅 → 𝑅 is continuous.

Dr Shailendra Kumar & Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Theorem. A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑀 → 𝑁 from a metric space (𝑀, 𝑑 ) to a metric space (𝑁, 𝑑 ) is continuous at
𝑝 ∈ 𝑀 if and only if for any 𝜖 >0 there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that
𝑑 (𝑓(𝑞), 𝑓(𝑝)) < 𝜖 whenever 𝑑 (𝑞, 𝑝) < 𝛿.

Example: The function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 is not uniformly continuous. Looking back to
the previous example, the point is that the we constructed satisfying the definition of continuous gets smaller
and smaller as x gets larger and larger (because of the jxj terms in the denominator of the fraction used in
defining), and so no such _ will work for all x at once. This is not a rigorous proof that this function is not
uniformly continuous, but this basic idea can be made precise. Notice that the above function has an
unbounded derivative, which as we will later see is related to the fact that it is not uniformly continuous.
We will soon see that continuous functions on compact spaces are always uniformly continuous, which is
one of the special properties of compact metric spaces which I've been hyping.

Theorem. A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑀 → 𝑁 is continuous if and only if 𝑓 (𝑈) is open in M for any open subset
𝑈 of 𝑁.

We will leave the full details of this to the reader, but the proof essentially amounts to unwinding the
characterization of continuity as mentioned in the previous paragraph. This is probably the shortest, but
least intuitive, definition of continuous one could give. However, as you will see if you take a more
advanced topology course at some point, this is the definition which best captures what continuity should
really mean in general. Using the fact that the complement of an open set is closed and the complement of
a closed set is open, it is not hard to also see that 𝑓 ∶ 𝑀 → 𝑁 is continuous if and only if 𝑓 (𝐴) is closed
in M for any closed subset A of N.

Continuity and Compactness/Connectedness

As mentioned above, open and closed sets behave well under pre-images of continuous functions. On the
other hand, we will see that compact and connected sets behave well under images of continuous functions.
We start with connected sets:

Theorem: The image of a connected space under a continuous function is connected: i.e. if 𝑓 ∶ 𝑀 → 𝑁 is
continuous and 𝑀 is connected, then 𝑓(𝑀) is connected.

Proof. Suppose that 𝑓(𝑀) = 𝑈 ∪ 𝑉 with U and V open in f(M) and disjoint. To show that f(M) is
connected, we want to show that one of U or V must be empty. Now, by the third characterization of
continuous, we have that 𝑓 (𝑈) and 𝑓 (𝑉 ) are open in M. Also, 𝑀 = 𝑓 (𝑈) ∪ 𝑓 (𝑉 ) since
everything in M has to map into 𝑓(𝑀) = 𝑈 ∪ 𝑉 , and 𝑓 (𝑈)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 (𝑉 ) are disjoint since U and V are.
Thus, since M is connected one of these must be empty, say it is 𝑓 (𝑈). It follows that U itself is empty,
so that f(M) is connected as required.

The following corollary is also some well-known property of continuous functions on R which you would
have seen in a previous calculus course, but now we see that it is nothing but a consequence of the above
general fact:

Corollary (Intermediate Value Theorem). Any continuous function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑀 → 𝑅 where M is connected

has the intermediate value property: if 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ 𝑀 and 𝑓(𝑝) < 𝑓(𝑞), then for any 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑓(𝑝) <
𝑧 < 𝑓(𝑞) there exists 𝑥 ∈ 𝑀 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑧.

In other words, if the image of 𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑅 contains two points, then it contains the entire interval between those
two points.

Dr Shailendra Kumar & Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Corollary (Extreme Value Theorem). Any continuous function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑀 → 𝑅 with compact domain
M achieves a maximum and a minimum.

Theorem: A continuous function on a compact metric space is uniformly continuous.

Proof. Suppose that 𝑓 ∶ 𝑀 → 𝑁 is a continuous function between metric spaces M and N and that M is
compact. Let 𝜖 > 0. Since 𝑓 is continuous, for each 𝑝 ∈ 𝑀 there exists 𝛿 > 0 (which may depend on p)
such that
𝜖
𝑑 (𝑞, 𝑝) < 𝛿 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑 𝑓(𝑞), 𝑓(𝑝) < .
2

We want to find a 𝛿 > 0 satisfying this condition for any 𝑝, so a 𝛿 independent of p.

The collection 𝐵 (𝑝) , as 𝑝 ranges over all points of 𝑀, is then an open cover of 𝑀. Since M is compact,
this has a finite subcover, say,
𝐵 (𝑝 ), 𝐵 (𝑝 ), … 𝐵 (𝑝 ) .

Set 𝛿 = min , ,……, . Note that since each 𝛿 > 0 and there are only finitely many, the
minimum of this set exists and is positive.

Suppose that 𝑞 and 𝑞′ are any two points of M such that

𝑑 (𝑞, 𝑞 ) < 𝛿.

Since the radii _ , ,……, give balls which cover M, 𝑞′ is in one of these balls-without loss
of generality say that 𝑞 ∈ 𝐵 (𝑝 ). Note that then
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
𝑑 (𝑞. 𝑝 ) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑞, 𝑞 ) + 𝑑 (𝑞 , 𝑝 ) < 𝛿 + < + <𝛿 .
2 2 2
Thus 𝑑 (𝑞, 𝑝 ) < 𝛿 and 𝑑 (𝑞 ; 𝑝 ) < < 𝛿 , so by the choice of 𝛿 , we have
𝜖 𝜖
𝑑 𝑓(𝑞), 𝑓(𝑞 ) ≤ 𝑑 𝑓(𝑞), 𝑓(𝑝) + 𝑑 𝑓(𝑞 ), 𝑓(𝑝) < + < 𝜖.
2 2
_
Hence, we have that
𝑑 (𝑞, 𝑞 ) < 𝛿 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑 𝑓(𝑞), 𝑓(𝑞 ) < 𝜖.

So, we conclude that 𝑓 is uniformly continuous.

Admittedly, this proof is not easy to follow at first, but the basic idea is one we have already seen when
dealing with compact spaces: the covering definition of compact allows us to reduce dealing with an infinite
number of things (in this case the radii of the balls 𝐵 (𝑝) to dealing with a finite number of radii, and
then we can do something like take their minimum.

Fixed Point Theorems

Definition: A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑀 → 𝑁 is said to be a contraction if there exists a constant K < 1 such that

Dr Shailendra Kumar & Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

𝑑 𝑓(𝑝), 𝑓(𝑞) ≤ 𝐾𝑑 (𝑝, 𝑞) for any 𝑝, 𝑞\𝑖𝑛 𝑀.

The term “contraction" should be clear: the definition says that 𝑓 shrinks distances-in other words, starting
with two distinct points p and q in M, applying f will give points in N which are closer to each other than p
and q were. The requirement that distances are shrunk by at least a factor K < 1 is important; when
𝑑 𝑓(𝑝), 𝑓(𝑞) < 𝑑 (𝑝; 𝑞) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ 𝑀, we say that f is a weak contraction.

It is not hard to see that any contraction is continuous indeed you will show that any function satisfying a
condition similar to the one above but without the requirement that K < 1 is actually always uniformly
continuous. (Such functions are called “Lipschitz", so a contraction is nothing but a Lipschitz function with
“Lipschitz constant" K less than 1.)

An important question one could ask about functions in general is determining when they have fixed points,
meaning a point such that 𝑓(𝑝) = 𝑝. The main result here is that contractions on complete metric spaces
always have fixed points, and those fixed points are unique.

Theorem (Banach Contraction Principle, or Banach Fixed Point Theorem). A contraction 𝑓 ∶ 𝑀 →

𝑀 where 𝑀 is complete always has a unique fixed point.

Proof. First, we show uniqueness. Suppose that 𝑝 and 𝑞 are two fixed points of 𝑓. Then 𝑓(𝑝) = 𝑝 and
𝑓(𝑞) = 𝑞 so the contraction property gives
𝑑(𝑓, 𝑞) = 𝑑 𝑓(𝑝)𝑓(𝑞) ≤ 𝐾𝑑(𝑝; 𝑞).
Since 𝐾 < 1, we must have 𝑑(𝑝; 𝑞) = 0 so 𝑝 = 𝑞 and a fixed point of 𝑓 is unique.

Now we show that 𝑓 has a fixed point.

Let x be any point of M. Since 𝑓 is a contraction, we have

𝑑 𝑓 (𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝐾𝑑(𝑓(𝑥), 𝑥)
where the notion 𝑓 means 𝑓 composed with itself 𝑛 times, so for example 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)).

Similarly, using the contraction property again, we have

𝑑 𝑓 (𝑥), 𝑓 (𝑥) ≤ 𝐾𝑑 𝑓 (𝑥), 𝑓( 𝑥) ≤ 𝐾 𝑑(𝑓(𝑥), 𝑥).
In general, this same reasoning implies that
𝑑 𝑓 (𝑥), 𝑓 (𝑥) ≤ 𝐾 𝑑(𝑓(𝑥), 𝑥) for all 𝑛.

The sequence (𝑓 (𝑥)) obtained by applying 𝑓 over and over again to 𝑥 is then Cauchy, and thus convergent
since 𝑀 is complete; say that this sequence converges to 𝑝 ∈ 𝑀.

We claim that p is the fixed point we are looking for. Indeed, note that since 𝑓 is continuous (as contractions
always are), the sequence (𝑓 ( ) (𝑥)) obtained by applying 𝑓 to each term in the sequence (𝑓 (𝑥))
converges to 𝑓(𝑝). But this former sequence is nothing but a subsequence of the latter, so it also converges
to x. Since limits are unique, we must have 𝑓(𝑝) = 𝑝, so 𝑝 is a fixed points of 𝑓 as claimed.

Note how amazing this technique is: no matter which point x we start with, the sequence obtained by
applying f over and over again will always converge, and indeed converge to the same point regardless of
what x we started with. Finding fixed points of functions in general is hard, but at least here we have a way
of approximating the _fixed point, we simply start with any 𝑥 and compute what we get as we apply f over
and over again.

Dr Shailendra Kumar & Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Unit 3-Question Bank (MCQ)

1. Which of the following functions is not continuous everywhere?

a. 𝑓(𝑥) =
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin (𝑥)
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|

Answer: (a)- 𝑓(𝑥) =

2. For which value of 𝑘 𝑖s the function 𝑓(𝑥) = continuous everywhere in R?

a. 𝑘 =1
b. 𝑘 =0
c. 𝑘 = −1
d. 𝑘 = −2
Answer: (a)- 𝑘 = 1

3. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = . Which point is 𝑓(𝑥) discontinuous?

a. 𝑥 =0
b. 𝑥 = −2
c. 𝑥 =4
d. 𝑥 =2
Answer: (d)- 𝑥 = 2
4. Which of the following functions is continuous at 𝑥 = 0?
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = | |
b. 𝑓(𝑥) =
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥
( )
d. 𝑓(𝑥) =

Answer: (c )- 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥
5. Let 𝑓: (𝑋, 𝑑) → (𝑌, 𝜌) be a function. Then, 𝑓 is continuous if and only if
a. 𝑓 (𝐺) is closed set in 𝑋 for any open set 𝐺 in 𝑌
b. 𝑓 (𝐺) is open set in 𝑋 for any open set 𝐺 in Y
c. 𝑓 (𝐺) is open set in 𝑌 for any open set 𝐺 in X
d. 𝑓 (𝐺) is closed set in 𝑌 for any open set 𝐺 in X

Answer: (b)- 𝑓 (𝐺) is open set in 𝑋 for any open set 𝐺 in Y

6. Let 𝑓: (𝑋, 𝑑) → (𝑌, 𝜌) be a function. Then, 𝑓 is continuous if and only if
a. 𝑓 (𝐺) is closed set in 𝑋 for any closed set 𝐺 in 𝑌

Dr Shailendra Kumar & Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

b. 𝑓 (𝐺) is open set in 𝑋 for any closed set 𝐺 in Y

c. 𝑓 (𝐺) is open set in 𝑌 for any open set 𝐺 in X
d. 𝑓 (𝐺) is closed set in 𝑌 for any closed set 𝐺 in X
Answer: (d)- 𝑓 (𝐺) is closed set in 𝑋 for any closed set 𝐺 in 𝑌
7. The characteristic function
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺
𝜒 (𝑥) =
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∉ 𝐺
is continuous if
a. G is open
b. G is closed
c. G is both open and closed
d. G is dense
Answer: (c )- G is both open and closed
8. Let 𝑓: 𝑹 → 𝑵 be a continuous function. Then,
a. 𝑓 is constant
b. 𝑓 is not constant
c. 𝑓 exists
d. 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒
Answer: (a)- 𝑓 is constant
9. Let 𝑓: 𝑵 → 𝑹 be a function. Then,
a. 𝑓 is not continuous
b. 𝑓 is continuous
c. 𝑓 is constant
d. 𝑓 exists
Answer: (b)- 𝑓 is continuous
10. Let 𝑓: (𝑋, 𝑑) → (𝑌, 𝜌) and sets 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑋 and 𝐶, 𝐷 ⊂ 𝑌. Then, which one is true
a. 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑓 𝑓(𝐴)
b. 𝑓 𝑓(𝐴) ⊂ 𝐴
c. 𝑓(𝐴\𝐵) ⊂ 𝑓(𝐴)\𝑓(𝐵)
d. None of these

Answer: (a)- 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑓 𝑓(𝐴)

11. Let 𝑓: (𝑋, 𝑑) → (𝑌, 𝜌) and sets 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑋 and 𝐶, 𝐷 ⊂ 𝑌. Then, which one is true
e. 𝑓 𝑓 (𝐶) ⊂ 𝐶
f. 𝑓 𝑓(𝐴) ⊂ 𝐴
g. 𝑓(𝐴\𝐵) ⊂ 𝑓(𝐴)\𝑓(𝐵)
h. None of these
Answer: (a)- 𝑓 𝑓 (𝐶) ⊂ 𝐶

12. Let 𝑓: (𝑋, 𝑑) → (𝑌, 𝜌) and sets 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑋 and 𝐶, 𝐷 ⊂ 𝑌. Then, which one is not true

Dr Shailendra Kumar & Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

a. 𝐴⊂𝑓 𝑓(𝐴)
b. 𝑓 𝑓 (𝐶) ⊂ 𝐶
c. 𝑓(𝐴\𝐵) ⊂ 𝑓(𝐴)\𝑓(𝐵)
d. 𝑓(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑓(𝐴) ∪ 𝑓(𝐵)

Answer: (c )- 𝑓(𝐴\𝐵) ⊂ 𝑓(𝐴)\𝑓(𝐵)

13. Let 𝑓: (𝑋, 𝑑) → (𝑌, 𝜌) and sets 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑋 and 𝐶, 𝐷 ⊂ 𝑌. Then, which one is not true
a. 𝑓(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑓(𝐴) ∪ 𝑓(𝐵)
b. 𝑓 (𝐶 ∪ 𝐷) ⊂ 𝑓 (𝐶) ∪ 𝑓 (𝐷)
c. 𝑓(𝐴)\𝑓(𝐵) ⊂ 𝑓(𝐴\𝐵)
d. 𝑓 (𝐶 ∩ 𝐷) = 𝑓 (𝐶) ∩ 𝑓 (𝐷)

Answer: (b)- 𝑓 (𝐶 ∪ 𝐷) ⊂ 𝑓 (𝐶) ∪ 𝑓 (𝐷)

14. Let 𝑓: (𝑋, 𝑑) → (𝑌, 𝜌) and sets 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑋 and 𝐶, 𝐷 ⊂ 𝑌. Then, which one is not true
a. 𝑓(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑓(𝐴) ∪ 𝑓(𝐵)
b. 𝑓 (𝐶 ∪ 𝐷) = 𝑓 (𝐶) ∪ 𝑓 (𝐷)
c. 𝑓(𝐴)\𝑓(𝐵) ⊂ 𝑓(𝐴\𝐵)
d. 𝑓 (𝐶 ∩ 𝐷) ⊂ 𝑓 (𝐶) ∩ 𝑓 (𝐷)

Answer: (d)- 𝑓 (𝐶 ∩ 𝐷) ⊂ 𝑓 (𝐶) ∩ 𝑓 (𝐷)

15. Let 𝑓: (𝑋, 𝑑) → (𝑌, 𝜌) and sets 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑋 and 𝐶, 𝐷 ⊂ 𝑌. Then, which one is not true
a. 𝑓(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑓(𝐴) ∪ 𝑓(𝐵)
b. 𝑓(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑓(𝐴) ∩ 𝑓(𝐵)
c. 𝑓(𝐴)\𝑓(𝐵) ⊂ 𝑓(𝐴\𝐵)
d. 𝑓 (𝐶 ∩ 𝐷) = 𝑓 (𝐶) ∩ 𝑓 (𝐷)
Answer: (b)- 𝑓(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑓(𝐴) ∩ 𝑓(𝐵)
16. Let 𝑓: (𝑀, 𝑑) → (𝑹, 𝜌) be a continuous function. Then, for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑹 the set {𝑥: 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑎} is
a. Closed
b. Open
c. Both open and closed
d. Neither open nor closed
Answer: (b)-open
17. Let 𝑓: (𝑀, 𝑑) → (𝑹, 𝜌) be a continuous function. Then, for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑹 the set {𝑥: 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑎} is
a. Closed
b. Open
c. Both open and closed
d. Neither open nor closed

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Answer: (a)-closed
18. Let 𝑓: (𝑀, 𝑑) → (𝑹, 𝜌) be a function and the set {𝑥: 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑎} is closed for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑹. Then, f is
a. continuous
b. not continuous
c. constant
d. constant but not continuous
Answer: (a)- continuous
19. Let 𝑓: (𝑀, 𝑑) → (𝑹, 𝜌) be a function and the set {𝑥: 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑎} is open for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑹. Then, f is
a. not continuous
b. continuous
c. constant
d. constant but not continuous
Answer: (b)- continuous
20. Let 𝑓: (𝑹, 𝑑) → (𝑹, 𝜌) be a continuous function and 𝑓(0) > 0. Then,
a. 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for each 𝑥 ∈ (−𝑎, 𝑎)
b. 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 for each 𝑥 ∈ (−𝑎, 𝑎)
c. 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0 for each 𝑥 ∈ (−𝑎, 𝑎)
d. 𝑓(𝑥) < 0 for each 𝑥 ∈ (−𝑎, 𝑎)
Answer: (b)- 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 for each 𝑥 ∈ (−𝑎, 𝑎)
21. Let 𝑓: (𝑹, 𝑑) → (𝑹, 𝜌) be a continuous function and 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 whenever 𝑥 is rational. Then,
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 for some real 𝑥
b. 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0 for each real 𝑥
c. 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 or 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 for each real 𝑥
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 for each real 𝑥
Answer: (d)- 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 for each real 𝑥
22. If 𝑑(𝑥, 𝐴) = inf{𝑑(𝑥, 𝑎): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴} and 𝑑(𝑥, 𝐴) = 0. Then, the set A is
a. Closed
b. Open
c. Dense
d. Both open and closed
Answer: (c ) -dense
23. The point 0 is the limit point of the set 𝑑(𝑥, 𝐴) = inf{𝑑(𝑥, 𝑎): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴} if
a. 𝑥 is not a limit point of A
b. 𝑥 is limit point of A
c. 𝑥 is interior point of A
d. 𝑥 is exterior point of A
Answer: (b)- 𝑥 is limit point of A
24. Which of the following statements about homeomorphisms is true?
a. A homeomorphism preserves only open sets
b. A homeomorphism preserves only closed sets

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

c. A homeomorphism preserves both open and closed sets

d. A homeomorphism does not preserve any set
Answer: (c )- A homeomorphism preserves both open and closed sets
25. If there exists a homeomorphism between two topological spaces X and Y, what can be said about
their topological properties?
a. They must have the same number of elements
b. They must have the same dimension
c. They must have the same open sets
d. They must have the same closed sets
Answer: (b)- They must have the same dimension
26. Which of the following topological spaces is homeomorphic to the open interval (0,1) in R?
a. The closed interval [0,1] in R
b. The closed interval [0,1] in R with discrete topology
c. The open interval (1,2) in R
d. The set of rational numbers in R with the standard topology.
Answer: (c )- The open interval (1,2) in R
27. Which of the following statements about homeomorphisms is false?
a. A homeomorphism is a bijection
b. A homeomorphism is a continuous function
c. A homeomorphism preserves the number of connected components
d. A homeomorphism preserves the distance between points
Answer: (d)- A homeomorphism preserves the distance between points
28. Which of the following statements about homeomorphisms is true?
a. A homeomorphism maps open sets to closed sets
b. A homeomorphism maps compact sets to open sets
c. A homeomorphism maps connected sets to disconnected sets
d. A homeomorphism maps boundary points to interior points
Answer: (b)- A homeomorphism maps compact sets to open sets
29. Choose the correct statement:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 is uniformly continuous in R
b. Every uniformly continuous map is continuous
c. Every uniformly continuous map is not continuous
( )
d. 𝑓(𝑥) =

Answer: (b) - Every uniformly continuous map is continuous

30. Which of the following statements about uniformly continuous functions is not true?
a. Uniformly continuous functions preserve bounded sets
b. Image of a Cauchy sequence under a uniformly continuous functions is Cauchy sequence
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/𝑥 is uniformly continuous on (0,1)
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 is uniformly continuous on (0, 1)

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Answer: (c )- 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/𝑥 is uniformly continuous on (0,1)

31. Which of the following statements about uniformly continuous functions is not true?
a. Uniformly continuous functions preserve bounded sets
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = ( ) is uniformly continuous
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/𝑥 is not uniformly continuous on (0,1)
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 is not uniformly continuous on (0, 1)

Answer: (d )- 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 is not uniformly continuous on (0, 1)

32. If 𝑓: (𝑎, 𝑏) → 𝑹 is continuous map. Then, 𝑓 is also uniformly continuous if and only if
a. 𝑓 is extended to a continuous map on [𝑎, 𝑏]
b. 𝑓 is not extended to a continuous map on [𝑎, 𝑏]
c. 𝑓 is extended to a continuous map on 𝑹
d. 𝑓 is extended to a continuous map on interior of [𝑎, 𝑏]
Answer: (a)- 𝑓 is extended to a continuous map on [𝑎, 𝑏]
33. If a function is uniformly continuous on a closed interval, what can be said about its continuity on
that interval?
a. It must be continuous
b. It may or may not be continuous
c. It cannot be continuous
d. It is uniformly continuous, but not necessarily continuous
Answer: (a)- It must be continuous
34. If a function is uniformly continuous on a bounded set, what can be said about its behavior as the
domain extends to infinity?
a. It must remain uniformly continuous
b. It becomes uniformly continuous
c. It may or may not remain uniformly continuous
d. It becomes discontinuous
Answer: (a)- It must remain uniformly continuous

35. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = sin is continuous

a. Everywhere in R
b. Everywhere in R except at 𝑥 = 0
c. on [0,1)
d. on [0, 1]
e. Answer: (b)- Everywhere in R except at 𝑥 = 0
36. Which of the following functions is uniformly continuous on the interval [0, 2]
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = cos

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

( )
c. 𝑓(𝑥) =
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 sin
Answer: (a)- 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1
37. A function 𝑓: [𝑎, 𝑏] → 𝑅 is uniformly continuous if
a. derivative of 𝑓 exists on [𝑎, 𝑏]
b. derivative of 𝑓 exists on (𝑎, 𝑏)
c. derivative of 𝑓 exists on (𝑎, 𝑏) and is bounded
d. derivative of 𝑓 exists on (𝑎, 𝑏) and is unbounded
e. Answer: (c )- derivative exists on (𝑎, 𝑏) and is bounded

38. Which of the following statements is true regarding the sequential criterion for continuity?
a. It is applicable only to functions defined on closed intervals
b. It can be used to prove continuity of a function at a point, but not uniform continuity on an
interval
c. It is applicable to all functions, regardless of their domain
d. It can only be applied to functions that are uniformly continuous
Answer :( c) - It is applicable to all functions, regardless of their domain
39. Which of the following statements best describes the sequential criterion for continuity?
a. A function 𝑓 is continuous at a point 𝑥 = 𝑐 if and only if for every sequence 𝑥 converging to
𝑐 the sequence {𝑓(𝑥 )} converges to 𝑓(𝑐)
b. A function 𝑓 is continuous at a point 𝑥 = 𝑐 if and only if for every sequence 𝑥 converging to
𝑐 the sequence {𝑓(𝑥 )} converges to c
c. A function 𝑓 is continuous at a point 𝑥 = 𝑐 if and only if for every sequence 𝑥 converging to
𝑓(𝑐) the sequence {𝑓(𝑥 )}converges to c
d. A function 𝑓 is continuous at a point 𝑥 = 𝑐 if and only if there exists a sequence 𝑥
converging to 𝑐 the sequence {𝑓(𝑥 )}converges to 𝑓(𝑐)
Answer: (a)- A function 𝑓 is continuous at a point 𝑥 = 𝑐 if and only if for every sequence 𝑥
converging to 𝑐 the sequence {𝑓(𝑥 )} converges to 𝑓(𝑐)
40. Which of the following statements regarding the sequential criterion for continuity is false?
a. It can be used to prove continuity at a point
b. It states that if a function is continuous at a point, then for every sequence converging to that
point, the sequence of function values also converges.
c. It applies only to functions defined on open intervals
d. It provides a useful tool for proving the continuity of functions in real analysis
Answer: (c )- It applies only to functions defined on open interval
41. Which of the following functions is a contraction map on the interval [0,1]
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥
c. 𝑓(𝑥) =
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟: (c)- 𝑓(𝑥) =

42. Which of the following functions is a contraction map on the interval [0,1]
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin (𝑥)
c. 𝑓(𝑥) =
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 𝑥

𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟: (c)- 𝑓(𝑥) =

43. Which of the following functions is a contraction map on the interval [-1,1]
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
f. 𝑓(𝑥) = cos (𝑥)
g. 𝑓(𝑥) =
h. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 𝑥

𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟: (c)- 𝑓(𝑥) =

44. Let 𝑓: [𝑎, 𝑏] → [𝑎, 𝑏] is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏). Then, f has a unique
fixed point if
a. |𝑓 (𝑥)| ≤ 𝛼 < 1 for all 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏
b. |𝑓 (𝑥)| ≥ 𝛼 for all 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏
c. |𝑓(𝑥)| ≤ 𝛼 < 1 for all 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏
d. |𝑓(𝑥)| ≥ 𝛼 for all 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏
Answer: (a) -|𝑓 (𝑥)| ≤ 𝛼 < 1 for all 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏
45. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a complete metric space and 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑋be a contraction mapping with a Lipschitz
constant𝑘 < 1. Which of the following statements is true?
a. 𝑓 has a unique fixed point in 𝑋
b. 𝑓 may have multiple fixed point in 𝑋
c. 𝑓 may not have any fixed point in 𝑋
d. 𝑓 must have exactly two fixed point in 𝑋
e. Answer: (a)- 𝑓 has a unique fixed point in 𝑋
46. Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = + defined on the interval [1, ∞). Which of the following
statements is true regarding 𝑓 on the interval [1, ∞)?
a. 𝑓 is a contraction mapping on [1, ∞)
b. 𝑓 has a unique ixed point in [1, ∞)
c. 𝑓 has two ixed points in [1, ∞)
d. 𝑓 has infinitely many fixed points in [1, ∞)
e. Answer: (b) - 𝑓 has a unique ixed point in [1, ∞)
47. Let(𝑋, 𝑑) be a complete metric space and 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑋 be a function such that for every 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋,
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦). Which of the following statements is true?
a. 𝑓 is a contraction mapping on X

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

b. 𝑓 has a unique ixed point in X

c. 𝑓 has two ixed points in X
d. 𝑓 has infinitely many fixed points in X
e. Answer: (b) - 𝑓 has a unique ixed point in 𝑋
48. A monotonic function is/has
a. countably many jump-discontinuity
b. is continuous
c. uncountably many jump-discontinuity
d. none of these
Answer: (a)- countably many jump-discontinuity
49. A function 𝑓 is said to discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if for any given 𝜖 > 0 there exists a 𝛿 > 0 if
a. |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)| < 𝜖 whenever |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿
b. |𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑎)| < 𝜖 whenever |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿
c. |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)| < 𝜖 whenever |𝑥 + 𝑎| < 𝛿
d. |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)| ≥ 𝜖 whenever |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿

Answer: (d)- |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)| ≥ 𝜖 whenever |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿

50. A function 𝑓 is said to discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if for any given 𝜖 > 0 there exists a 𝛿 > 0 if
a. |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)| < 𝜖 whenever |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿
b. |𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑎)| < 𝜖 whenever |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿
c. |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)| < 𝜖 whenever |𝑥 + 𝑎| < 𝛿
d. |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)| ≥ 𝜖 whenever |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿

Answer: (a)- |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)| < 𝜖 whenever |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Unit-IV

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Connectedness
As we have seen, Q has nontrivial subsets such as {𝑟 ∈ 𝑸 ∶ −√2 < 𝑟 < √2} which are both open and
closed in Q. Subsets of a metric space which are both open and closed are called clopen.

So, we are saying that Q has at least one (many in fact) nonempty, proper clopen subset. (Proper just means
a subset which is not the whole space.) We will see that this is not true for R: the only clopen subsets of R
are the empty set and R itself. This difference between Q and R is important enough that we give it a name
in fact, we give a more intuitive definition first and then see how it relates to the existence of clopen subsets.

Definition 1. A metric space X is disconnected if there exist nonempty, disjoint open subsets 𝑈, 𝑉 ∈ 𝑋 such
that 𝑋 = 𝑈 ∪ 𝑉. We say that X is connected if it is not disconnected.

To say that U and V are disjoint means that they have nothing in common, i.e., 𝑈 ∩ 𝑉 = 𝜙.

So, the definition says that X is disconnected if it can be broken up into nonempty open subsets which have
nothing in common, while X is connected if it cannot be broken up in this manner. Intuitively, a
disconnected space is one which is made up of different “pieces", while a connected one consists of a single
“piece".

Example: The set of rational numbers is disconnected since we can write it as

𝑄 = 𝑟 ∈ 𝑸 ∶ −√2 < 𝑟 < √2 ∪ {𝑟 ∈ 𝑸 ∶ 𝒓 < −√2 𝑜𝑟 √2 < 𝑟} .

Each one of these sets is open in Q, neither one is empty, and they have nothing in common. Replacing
−√2 and √2 by any irrational numbers will give other ways of breaking Q up into nonempty, disjoint open
subsets. Taking similar subsets of R\Q with −√2 and √2 replaced by rational numbers will show that is
disconnected.

Example: Let X be the union of any two disjoint open disks in R2. (Imagine that these two disks are far
apart.) Then X is disconnected. Indeed, we have defined X precisely to be the union of nonempty, disjoint
open subsets. Visually we see that X is disconnected because it is “broken" up into \pieces" which are
separated from each other. The above example also helps to illustrate why connectedness will be a useful
concept: in a disconnected space, what is happening in one \piece" will have no effect on what is happening
in any other “piece". Once we talk about differentiation, we will see an explicit reason as to why this is
important.

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Now, what kinds of spaces are connected? For us, the main examples of connected spaces will be intervals
and R itself. The proof that R is connected is left to the homework, but it depends (at least if you prove it
the way I suggest in the homework) on the fact that open intervals are connected:

Theorem :Any open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) with a < b is connected.

The condition that a < b is just there to guarantee that (a; b) is not empty. This fact should be clear intuitively:
draw an open interval and convince yourselves that it should not be possible to break it up into two smaller
disjoint open intervals. The problem is that no matter how you try to do this, there will always be at least
one point of (a; b) left out. Here is how we can make this precise.

Proof. Suppose that U and V are nonempty, disjoint open subsets of (𝑎, 𝑏). We will show that 𝑈 ∪ 𝑉cannot
be all of (a,b), which will imply that (a, b) is connected.

Since (a, b) is bounded, so are U and V and thus the supremums of U and V both exist in R. Since b is an
upper bound of U and of V, we know that 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑈 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑠𝑢𝑝 𝑉 ≤ 𝑏. These supremums cannot both be b,
so without less of generality we assume that x = supU < b. Now, we first claim that 𝑥 ∉ 𝑈. If 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, since
U is open there exists an interval (𝑥 − 𝛿, 𝑥 + 𝛿) with 𝛿 > 0 contained in U. But then 𝑥 + is an element
of U larger than x, contradicting the fact that x is an upper bound of U.

We also claim that 𝑥 ∉ 𝑉. If 𝑥 ∈ 𝑉, since V is open there exists an interval (𝑥 − 𝛿, 𝑥 + 𝛿) with 𝛿 > 0.
Since x is the least upper bound of U and 𝑥 − < 𝑥, there exists 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈 such that 𝑥 − < 𝑢 < 𝑥. But
then this u is in the interval (𝑥 − , 𝑥 + ), which is contained in V, contradicting the fact that 𝑈 ∪ 𝑉 =
𝜙. We conclude that 𝑥 ∉ 𝑈 ∪ 𝑉 , so x is an element of (a, b) not contained in 𝑈 ∪ 𝑉 , so 𝑈 ∪ 𝑉 cannot
be all of (a, b) as required.

It turns out that any interval, whether it be closed or half-open and half-closed, is connected; the same
argument as above may not quite work as given, but slight modifications should work. As mentioned, R is
also connected, but now the above proof completely fails since we may not be able to take sup U and sup
V as we did. There may be a way to use the same kind of idea to show that R is connected, but the homework
will give another way of proving this.

It turns out that any interval, whether it be closed or half-open and half-closed, is connected; the same
argument as above may not quite work as given, but slight modifications should work. As mentioned, R is
also connected, but now the above proof completely fails since we may not be able to take supU and sup V
as we did. There may be a way to use the same kind of idea to show that R is connected, but the homework
will give another way of proving this.

Compactness:

We now come to one of the most important, and perhaps least intuitive, concepts in analysis: the notion of
a compact metric space. The definition is simple enough to state, but it is not at all clear at first why this
should be something we are interested in. Indeed, we won't really see why until we talk about the special
properties that continuous functions on compact spaces have. To give a very vague idea, compact spaces
are ones which are not too “large"; indeed, we will see that compact spaces are always bounded, so part of
saying that something is not too “large" means that it cannot “extend to infinity". However, an open interval
(a; b) in R is also bounded and yet will not be compact, so “large" in the above sense must mean more than

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

simply being bounded. Again, the real key will come a bit later when we study continuous functions on
compact spaces. There are two possible definitions we can give for compactness: one which is easier to
state but gives no hint at its deeper meaning, and another which is (psychologically) trickier to state but
starts to get at the heart of the sense in which compact spaces are not too \large". We will start with the first
definition (sequential compactness), give examples and prove some basic facts, and then we will give the
second definition (covering compactness) and do the same. It is one of the miracles of analysis and topology
that these two arbitrary-looking definitions are actually equivalent.

(Sequential) Compactness:
Definition: A subset K of a metric space (X; d) is said to be compact if every sequence in K has a convergent
subsequence in K.

Remark: Since a metric space can always be viewed as a subset of itself, it makes sense to ask whether or
not a metric space itself is compact: (X; d) is compact if every sequence in X has a convergent subsequence.
The point is that, unlike the definitions of open and closed, compactness is not a relative notion: we do not
ask whether or not a space is compact in a larger space, only whether or not a space is itself compact.

For instance, we will see shortly that closed intervals [a, b] are compact.

yes, these are compact subsets of R, but the point is that [a; b] is compact when viewed as a metric space
in its own right, regardless of the fact that it is a subset of R. So, according to this definition, a space is not
too “large" if no matter what sample points you choose from the space, you can always find a subsequence
among them which converges.

Example: Any finite subset {𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 } of a metric space X is compact. Indeed, pick any sequence in
{𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 }. Since there are only finitely many points in this subset but infinitely many terms in the
sequence, at least one of the xi must occur infinitely often in the sequence.

The subsequence formed by picking out each occurrence of this term will then be the convergent
subsequence in {𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 } we want.

The standard, and perhaps most important, example of a compact space is a closed interval [a, b]. Our book
actually covers this, although it is not phrased in the language of compactness. Here is the relevant result:

Theorem (Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem 11.5 in the book). Every bounded sequence in R has
convergent subsequence.

Check the book for the proof, which should be relatively straightforward and is based on the fact (Theorem
11.3 in the book) that any sequence in R has a monotone subsequence. The compactness of closed intervals
is an immediate consequence:

Corollary. Any closed interval [a, b] is compact.

Proof. Let (xn) be any sequence in [a; b]. Since [a; b] is bounded, so is the sequence (xn) so the Bolzano-
Weierstrass Theorem implies that this has a subsequence (xnk ) converging to some 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅. Since [a, b] is
closed, this limit x is actually in [a; b], so (xnk ) converges in [a, b] and hence [a, b] is compact.

Note that the only important properties of [a, b] which we actually used above were that it is bounded and
closed in R. Thus, the same proof works for any closed and bounded subset of R; that is, any closed and
bounded subset of R is also compact.

Dr Shailendra Kumar & Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Example: R is not compact, and neither is a nonempty open interval (a,b). Indeed, the sequence 1,2,3, ….
in R has no convergent subsequence, so R is not compact, and a sequence of points in (a; b) getting closer
to a will not have a convergent subsequence in (a; b), so (a; b) is not compact.

Here are two properties which compact sets always have, which are already illustrated by the example of
[a; b] above.

Proposition: A compact subset K of a metric space X is closed and bounded in X.

Proof. First, we show that K is closed in X. To this end, let (xn) be a sequence in K converging to x ∈ X.
We must show that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐾. Since K is compact, (xn) has a subsequence (xnk ) converging to some 𝑥 ∈ 𝐾.
But since the original sequence converges to x, (xnk ) also converges to x. Hence since limits are unique x
and y must be the same, and since 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐾 as claimed. We conclude that K is closed in X.

Now, to show that K is bounded, we establish the contrapositive: if K is not bounded, then K is not compact.
We do this by constructing a sequence in K which has no convergent subsequence. Fix 𝑝 ∈ 𝐾. If K is not
bounded, for any positive radius r > 0 we can find an element of K whose distance from p is larger than r.
In particular, for each 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, we can find 𝑥 ∈ 𝐾 such that d(p, xn) > n. This gives a sequence (xn) in K,
and the condition that d(p, xn) > n for each n implies that every subsequence of (xn) is unbounded and
hence divergent. Thus (xn) is a sequence of K with no convergent subsequence in K, so K is not compact.

So, compact subsets of a metric space are always closed and bounded. Note that in the case of R, as
mentioned above, the converse is also true: a closed and bounded subset of R is compact. In fact, this is
true more generally in Rn:

Theorem (Heine-Borel). A subset of Rn is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded.

This is not too hard to prove, given that we already know this for n = 1 and that a sequence of points in 𝑅
converges if and only if each component sequence converges. We omit the proof here. The point is that
compact subsets of 𝑅 -R and 𝑅 in particular are easy to describe: they are exactly the closed and bounded
subsets.

The standard warning at this point is that while compact sets are always closed and bounded, it is not true
that any closed and bounded subset of a general metric space will be compact. The fact that this is true for
𝑅 is just one of the many amazing properties of 𝑅 .

(Covering) Compactness:
We now give the second definition of compactness, which although more difficult to state and wrap your
head around, is probably going to be the more intuitive one once you get the hang of it.

Definition: Let X be a metric space and 𝑆 ⊆ 𝑋 a subspace. An open cover of S is a collection {𝑈 } of open
subsets of X such that S is contained in their union-meaning that any element of S is in at least one of the
𝑈 . A subcover of an open cover {𝑈 } is an open cover {𝑉 } of S so that each 𝑉 occurs in the collection
{𝑈 }. An open cover is finite if it contains finitely many sets.

Intuitively, an open cover of S is a collection of open subsets of X which all together “cover" all of S. A
subcover is nothing but a collection of some (but not necessarily all) sets in the open cover which still
“cover" all of S.

Dr Shailendra Kumar & Dr Pradeep Kumar

B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Definition: A subset K of a metric space (X, d) is said to be compact if every open cover of K has a finite
subcover.

Thus, a compact set is one with the property that whenever we cover it by an infinite (even uncountable)
number of open sets, there are actually a finite number of those open sets which still do the job. This is now
getting closer to what we mean by saying that a compact set is one which is not too “large", in that questions
dealing with an infinite number of open sets covering it can be reduced to one about a finite number of open
sets covering it; i.e. for compact sets, questions about an infinite number of things can be reduced one about
a finite number of things. We will see multiple examples of this. The amazing (and completely surprising)
fact is that this definition of compactness is equivalent to the previous one. In other words:

Theorem: A subset K of a metric space X is sequentially compact (i.e. satisfies the first definition of
compact) if and only if it is covering compact (i.e. satisfies the second definition of compact).

This is a highly non-obvious and non-trivial theorem, and takes a lot of effort to prove. Actually, one
direction (that covering compact implies sequentially compact) is not so hard to prove, but the other is a
killer. We will omit the proof here since we will not need the techniques it uses, but I encourage you to look
it up after this course is over. It really is quite astonishing how it all works out so nicely.

Example: Let us look at three examples considered previously. We have already seen that R is not compact
according to the sequential definition of compact. It is easy to see that it also fails this new covering
definition: in particular, the collection of open intervals of the form (-n, n) for 𝑛 ∈ 𝑵 give an open cover of
R with no finite subcover. Similarly, a nonempty open interval (a, b) is not compact according to this
definition since the collection of open intervals of the form

𝑎+ ,𝑏 − for 𝑛 ∈ 𝑵,

whose endpoints get closer to 𝑎 and 𝑏 as 𝑛 increases, gives an open cover of (a, b) with no finite
subcover.

Now, closed intervals [a; b] do satisfy this new definition of compact. (Indeed, they'd better since we already
know [a, b] is compact according to the previous definition, and we have claimed that both definitions are
equivalent.) Showing this is more difficult than showing [a, b] is sequentially compact. The hard part is that
given any open cover {𝑈 } of [a, b] whatsoever, we have to somehow produce a finite number of the 𝑈
which still cover [a, b].

This is not at all easy to do directly, but it turns out there is an indirect approach. We proceed as follows.
Let 𝐶 denote the set of elements 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] with the property that there are finitely many of the 𝑈 covering
[a, x]:

𝐶 = {𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]: 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑈 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 [𝑎, 𝑥]}.

Note that, in particular, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐶 since there does exist a 𝑈 covering [𝑎, 𝑎] = {𝑎}. Also, C is bounded since
it is a subset of the bounded interval [a, b]. Thus, C has a supremum, call it 𝑢, and since 𝐶 ⊂ [𝑎; 𝑏], 𝑎 ≤
𝑢 ≤ 𝑏. The proof now proceeds by showing that u is actually in C and that 𝑢 = 𝑏. Combining these gives
𝑏 ∈ 𝐶 which exactly says that finitely many of the 𝑈 cover [𝑎, 𝑏], and hence that [𝑎, 𝑏] is compact.

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Proposition: A compact subset K of a metric space X is closed and bounded in X.

Proof. First, we show that K is closed in X. To do this, we show instead that the complement 𝐾 of K in X
is open in X. So, let 𝑞 ∈ 𝐾 . For each 𝑝 ∈ 𝐾, let Up be the ball of radius 𝑑(𝑝, 𝑞) = 2 around 𝑝 and let 𝑉𝑝
be the ball of radius 𝑑(𝑝; 𝑞) = 2 around 𝑞. Notice that these two balls are disjoint from each other. The
collection {𝑈 ∶ 𝑝 ∈ 𝐾} is then an open cover of K, so it has a finite subcover since K is compact; let
𝑈 ,𝑈 ,…𝑈

be the sets in this finite subcover. We claim that 𝑉 = 𝑉 ∩ 𝑉 ∩ … 𝑉 is an open set containing 𝑞 and
completely contained in 𝐾 . Indeed, V is open since the intersection of finitely many open sets is open, and
for any 𝑝 ∈ 𝐾, 𝑝 ∈ 𝑈 for some 𝑘 = 1,2, … 𝑛, so 𝑝 ∉ 𝑉𝑝𝑘 and hence 𝑝 ∉ 𝑉 |thus no element of K is in
V , so 𝑉 ⊂ 𝐾 . Hence 𝑞 is an interior point of 𝐾 , and since 𝑞 ∈ 𝐾 was arbitrary, every point in 𝐾 is an
interior point. This shows that 𝐾 is open as required.

Now, to show that K is bounded, pick any 𝑝 ∈ 𝐾 and consider the collection {𝐵 (𝑝): 𝑟 > 0}of all balls
centered at 𝑝 of any positive radius. This is an open cover of K since the element 𝑞 ∈ 𝐾 is contained in the
ball of radius 𝑑(𝑞, 𝑝) + 1 around 𝑝. Since 𝐾 is compact, this has a finite subcover let 𝑟 , 𝑟 , … 𝑟 be the radii
of the balls in this finite subcover, and set 𝑟 = max {𝑟 , 𝑟 , … , 𝑟𝑛} > 0. Then each of the balls 𝑀 (𝑝) is
contained in the ball 𝑀𝑟(𝑝), and since these balls cover 𝐾, it follows that 𝐾 itself is contained in 𝑀𝑟(𝑝).
Hence K is bounded.

Granted, proving that a compact set is closed is not as straightforward using the covering characterization
of compactness as it was using the sequence characterization. The proof illustrates what is meant by saying
that the definition of covering compact allows one to pass from having to deal with an infinite number of
things to instead deal with a finite number of things. More precisely, we constructed some sets Up and Vp
for each p in other space, and although there could be an absolutely huge number of such open sets,
compactness of K allowed us to replace them but a finite number. Then when dealing with this finite number
we can do things like take intersections.

Similarly, in the proof that a compact set is bounded, we had an infinite number of radii to work with and
compactness allowed us to replace them with a finite number of radii, after which taking their maximum
makes sense.

Unit 4-Question Bank (MCQ)

1. The singleton set and empty set are

a. Open
b. Dense
c. Connected
d. Compact

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Answer: (c )-connected
2. Infinite discrete space is
a. Open
b. connected
c. disconnected
d. Compact
Answer: (c )-disconnected
3. Infinite discrete space is
a. unbounded
b. connected
c. locally compact
d. Compact
Answer: (c )-locally compact
4. The set of real number with usual metric is
a. Not compact
b. Disconnected
c. Both compact and disconnected
d. Neither compact nor connected
Answer: (a)- not compact
5. Continuous image of compact set is
a. Connected
b. Open
c. Closed
d. Compact
Answer: (d)- compact
6. Continuous image of connected set is
e. Connected
f. Open
g. Closed
h. Compact
Answer: (a)- connected
7. Continuous image of locally connected set is
a. locally connected
b. connected
c. open
d. closed
Answer: (a)- locally connected
8. Continuous image of locally compact set is
a. locally connected

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

b. connected
c. locally compact
d. closed
Answer: (c )- locally compact
9. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be metric space, then X is disconnected if and only if
a. There exists a continuous function on discrete two space
b. There exists a continuous function on indiscrete two space
c. There does not exist a continuous function on discrete two space
d. None of these
Answer: (a)- There exists a continuous function on discrete two space
10. All the intervals in R are
a. Open
b. Closed
c. Compact
d. Connected
Answer: (d)- Connected
11. All the closed intervals in R are
a. Open
b. Closed
c. Compact
d. disconnected
Answer: (c)- compact
12. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be metric space, then X is disconnected if and only if
a. There exists a proper subset of X which is both open and closed
b. There exists two proper subset of X which is both open and closed
c. There does not exist a proper subset of X which is both open and closed
d. There exists a proper subset of X which is either open or closed
Answer: (a)- There exists a proper subset of X which is both open and closed
13. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be metric space, then X is connected if and only if
a. There exists a proper subset of X which is both open and closed
b. There exists two proper subset of X which is both open and closed
c. There does not exist a proper subset of X which is both open and closed
d. There exists a proper subset of X which is either open or closed
Answer: (c)- There does not exist a proper subset of X which is both open and closed
14. The set of rational numbers is
a. Open
b. Closed
c. Connected
d. Disconnected

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Answer: (d)- disconnected

15. The set of irrational numbers is
e. Open
f. Closed
g. Compact
h. Disconnected
Answer: (d)- disconnected
16. If 𝐸 ⊂ 𝑀 is connected in a metric space (𝑀, 𝑑) and 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, 𝐴 and B are disjoint open sets in
M. Then,
a. 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐴 and 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐵
b. Either 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐴 or 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐵
c. neither 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐴 nor 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐵
d. none of these
Answer: (b)- Either 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐴 or 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐵
17. The closure of any connected set is
a. Disconnected
b. Connected
c. Compact
d. Locally compact
Answer: (b)-connected
18. Let X be a topological space. Which of the following statements is true regarding connected sets
in X:
a. The closure of a connected set is always connected
b. The complement of a connected set is always connected
c. The image of a connected set under a continuous map is always connected
d. The intersection of two connected sets is always disconnected
Answer: (a)- The closure of a connected set is always connected
19. The superset of a connected set is
a. Connected
b. May or may not connected
c. Disconnected
d. None of these
Answer: (b)- May or may not connected
20. Any subset of connected set is
a. Connected
b. May or may not connected
c. Disconnected
d. None of these
Answer: (b)- May or may not connected

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

21. Co-finite topology is

a. Connected
b. Disconnected
c. Not compact
d. None of these
Answer: (a) -connected
22. Co-finite topology is
e. compact
f. Disconnected
g. Not compact
h. None of these
Answer: (a) -compact
23. Compact metric space is
a. Separable
b. Closed
c. Connected
d. Open
Answer: (a)- Separable
24. Closed subset of a compact space is
a. Compact
b. Open
c. Not compact
d. None of these
Answer: (a)-compact
25. Component in a topological space is
a. Closed
b. Open
c. Disconnected
d. None of these
Answer: (a)-closed
26. Component in a metric space is
a. Closed
b. Open
c. Disconnected
d. None of these
Answer: (b)-open
27. Every discrete space is
a. Totally disconnected
b. Connected
c. Compact
d. None of these

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Answer: (a)- Totally disconnected

28. The set of rational numbers with relative usual topology is
a. Totally disconnected
b. Connected
c. Compact
d. None of these
Answer: (a)- Totally disconnected
29. Every discrete space is
a. Connected
b. Locally connected
c. Compact
d. None of these
Answer: (b)- Locally connected
30. Components of totally disconnected set is
a. A two-point set
b. A singleton set
c. Empty set
d. Infinite set
Answer: ( b)- A singleton set
31. Every indiscrete topology is
a. Disconnected
b. Compact
c. Not compact
d. None of these
Answer: (b)-compact
32. Every indiscrete topology is
e. Disconnected
f. Connected
g. not compact
h. None of these
Answer: (b)-connected
33. Every closed and bounded set in R is
a. Compact
b. Not compact
c. Connected
d. Disconnected
Answer: (a)-compact
34. Every closed subspace of locally compact space is
a. locally compact
b. need not to be locally compact
c. compact

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

d. none of these
Answer: (a)- locally compact
35. Every open subspace of locally compact space is
a. locally compact
b. need not to be locally compact
c. compact
d. none of these
Answer: (a)- locally compact
36. If 𝐸 ⊂ 𝑀 is connected in a metric space (𝑀, 𝑑) and 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, 𝐴 and B are disjoint open sets in
M. Then,
e. 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐴 and 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐵
f. Either 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐴 or 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐵
g. neither 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐴 nor 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐵
h. none of these
Answer: (b)- Either 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐴 or 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐵
37. The closure of any connected set is
e. Disconnected
f. Connected
g. Compact
h. Locally compact
Answer: (b)-connected
38. Let X be a topological space. Which of the following statements is true regarding connected sets
in X:
e. The closure of a connected set is always connected
f. The complement of a connected set is always connected
g. The image of a connected set under a continuous map is always connected
h. The intersection of two connected sets is always disconnected
Answer: (a)- The closure of a connected set is always connected
39. The superset of a connected set is
e. Connected
f. May or may not connected
g. Disconnected
h. None of these
Answer: (b)- May or may not connected
40. Any subset of connected set is
e. Connected
f. May or may not connected
g. Disconnected
h. None of these

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Answer: (b)- May or may not connected

41. Every sequentially compact metric space is
a. Not compact
b. Open
c. Closed
d. Compact
Answer: (d)-compact
42. Product of two connected set is
a. Open
b. Closed
c. Connected
d. Disconnected
Answer: (c )-connected
43. Product of two compact set is
a. Open
b. Closed
c. compact
d. Disconnected
Answer: (c )-compact
44. Product of two locally compact set is
a. Open
b. Closed
c. compact
d. Locally compact
Answer: (d )-locally compact
45. Product of two locally connected set is
a. Open
b. Locally connected
c. Connected
d. Disconnected
Answer: (b )- locally connected
46. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two connected subsets of 𝑀. Them, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is connected if
a. Either 𝐴 = 𝜙 or 𝐵 = 𝜙
b. 𝐴 ≠ 𝜙 but 𝐵 = 𝜙
c. 𝐴 = 𝜙 but 𝐵 ≠ 𝜙
d. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝜙
Answer: (d)- 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝜙
47. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two nonempty connected subsets of 𝑀. Them, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is connected if
a. Both A and B are open
b. Both A and B are closed

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

c. 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵 ≠ 𝜙
d. None of these
Answer: (c )- 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵 ≠ 𝜙
48. If 𝑀 is connected and has at least two points. Then, M is
a. Countable
b. Uncountable
c. Open
d. Dense
Answer: (b)- uncountable
49. Let 𝑓: (𝑀, 𝑑) → (𝑁, 𝜌) be a continuous function. Then, for any 𝐸 ⊂ 𝑀, 𝑓(𝐸) is
a. Connected
b. Open
c. Closed
d. Compact
Answer: (a)- connected
50. Union of two disjoint open intervals is
a. Closed
b. Dense
c. Connected
d. Disconnected
Answer: (d)-disconnected

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Unit-V

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Functions of Complex variable

Introduction to Complex Numbers:

Definition: Complex numbers are numbers of the form 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, where
a and b are real numbers, and i is the imaginary unit (𝑖 = −1)
Representation: Complex numbers can be represented geometrically on the
complex plane, with the real part a along the x-axis and the imaginary part
b along the y-axis.
Real and Imaginary Parts: The real part of z is denoted by 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) and the imaginary
part by 𝐼𝑚(𝑧).
Complex Functions:
Definition: A complex function 𝑓(𝑧) maps complex numbers to complex numbers,
𝑧 ∈ 𝐶.
Analytic Functions: A function f(z) is analytic at a point 𝑧 if it is differentiable in
a neighborhood of 𝑧 .
Holomorphic Functions: Synonymous with analytic functions in complex analysis
Arithmetic Operations: Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of
complex numbers.
Polar Form: Complex numbers can be represented in polar form 𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +
𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃), where r is the magnitude and θ is the argument of z.
Exponential Form: 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 , where r is the magnitude and θ is the argument of z.
Complex Conjugate: The complex conjugate of 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑖s denoted by 𝑧̅ = 𝑎 −
𝑖𝑏.

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Complex Exponential and Trigonometric Functions:

Euler's Formula: 𝑒 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

Exponential Functions: 𝑒 for complex number z.
Trigonometric Functions: 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑧 for complex number z

Limit of a function:
We say that a number l is said to be limit of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 if for given ɛ > 0
(however small), there exists a number δ> 0 s.t. 0 < |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙| < ɛ
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙
→

Continuity of a function:
We say that a complex function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑎 if for given
ɛ > 0 (however small), there exists a number δ> 0 s.t. |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙| < ɛ and
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑎)
→

Analytic function :
Consider a single valued function 𝑓(𝑧) in a domain D. The function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to
be analytic at a point 𝑧 = 𝑎 if there exists a neighborhood |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 at all points
which 𝑓 (𝑧) exists.
if 𝑓 (𝑧) exists at every point of domain D, then we say that 𝑓(𝑧) is regular in D.

Cauchy-Riemann Equations:
It is a necessary condition that 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) be analytic in domain
D is that
u & v satisfy Cauchy-Riemann Equations:

= & =

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Sufficient condition for 𝑓(𝑧) to be analytic

The function 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) be analytic in domain d if

I. 𝑢 & 𝑣 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐷 and = & =

II. the partial derivatives 𝑢 , 𝑣 , 𝑣 , 𝑢 all are continuous in D.

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MCQ
1. Which of the following statements is true about the complex conjugate of a
complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ?

a) Its real part remains the same.

b) Its imaginary part remains the same.
c) Both real and imaginary parts change sign.
d) None of these
Answer: (c) Both real and imaginary parts change sign.

2. Which of the following statements about the principal branch of the complex
logarithm is true?
a) It maps every complex number to a unique value in the range (-𝜋, 𝜋]
b) It is analytic everywhere in the complex plane.
c) It is discontinuous along the negative real axis.
d) It is a multivalued function.
Answer: (a) It maps every complex number to a unique value in the range (-𝜋, 𝜋]

3. The function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 maps the region |𝑧| < 1 onto:

a) The entire complex plane except the origin.
b) The region |𝑤| < 1
c) The region |𝑤| > 1
d) The upper half-plane.
Answer: (b) The region |𝑤| < 1
4. The function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 maps the line Im(𝑧) = 𝜋 onto:
a) The positive real axis.
b) The negative real axis.
c) The upper half-plane.

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d) The lower half-plane.

Answer: c) The upper half-plane.
5. What is the image of the circle |𝑧 − 𝑖| = 2 under the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 ?
a) A circle centered at 𝑤 = −1 with radius 4.
b) A circle centered at 𝑤 = 1 with radius 4.
c) A circle centered at 𝑤 = −1 with radius 2.
d) A circle centered at 𝑤 = 1 with radius 2.
Answer: (a) A circle centered at 𝑤 = −1 with radius 4.

6. What is the image of the real axis under the exponential function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 ?
a) The entire complex plane
b) The positive real axis
c) The negative real axis
d) The upper half-plane
Answer b) The positive real axis.

7. Which of the following points in the complex plane is not in the image of the
exponential function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 ?
a) 𝑍 = 0
b) 𝑍 = 1
c) 𝑍 = 𝑖
d) 𝑍 = −𝑖
Answer c) 𝑍 = 𝑖

8. What is the image of the half-plane Re(𝑧) < 0 under the exponential function
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 ?

a) The entire complex plane excluding the negative real axis.

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b) The positive real axis excluding the origin.

c) The upper half-plane.
d) The unit disk centered at the origin.
Answer b) The positive real axis excluding the origin.

9. Which of the following transformations maps the unit circle|𝑧| = 1onto itself?
a) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒
b) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒
c) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒
d) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒
Answer 𝑎) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒

10.The theorem that guarantees the existence of complex roots for a non-constant
polynomial is known as:
a) Cauchy's Integral Theorem
b) Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
c) Riemann Mapping Theorem
d) Maximum Modulus Principle
Answer b) Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

11. Which theorem states that if a function 𝑓(𝑧) is bounded and holomorphic on a
domain𝐷, then 𝑓(𝑧) must be constant?
a) Cauchy's Integral Theorem
b) Liouville's Theorem
c) Morera's Theorem
d) Riemann's Removable Singularity Theorem

Answer b) Liouville's Theorem

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12.The theorem which states that if a function 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous on a closed curve
𝐶 and holomorphic inside 𝐶, then the integral of 𝑓(𝑧)over 𝐶 is zero is known
as:
a) Cauchy's Integral Theorem
b) Morera's Theorem
c) Cauchy's Integral Formula
d) Riemann's Removable Singularity Theorem

Answer a) Cauchy's Integral Theorem

13.An analytic function is defined as a function that is:

a) Differentiable at every point in its domain.
b) Continuous at every point in its domain.
c) Continuous and differentiable at every point in its domain.
d) Continuous but not necessarily differentiable at every point in its domain.
14. Which of the following functions is not analytic?
a) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
b) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒
c) 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|
d) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 + 11
Answer c) 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|
15. An analytic function in a region D satisfies:
a) Cauchy's Integral Theorem
b) Cauchy-Riemann equations
c) Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
d) Maximum Modulus Principle
Answer: b) Cauchy-Riemann equations

16. The set of complex numbers where an analytic function is not defined is known
as its:
a) Range
b) Image

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

c) Domain
d) Singularity
Answer d) Singularity

17. Which of the following statements about analytic functions is true?

a) Analytic functions can have essential singularities.
b) Analytic functions cannot have poles.
c) Analytic functions cannot have isolated singularities.
d) Analytic functions are always bounded on the entire complex plane.
Answer a) Analytic functions can have essential singularities.
18 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧) + 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧) when 𝑧 ≠ 0
a) 0
b) −
c) −
d) 𝜋𝑖
Answer 𝑎) 0
19. Value of 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝜋) is
a) Real
b) 0
c) -1
d) 1
Answer b) 0
20. ((1 − 𝑤 + 𝑤 ) + (1 + 𝜔 − 𝜔 ) is equal to
a) 64
b) 32
c) 16
d) 8
Answer b) 32
21. = 2 then 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) is

a) |𝑧|

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

b) |𝑧|
c) |𝑧|
d) |𝑧 − 1|

Answer a) |𝑧|
22. In the context of complex analysis, what is the term for a function that is
analytic everywhere in the complex plane?
a) Entire function
b) Isolated function
c) Holomorphic function
d) Singular function
Answer a) Entire function
23. Which of the following transformations preserves the property of a function
being analytic?
a) Multiplication by a constant
b) Addition of a constant
c) Exponential function
d) Taking the conjugate of the function
Answer a) Multiplication by a constant
24. Which of the following conditions is a necessary requirement for a function to
be analytic at a point in the complex plane?
a) Continuous partial derivatives with respect to 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦
b) Existence of a limit at that point
c) Non-existence of singularities in a neighbourhood
d) Differentiability along the real axis only
Answer a) Continuous partial derivatives with respect to 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦
25. If 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) is an analytic function, which of the following
statements is true?

a) 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) are completely independent of each other.

b) The real and imaginary parts of 𝑓(𝑧) satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
c) The function is necessarily bounded in its domain.
d) The function has a pole at every point in its domain.

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Answer b) The real and imaginary parts of 𝑓(𝑧) satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann
equations.
26. If a function satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations and is continuous in a
domain, then it is:
a) Differentiable in that domain
b) Analytic in that domain
c) Bounded in that domain
d) Singular in that domain
Answer b) Analytic in that domain

27. Which of the following functions is analytic at any point in the complex plane?
a) 𝑒
b) 𝑧 + 1
c) sin(1/z)
d) 1/z
Answer b) 𝑧 + 1

28. An analytic function in a simply connected domain can be expressed as:

a) A power series
b) A trigonometric series
c) A polynomial
d) An exponential series
Answer a) A power series

29. In which of the following domains is the function f(z) = 1/z analytic?
a) Entire complex plane except the origin
b) Upper half-plane
c) Imaginary axis
d) First quadrant of the complex plane

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Answer a) Entire Complex Plane Except the origin

30. Which of the following functions is not analytic at zero?

a) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 + 3𝑧 + 1
b) 𝑓(𝑧) =

c) 𝑓(ℤ) =
d) None of these
Answer c) 𝑓(ℤ) =
31. What is the domain of analyticity for the function 𝑓(𝑧) = √𝑧
a) Entire complex plane except the origin
b) Entire complex plane
c) Imaginary axis
d) Real axis
Answer a) Entire complex plane except the origin
32. If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a domain 𝐷 what can be said about its
derivative 𝑓 (𝑧)
a) 𝑓 (𝑧)may or may not exist
b) 𝑓 (𝑧)always exists and is also analytic in 𝐷
c) 𝑓 (𝑧)always exists but may not be analytic in 𝐷
d) 𝑓 (𝑧)is always zero
Answer 𝑏) 𝑓 (𝑧)always exists and is also analytic in 𝐷
33. If 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑧) are analytic functions in a domain 𝐷, then 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) is:
a) Not necessarily analytic in 𝐷
b) Analytic in 𝐷
c) Analytic only at isolated points in 𝐷
d) Analytic only on the boundary of 𝐷
34. Which of the following functions is not analytic in the unit disk |𝑧| < 1?

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

a. 𝑓(𝑧) =
b. 𝑓(𝑧) =
c. 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 − 𝑧)
d. None of these
Answer c) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 − 𝑧)
35. If 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) is an analytic function, what is the relationship
between the partial derivatives of 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) & 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)?
a) =
b) =−
c) =−
d) None of these
Answer b) =−

36. If 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦, then which of the following statements is true?

a) f(z) is analytic everywhere.
b) f(z) is not analytic anywhere.
c) f(z) satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations only at certain points.
d) f(z) satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations everywhere
Answer a) f(z) is analytic everywhere
37. Which of the following statements is true regarding the Cauchy-Riemann
equations and analyticity?
a) If the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold, the function is necessarily analytic.
b) If the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold, the function might or might not be
analytic.
c) If the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold, the function is guaranteed to be
continuous.
d) If the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold, the function is necessarily
holomorphic.

Answer b) If the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold, the function might or might not
be analytic.
̅
38. If f(z) is analytic in domain D then 𝑓 (𝑧) is
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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

a) Analytic in Domain D
b) Not analytic in Domain D
c) It Satisfies Cauchy-Riemann equation in D
d) None of these

Answer b) Not analytic in Domain D

39. Which of the following function is not an entire function

a) Cos z
b) Sin z
c) ln z
d) None of these

Answer c) ln z

40. If 𝑓(𝑧) is an analytic function and whose real part is constant then 𝑓(𝑧) is

a) Function of 𝑧
b) Function of x only
c) Function of y only
d) Constant

Answer d) Constant

41. The function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦 is

a) Nowhere analytic
b) Analytic every where
c) Analytic only at origin
d) Analytic except at the origin

Answer a) Nowhere analytic

42. The harmonic conjugate of 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) =

a) 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝐶
b) 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝐶
c) 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 + 𝐶
d) 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 + 𝐶

Answer a) 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝐶

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43. If 𝑧 and 𝑧 are two complex numbers then |𝑧 𝑧 | =

a) |𝑧 |+|𝑧 |
b) 𝑧 𝑧
c) |𝑧 ||𝑧 |
d) None of these

Answer c) |𝑧 ||𝑧 |

44. If 𝑧 and 𝑧 are any two complex numbers such that 𝑧 ≠ 0 then 𝑎𝑟𝑔 =

a) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧
b) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧
c) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧
d) None of These

Answer b) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧

45. If 𝑓(𝑧) is an analytic function with Constant modulus then

a) 𝑓(𝑧) has only real value

b) 𝑓(𝑧) is constant
c) 𝑓(𝑧) = 0
d) None of These

Answer b) 𝑓(𝑧) is constant

46. Which of the following is Cauchy-Riemann equation in Cartesian form

a) 𝑢 =𝑣 &𝑣 =𝑣
b) 𝑢 =𝑣 &𝑣 = −𝑢
c) 𝑣 =𝑣 &𝑣 =𝑢
d) 𝑢 =𝑣 &𝑣 =𝑣

Answer b) 𝑢 = 𝑣 & 𝑣 = −𝑢

47. If f and g are analytic function then–

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

a) is always analytic
b) is analytic whenever 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
c) is analytic whenever 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0
d) None of these

Answer b) is analytic whenever 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0

48. Which of the following statement is not true

a) Cauchy-Riemann equation is only necessary condition of analyticity of a

function
b) Real and Imaginary part of an analytic function satisfies Laplace Equation
c) An analytic function with constant modulus is need not be constant
d) None of These

Answer c) An analytic function with constant modulus is need not be constant

49. The function 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧| is–

a) Everywhere analytic
b) Nowhere analytic
c) Analytic at z = 0
d) None of these

Answer b) Nowhere analytic

50. The function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦 is

a) Nowhere analytic
b) Analytic every where
c) Analytic only at origin
d) Analytic except at the origin

Answer a) Nowhere analytic

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Unit-VI

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Exponential function
In complex analysis, the exponential function is defined similarly to its real
counterpart, but with complex numbers. The exponential function of a complex
number 𝑧 is defined as:

𝑧
𝑒 =
𝑛!

Where:
𝑒 is the base of the natural logarithm (approximately equal to 2.71828...).
𝑧 is a complex number.
Properties:
1) The complex exponential function maps complex numbers to points on the
complex plane.
2) It can be represented in polar form as 𝑒 = 𝑒 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦) where
x & y are the real and imaginary parts of 𝑧 respectively.
3) Periodicity: Exponential function is A periodic function with period 2𝜋𝑖
4) Analyticity: Exponential function is an entire function that is analytic
everywhere.
Logarithmic function
In complex analysis, the complex logarithm is defined as the inverse function of the
complex exponential function. That is, for a complex number 𝑧 ≠ 0, the logarithm
of 𝑧 denoted by 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑧) is defined as the complex number 𝑤 such that 𝑒 = 𝑧.
Properties:

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1) Unlike the real logarithm, which is a single-valued function, the complex

logarithm is a multi-valued function. This is due to the periodicity of the
exponential function.
2) The complex logarithm has infinitely many branches, each differing by
integer multiples of 2𝜋𝑖.
3) The principal branch of the complex logarithm is typically defined with −𝜋 <
𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧 ≤ 𝜋denoted as 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑧.

Analyticity:
Principal branch of Complex Logarithmic is analytic everywhere in the complex
plane except along its branch cut.
Derivative of logarithmic function:
The derivative of the complex logarithm function 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑧)can be derived using the
properties of complex numbers and calculus. Let us consider, 𝑧 =𝑟𝑒 where
𝑟 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 are the polar coordinates of 𝑧.

We can start by writing log (𝑧) = ln (𝑟) + 𝑖𝜃 where ln (𝑟) is the natural
logarithm of the modulus of 𝑧 and 𝜃 is the argument of 𝑧.

log(𝑧) = (ln(r) +𝑖𝜃)= (ln|𝑧|)+i (𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧))=

Introductions of trigonometric functions

Trigonometric functions, such as sine, cosine, tangent, etc., are typically defined
for real numbers but can be extended to complex numbers in complex analysis.
They play a crucial role in understanding the behaviour of complex functions and
solving complex equations
Euler’s Formula:
𝑒 = cos(𝜃) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)

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This formula provides a bridge between exponential and trigonometric functions,

allowing us to work with complex numbers in trigonometric form.
Complex sine and cosine functions are defined using Euler's formula:

 sin 𝑧 =
 cos 𝑧 =

Hyperbolic Trigonometric functions

 sinh 𝑧 =
 cosh 𝑧 =

Analytic Properties:
Trigonometric functions are analytic functions and can be expanded into Taylor
series, providing insights into their behaviour around different points in the complex
plane.

Definite Integral
In complex analysis, a definite integral involves integrating a complex-valued
function of a complex variable over a contour or a path in the complex plane. Given
a complex-valued function 𝑓(𝑧) defined on a contour C, the definite integral of 𝑓(𝑧)
over C is denoted by:

𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧

Contour Integration:

Contour integration is a powerful technique in complex analysis used to evaluate

integrals of complex-valued functions over curves or contours in the complex plane.
It extends the concept of integration from real analysis to the complex plane.

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Contours: In complex analysis, contours are curves or paths in the complex plane.
Orientation: Contours are typically oriented counterclockwise, but orientation can
be specified.
Simple Contours: Contours that do not intersect themselves are simple.
Piecewise Smooth Contours: Contours that are composed of finitely many smooth
curves joined end-to-end.

Techniques for Contour Integration:

Parameterization: Expressing the contour as a parameterized curve.
Residue Calculus: Identifying and calculating the residues of singularities enclosed
by the contour.
Jordan's Lemma: Evaluating improper integrals involving trigonometric functions.
Example 1: Simple Closed Contour
Consider the contour integral of a simple function over a simple closed contour.
Function: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧
Contour: Let C be the unit circle centered at the origin, oriented counterclockwise.
Integral: Find ∮ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

Solution: Using Cauchy's Integral Theorem, since 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 is analytic inside and
on C, the integral is zero:

𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0

Example 2: Contour Integral with a Singularity

Consider the contour integral of a function with a simple pole.

Function: Let 𝑓(𝑧) =

Contour: Let C be the unit circle centered at the origin, oriented counterclockwise.
Integral: Find ∮ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧

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Solution

Using the Residue Theorem, 𝑓(𝑧) = has a simple pole at 𝑧 =0

by residue theorem ∮ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖

Upper bounds for moduli of contour integrals

Estimation Lemma: The Estimation Lemma provides a useful tool for bounding
contour integrals. It states that if 𝑓(𝑧) is a complex-valued function that is
continuous on a contour 𝐶 and |𝑓(𝑧)| ≤ 𝑀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 on 𝐶 then the modulus of the
contour integral of 𝑓(𝑧) along 𝐶 satisfies:

𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 ≤ 𝑀𝐿

where 𝐿 denotes the length of the contour 𝐶.

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MCQ

1. 𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑧 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑧 = ?
𝑎. Cosh2z
𝑏. Sinh2z
𝑐. 1
d. 0
Ans. c. 1
2. If z = x+iy then |ez| = ?
a) ex
b) 𝑥 + 𝑦
c) √𝑥 + 𝑦
d) None of these.

Ans. a) ex
3. Period of ez is
a. 𝜋𝑖
b. 2𝜋𝑖
c. 𝜋𝑖
d. None of these.

Ans. b. 2𝜋𝑖
4. tan 𝑤 = ? 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
a. log ( )
b. log ( )
c. log ( )
d. 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒
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Ans. a. log ( )

5. Log(-1) = ?
a. (2n+1)𝜋𝑖
b. 2n𝜋𝑖
c. 𝜋𝑖
d. None of these

Ans. a. (2n+1)𝜋𝑖
6. Log(-1+i) =?
a. log √2 +
b. log √2 + (2𝑛𝜋𝑖 + )
c. log √2 + (2𝑛𝜋𝑖 − )
d. None of these

Ans. b. log √2 + (2𝑛𝜋𝑖 + )

7. If tan (𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽) = (x+iy) then + =?

a. 2
b. 3
c. 1
d. 0

Ans. c. 1
8. If tan (𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽) = i, where 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are real numbers then 𝛼 is
a. Constant
b. Indeterminate
c. Infinite
d. None of these

Ans. b. Indeterminate
9. If 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜃 + 𝑖𝜙) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃. 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2𝜙 =?
a. 1
b. 2

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c. 0
d. 3

Ans. d. 3
10.Which of the following statements is true regarding the analyticity of log(z)?
a. log(z) is analytic everywhere in the complex plane except at z=0
b. log(z) is analytic everywhere in the complex plane except at z=1
c. log(z) is analytic everywhere in the complex plane except at z=−1
d. log(z) is analytic everywhere in the complex plane.

Ans. a. log(z) is analytic everywhere in the complex plane except at z=0

11.How many branches does the complex logarithm function have?
a. 1
b. 2
c. Infinitely many
d. None of these

Ans. c. Infinitely many

12.Which of the following statements about branches of the complex logarithm
function is true?
a. Each branch corresponds to a different value of the logarithm function.
b. All branches of the complex logarithm function are continuous in the
complex plane.
c. Each branch covers the entire complex plane.
d. There is no distinction between different branches of the complex logarithm
function.

Ans. a. Each branch corresponds to a different value of the logarithm function.

13.Which branch of the complex logarithm function is typically chosen as the
principal branch?
a. The branch with the largest real part
b. The branch with the smallest real part
c. The branch with the smallest imaginary part
d. The branch with the largest imaginary part

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Ans. b. The branch with the smallest real part

14.Which branch of the complex logarithm function has an imaginary part in the
range (−π, π]?
a. Principal branch
b. Secondary branch
c. Tertiary branch
d. Any branch

Ans. a. Principal branch

15.Which of the following is true about the behaviour of different branches of the
complex logarithm?
a. All branches have the same domain
b. All branches have the same range
c. Different branches have different domains and ranges
d. Different branches have the same domain but different ranges

Ans. c. Different branches have different domains and ranges.

16.Which of the following complex numbers is in the domain of the principal
branch of the complex logarithm function?
a. z=1
b. z=-1
c. z=0
d. z=i

Ans. d. z=i
17. The expression cos(z) is:
a. Well-defined for all complex numbers z
b. Well-defined only for real numbers z
c. Well-defined only for purely imaginary numbers z
d. Not defined for any complex number z

Ans. a. Well-defined for all complex numbers z.

18.The expression tan z is undefined when
a. cos z =0
b. sin z =0
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c. cos z = ± 𝑖
d. sin z = =± 𝑖

Ans. a. cos z =0
19.The principal branch of the complex logarithm function has a branch cut along
which axis in the complex plane?
a. Positive real axis
b. Negative real axis
c. Positive real axis
d. Negative real axis

Ans. c. Positive real axis.

20.If cos(x+iy) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 then cosh2y + cos2x =?
a. 2
b. 3
c. 0
d. 1

Ans. a. 2

21.If L represents a square bounded by 𝑥 = ± 𝑎, 𝑦 = ± 𝑎 then the value of

is
a. 𝜋𝑖
b. 2𝜋𝑖
c. 3𝜋𝑖
d. None of these

Ans. b. 2𝜋𝑖
22.If L is any rectifiable arc joining the points z=a and z=b, then ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 is equal
to
a. (𝑏 − 𝑎 )
b. (𝑏 + 𝑎 )
c. (𝑏 − 𝑎 )
d. None of these.

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Ans. a. (𝑏 − 𝑎 )

23.If L is straight line from (1,0) to (1,1) then the value of integral ∫ 𝑧̅ 𝑑𝑧 is
a. −𝑖
b. +𝑖
c. −𝑖
d. 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒

Ans. 𝑏. +𝑖

24.If f(z) be continuous in a simply connected domain D ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0 L is any

closed rectifiable Jordan curve in D, then f(z) is ……… in D.
a. Closed
b. Open
c. Analytic
d. None of these

Ans. c. Analytic
25.Which of the following integrals represents a contour integral along a path C in
the complex plane from 𝑧 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 ?
a. ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
b. ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
c. ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
d. 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒

Ans. 𝑐. ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧

26.If C is closed curve with z=a inside C, then is

a. 2𝜋𝑖
b. 2𝜋
c. 𝜋𝑖
d. None of these

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Ans. 𝑎. 2𝜋𝑖
27.If C is closed contour |z| =r and n≠ −1, then. ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 is
a. i
b. 0
c. -1
d. 2

Ans. b. 0

28.The value of. 𝑑𝑧 where is C is circle 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 is

a. 𝜋𝑖
b. −𝜋𝑖
c. 2𝜋𝑖
d. None of these

Ans. 𝑎. 𝜋𝑖
29.∫ 𝑑𝑧, where L is any rectifiable arc joining the points z=a and z=b is equal to
a. z
b. b-a
c. a-b-z
d. z-a-b

Ans. b. b-a
30.∫ |𝑑𝑧 |, where L is any rectifiable arc joining the points z=a and z=b is equal to
a. b-a
b. |b-a|
c. Arc length of L
d. 0

Ans. c. Arc length of L

31.If f(z) be continuous on a contour L of length l and let | f(z)| ≤ M on L then
|∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧| is
a. < 𝑀𝑙
b. > 𝑀𝑙
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c. ≤ 𝑀𝑙
d. ≥ 𝑀𝑙

Ans. 𝑐. ≤ 𝑀𝑙
32.If C is a circle |z|=1 then ∫ 𝑧̅ 𝑑𝑧 is
a. 2𝜋𝑖
b. 𝜋𝑖
c. 0
d. None of these.

Ans. 𝑎. 2𝜋𝑖
33.When is a contour integral along a closed contour C equal to zero?
a. When the function f(z) is not analytic inside C
b. When the function f(z) is analytic inside C and on C
c. When the function f(z) has singularities inside C
d. When the function f(z) is non-analytic on C

Ans. b. When the function f(z) is analytic inside C and on C

34.Which theorem allows us to deform the contour of integration without changing
the value of the integral as long as the endpoints remain fixed?
a. Deformation Principle
b. Residue Theorem
c. Cauchy Residue Theorem
d. None of these

Ans. a. Deformation Principle

35.Which of the following is a valid contour to compute the integral ∫ 𝑑𝑥

a. The real axis from −∞ 𝑡𝑜 ∞
b. A semicircle in the upper half-plane with a radius approaching infinity
c. A semicircle in the lower half-plane with a radius approaching infinity
d. A closed contour enclosing both the upper and lower halves of the complex
plane

Ans. b. A semicircle in the upper half-plane with a radius approaching infinity

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36.Compute the integral ∫ 𝑑𝑧 by contour integration

a. 𝜋
b. - 𝜋
c.
d. -

Ans. a. 𝜋
37.Which theorem is often used to find upper bounds for the moduli of contour
integrals?
a. Cauchy's Integral Theorem
b. Cauchy's Residue Theorem
c. Jordan's Lemma
d. Deformation Principle

Ans. c. Jordan’ s Lemma

38.Which statement best describes an upper bound for the modulus of a contour
integral?
a. It is always equal to the maximum value of the integrand along the contour.
b. It is always equal to the maximum value of the integrand times the length of
the contour.
c. It is always less than or equal to the maximum value of the integrand times
the length of the contour.
d. It is always less than or equal to the maximum value of the integrand along
the contour.

Ans. c. It is always less than or equal to the maximum value of the integrand times
the length of the contour.

39.What is an upper bound for the modulus of the contour integral 𝑑𝑧where

is the unit circle traversed counterclockwise?

a. 2𝜋
b. 2𝜋e
c. 2𝜋𝑖
d. 0

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Ans. 𝑏. 2𝜋𝑒
40.Which theorem allows us to find upper bounds for the moduli of contour
integrals by breaking up the contour into smaller pieces and estimating each
piece separately?
a. Cauchy's Integral Theorem
b. Cauchy's Residue Theorem
c. Jordan's Lemma
d. Estimation Lemma

Ans. d. Estimation Lemma

41.Which theorem could be utilized for evaluation for an integral by using
numbers of zeros and poles:
a. Cauchy's Integral Theorem
b. Cauchy's Residue Theorem
c. Jordan's Lemma
d. Estimation Lemma

Ans. b. Cauchy's Residue Theorem

42.Evaluate ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦)𝑑𝑧 along y=x

a. 5 +
b.
c.
d. None of these

Ans. b.

43.The integral of ∮ (𝑧 − 𝑧 ) 𝑑𝑧 (𝑧 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶) 𝑖𝑠

a. 0 for m=-1
b. 2𝜋𝑖 for m=-1
c. 2 for m=-1
d. 𝜋 for m=-1

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Ans. b. 2𝜋𝑖 for m=-1

44.For every path between the limits ∫ (2 + 𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑠

a. i/2
b. i/3
c. -i/2
d. -i/3

Ans. d. -i/3
( )
45.The value of 𝑑𝑧, where C is |z|=1/2 is

a. 2𝜋𝑖
b. 𝜋𝑖
c. 0
d.

Ans. 𝑐. 0

46.Solution of the integral ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 is

a. (1 − 𝑖)
b. (1 + 𝑖)
c. (1+i)3
d. 0

Ans. 𝑏. (1 + 𝑖)

47.Value of the integral ∫(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 around the circle |z|=1

a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3

Ans. a. 0
48.A region which is not simply connected is called
a. Multiple curve

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b. Jordan connected
c. Connected curve
d. Multi connected

Ans. d. Multi Connected

49.A continuous curve which does not have a point of self-intersection is called
a. Simple curve
b. Multiple curve
c. Integral curve
d. None of these

Ans. a. Simple curve

50.Simple curve is also called
a. Multiple curve
b. Jordan curve
c. Integral curve
d. None of these

Ans. b. Jordan curve.

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Unit-VII

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Antiderivatives
In complex analysis, the concept of antiderivative is closely related to the notion of
holomorphic functions and contour integration. Let us delve into this topic a bit
deeper:
Holomorphic Functions: In complex analysis, a function 𝑓(𝑧) defined on an open
subset of the complex plane is said to be holomorphic (or analytic) if it is complex
differentiable at every point in its domain. This means that at each point 𝑧 in the
( ) ( )
domain, the limit lim exists.
→

Primitive (Antiderivative) in Complex Analysis: Given a holomorphic function

𝑓(𝑧) defined on a domain 𝐷 in the complex plane, the antiderivative (or primitive)
of 𝑓(𝑧) is a function 𝐹(𝑧) such that 𝐹 (𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧) for all 𝑧 in 𝐷. Unlike in real
analysis, where there can be multiple antiderivatives (differing only by constants),
in complex analysis, if a function is holomorphic in a simply connected domain, its
antiderivative is unique up to an additive constant.
Contour Integration and antiderivatives: In complex analysis, contour integration
is a powerful tool for evaluating integrals of complex functions. The Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus for contour integrals states that if 𝑓(𝑧) is holomorphic in a
domain 𝐷, and 𝛾is a smooth curve in 𝐷 from 𝑧 to 𝑧, then 𝐹(𝑧) = ∫ 𝛾𝑓(𝜁)𝑑𝜁 defines
an antiderivative of defines an antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑧) in 𝐷.
Examples: Some elementary functions have well-known antiderivatives in complex
analysis. For example, 𝑒 has an antiderivative 𝑒 , and has an antiderivative log (𝑧)
(though it's multivalued).

Cauchy-Goursat theorem:
The Cauchy-Goursat theorem is a fundamental result in complex analysis that
establishes the relationship between contour integrals and holomorphic functions. It
is named after mathematicians Augustin-Louis Cauchy and Édouard Goursat. It
States:
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Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a holomorphic function defined on a simply connected domain 𝐷 in the

complex plane, and let 𝛾 be a piecewise smooth, closed contour lying entirely D
Then, the contour integral of 𝑓(𝑧) around 𝛾 is zero: ∮ 𝛾 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0
Here are some key points to understand about the Cauchy-Goursat theorem:

Simply Connected Domain: The domain 𝐷 is said to be simply connected if it has

no "holes" or "islands" and if every closed curve within 𝐷 can be continuously
shrunk to a point while remaining within 𝐷. In other words, any loop drawn in the
domain can be contracted to a point without leaving the domain.
Closed Contour Integration: The contour integral ∮ 𝛾𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 is the integral of the
function 𝑓(𝑧) along the closed contour 𝛾. It represents the sum of the function values
along the contour, weighted by the complex differential element 𝑑𝑧.
Cauchy integral formula
The Cauchy Integral Formula is a fundamental result in complex analysis that
establishes a powerful connection between the values of a holomorphic function and
its contour integrals.
Formally, let 𝑓(𝑧) be a holomorphic function defined on a domain 𝐷 in the complex
plane, and let 𝛾 be a simple closed positively oriented contour lying entirely within
𝐷. Then for any point 𝑧 inside 𝛾, the Cauchy Integral Formula states that:

1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑧 ) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑧

Here, the integral is taken over the contour 𝛾, and 𝑧 is the point inside the contour
where we are evaluating the function 𝑓(𝑧).
This formula has several implications…
Analyticity Everywhere Inside the Contour: It implies that if 𝑓(𝑧) is holomorphic
on a domain containing a simple closed contour 𝛾, then it is analytic at every point
within 𝛾.

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Derivatives of Analytic Functions: It provides a way to express the derivatives of

𝑓(𝑧) at a point 𝑧 in terms of the values of 𝑓(𝑧) along the contour 𝛾. Specifically, the
𝑛
derivative of 𝑓(𝑧)at 𝑧 is given by:

𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑧 )

Cauchy's Integral Theorem: A direct consequence of the Cauchy Integral Formula

is Cauchy's Integral Theorem, which states that if 𝑓(𝑧) is holomorphic inside and on
a simple closed contour 𝛾, then its contour integral around 𝛾 is zero

𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0

The Cauchy Integral Formula has several important consequences in complex

analysis, some of which include:
Uniqueness of Analytic Functions: The Cauchy Integral Formula implies that if
two holomorphic functions agree on a domain 𝐷, then they are identical throughout
𝐷. This property follows from the fact that the values of a holomorphic function
inside a domain are uniquely determined by its values on the boundary of the
domain, as specified by the Cauchy Integral Formula.
Liouville's Theorem: This theorem states that every bounded entire function (i.e.,
holomorphic on the entire complex plane and bounded) is constant. The proof of
Liouville's Theorem often relies on the Cauchy Integral Formula.

Maximum Modulus Principle: The Cauchy Integral Formula is also used to prove
the Maximum Modulus Principle, which states that if 𝑓(𝑧) is holomorphic in a
domain 𝐷 and non-constant, then the maximum modulus of 𝑓(𝑧) occurs on the
boundary of 𝐷 but not in the interior.
Morera's Theorem: Morera's Theorem is a converse of Cauchy's Integral Theorem,
stating that if a function 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous in a domain 𝐷 and satisfies
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𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0

for every closed contour 𝛾 in 𝐷, then 𝑓(𝑧) is holomorphic in 𝐷. The proof of

Morera's Theorem often relies on the Cauchy Integral Formula.
Fundamental theorem of Algebra:
In complex analysis, the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra states that every non-
constant polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one complex root. This
theorem is fundamental because it establishes a deep connection between algebraic
properties of polynomials and the complex numbers.
Statement: Every non-constant polynomial 𝑃(𝑧) with complex coefficients has at
least one complex root. In other words, there exists a complex number 𝑧 such that
𝑃(𝑧 ) = 0.
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra in complex analysis has several
important consequences:
 Existence of Roots: The most immediate consequence is that every non-
constant polynomial equation with complex coefficients has at least one
complex root. This is fundamental in algebraic equations and provides a way
to solve polynomial equations.
 Factorization of Polynomials: The theorem implies that any polynomial
𝑃(𝑧) with complex coefficients can be completely factored into linear factors
over the complex numbers. This leads to the notion of algebraic closure of the
field of complex numbers, as any polynomial equation can be factored into
linear terms involving complex roots.
 Algebraic Properties of Analytic Functions: The existence of roots of
polynomials with complex coefficients is closely related to the behaviour of
analytic functions. For example, if 𝑓(𝑧) is an entire function (analytic on the
entire complex plane), then the zeros of 𝑓(𝑧) must be isolated, and their
behaviour is determined by the function's singularities.

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MCQ
1. What is the condition for a function 𝑓(𝑧) to have an antiderivative in a
domain 𝐷 of the complex plane?
a) 𝑓(𝑧) must be continuous in 𝐷.
b) 𝑓(𝑧) must be Holomorphic in 𝐷.
c) 𝑓(𝑧) must be bounded in 𝐷.
d) 𝑓(𝑧) must be real valued in 𝐷.
Answer b) 𝑓(𝑧) must be Holomorphic in 𝐷.

2. Which of the following functions has an antiderivative in a simply connected

domain?
a) 𝑓(𝑧) =
b) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
c) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒
d) 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒
Answer b) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
3. If 𝐹(𝑧) is an antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑧) in a domain 𝐷, what is the derivative of
𝐹(𝑧) with respect to 𝑧?
a) 𝐹 (𝑧) =
b) 𝐹 (𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧)
c) 𝐹 (𝑧) = 0
d) 𝐹 (𝑧) = ( )

Answer a) 𝐹 (𝑧) =

4. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus for contour integrals establishes a

relationship between antiderivatives and:
a) Analytic continuation
b) Cauchy's Integral Formula
c) Cauchy-Goursat theorem
d) Residue theorem
Answer c) Cauchy-Goursat theorem
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5. Which of the following is true regarding antiderivatives in complex analysis

a) Antiderivatives of holomorphic functions are unique up to a
multiplicative constant.
b) Any continuous function in a domain of the complex plane has an
antiderivative.
c) Antiderivatives of holomorphic functions are unique up to an additive
constant.
d) Antiderivatives of holomorphic functions can be obtained using the
quotient rule.
Answer c) Antiderivatives of holomorphic functions are unique up to an
additive constant.
6. Which of the following statements is true regarding the Cauchy Integral
Theorem?
a) It states that every holomorphic function has an antiderivative.
b) It relates the contour integral of a holomorphic function to its
antiderivative.
c) It states that the contour integral of any function over a closed loop is
always zero.
d) It establishes a relationship between the real and imaginary parts of a
holomorphic function.
Answer c) It states that the contour integral of any function over a closed loop is
always zero.
7. In which type of domain does the Cauchy-Goursat theorem hold true?
a) Bounded domain
b) Multiply connected domain
c) Simply connected domain
d) Infinite domain
Answer c) Simply connected domain
8. Which theorem is used to evaluate contour integrals involving holomorphic
functions?

a) Cauchy's Residue Theorem

b) Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

c) Cauchy Integral Formula

d) Mean Value Theorem
Answer c) Cauchy Integral Formula
9. If 𝑓(𝑧) is holomorphic in a domain 𝐷 and 𝐹(𝑧)is an antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑧) in
𝐷, what is the contour integral of 𝑓(𝑧) along a closed loop 𝛾 in 𝐷?

a) ∮ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐹(𝑧)
b) ∮ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 =
c) ∮ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0
d) ∮ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 1/𝐹(𝑧)

Answer c) ∮ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0

10.Which of the following statements is true about antiderivatives of

holomorphic functions?
a) Antiderivatives of holomorphic functions are always unique.
b) Antiderivatives of holomorphic functions depend on the choice of
contour.
c) Antiderivatives of holomorphic functions are always equal to zero.
d) Antiderivatives of holomorphic functions do not exist.
Answer a) Antiderivatives of holomorphic functions are always unique.

11.What does the Cauchy-Goursat theorem state?

a) Every holomorphic function has a unique antiderivative.
b) The contour integral of a holomorphic function over a closed curve is
zero.
c) The contour integral of a holomorphic function over any curve is
always positive.
d) The contour integral of a holomorphic function is always equal to its
derivative
Answer b) The contour integral of a holomorphic function over a closed curve is
zero
12.In which type of domain does the Cauchy-Goursat theorem hold true?

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

a) Bounded domain
b) Simply connected domain
c) Multiply connected domain
d) Infinite domain
Answer b) Simply connected domain
13.The Cauchy-Goursat theorem is a consequence of which fundamental
theorem in complex analysis?
a) Cauchy's Integral Theorem
b) Cauchy's Residue Theorem
c) Cauchy's Differentiation Formula
d) Cauchy's Integral Formula
Answer a) Cauchy's Integral Theorem
14.Which of the following represents Cauchy Integral formula?
( )
a) 𝑓(𝑧 ) = 𝑑𝑧

( )
b) 𝑓(𝑧 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑑𝑧

( )
c) 𝑓(𝑧 ) = 𝑑𝑧

d) None of These
( )
Answer c) 𝑓(𝑧 ) = 𝑑𝑧

15.Evaluate ( )
𝑑𝑧 where c is |𝑧| = 3

a)
b)
c)
d)

Answer c)

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

16. ( ) (
𝑑𝑧 =? Where c is the circle |𝑧| = 2 describes in positive sense
)

a)
b)
c)
d) 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒
Answer c)

17. 𝑑𝑧 =? Where c is the circle |𝑧 + 3𝑖| = 1

( )

a) −2
b) 2
c) 1
d) 0
Answer a) -2
( )
18. ( )
𝑑𝑧 =? Where c is the circle |𝑧| = 2

a) 4𝜋𝑖
b) 2𝜋𝑖
c) 𝜋𝑖
d) 6𝜋𝑖
Answer a) 4𝜋𝑖

19. ( )
𝑑𝑧 =? Where c is the ellipse |𝑧 − 2| + |𝑧 + 2| = 6

a) 1
b) 0
c) -1
d) None of These
Answer b) 0

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20.Liouville's theorem states that:

a) Every bounded entire function is constant.

b) Every holomorphic function has an antiderivative.
c) Every meromorphic function has a pole.
d) Every analytic function is continuous.
Answer a) Every bounded entire function is constant.
21.Which of the following statements is a consequence of Liouville's theorem
in complex analysis?
a) A non-constant entire function must have a finite number of zeros.
b) A non-constant entire function must have an essential singularity at
infinity.
c) A non-constant entire function must have a removable singularity at
infinity.
d) A non-constant entire function must have infinitely many zeros.
Answer a) A non-constant entire function must have a finite number of zeros.
22.If L is a straight line from the point (1,0) to the point (1,1), then the value of
the integral ∫ 𝑧̅ 𝑑𝑧
a) +𝑖
b) −𝑖
c) 𝑖+1
d) 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒

Answer a) + 𝑖

23.∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 , (𝑛 ≠ 1) where L : |𝑧| = 𝑟 is

a. 2𝜋𝑖
b. 2𝜋
c. 𝑖
d. 0
24. ( )
𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑠 ∶
| |
a. 2𝜋𝑖𝑒
b. 0

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

c. 2𝜋𝑖𝑒
d. 2𝜋𝑖
Answer c) 2𝜋𝑖𝑒
25.Which of the following statements accurately describes a consequence of the
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra?
a) Every complex number has a unique representation in polar form.
b) Every continuous function on a closed interval is uniformly continuous.
c) Every non-constant polynomial equation of degree n has exactly n complex
roots, counting multiplicity.
d) Every analytic function is continuous.
Answer c) Every non-constant polynomial equation of degree n has exactly n
complex roots, counting multiplicity.

26. 𝑑𝑧 =? Where c is the circle |𝑧 + 3𝑖| = 1

( )

a) 1
b) 0
c) 2πi
d) None of these
Answer b) 0

27. 𝑑𝑧 =? Where c is the circle 𝑧 = 𝑒 , 0 ≤ 𝛳 ≤ 𝜋

a) πi
b) -πi
c) 2πi
d) 0
Answer a) πi
28.Which of the following best describes Morera's theorem?
a) If a function is holomorphic on an open set, then its integral over any
closed curve within that set is zero.
b) If a function is continuous on an open set and its integral over any closed
curve within that set is zero, then the function is holomorphic on that set.
c) If a function is analytic on an open set, then its integral over any closed
curve within that set is zero.

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

d) If a function is holomorphic on a closed set, then its integral over any

curve within that set is zero.
Answer: b) If a function is continuous on an open set and its integral over any
closed curve within that set is zero, then the function is holomorphic on that set.
29.∮ |𝑧| 𝑑𝑧 =? Where c is the upper half of the circle |𝑧| = 1

a) -1
b) 2
c) -2
d) 0
Answer c) -2

30. ( )
𝑑𝑧 =? where C is the boundary of the square whose sides lie along

the lines 𝑥 = ±2, 𝑦 = ±2

a) 𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( )
b) 2𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( )
c) 𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( )
d) 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒
Answer a) 𝜋𝑖 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( )

( )
31. 𝑑𝑧 =? where C is 𝑧 − =

a)
b)
√
c) −𝜋𝑖
d) 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒

Answer b)
√

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32.If C is a unit circle about the origin, described in positive sense then value of

( )
𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑠
a) −𝜋𝑖
b) 𝜋𝑖
c) −2𝜋𝑖
d) None of these
Answer c) −2𝜋𝑖
33.If C is a unit circle about the origin, described in positive sense then value of
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑠
𝑧
a) 𝜋𝑖
b) −𝜋𝑖
c) 1
d) 0
Answer d) 0
34.A simple closed Jordan curve divides the argand plane into …open domains
which have curve as a common boundary.
a) Two
b) Three
c) Four
d) Eight
Answer a) Two
35.∫ |𝑑𝑧|=? where 𝛾 is a circle of radius r

a) 2π
b) 2πr
c) 1
d) π
Answer b) 2πr

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

36.Find the value of 𝑑𝑧 : where C is any simple closed curve C and z=a
is a point lies outside C.

a) 2𝜋𝑖
b) 𝜋𝑖
c) −𝜋𝑖
d) 0
Answer d) 0

37.Find the value of 𝑑𝑧 : where C is any simple closed curve C and z=a
is a point lies inside C.

a) 2𝜋𝑖
b) 𝜋𝑖
c) −𝜋𝑖
d) 0
Answer a) 2𝜋𝑖

38.The value of the integral ( )

𝑑𝑧 where c is a positively oriented circle
|𝑧| = 2, (−𝜋 ≤ 𝛳 ≤ 𝜋) about the origin is
a) 1
b) 0
c) -1
d) 2
Answer b) 0

39.The integral of 𝑑𝑧 : where C is the unit circle is

( )

a) 0
b) 1
c) 3
d) -3
Answer a) 0

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40.A domain that is not simply connected is called:

a) Contour
b) Multiple Connected
c) Connected
d) None of these
Answer b) Multiple Connected

41.The integral of the function 𝑑𝑧 : where c is the unit circle

( )

a) π
b) −𝜋𝑖
c) 𝜋𝑖
d) 2𝜋𝑖
Answer d) 2𝜋𝑖
42.The integral of the function ∫ 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 𝑑𝑧 where C is the unit circle is
a) π(3+2i)
b) (3+2i)
c) (3+2i)
d) (2+3i)

Answer b) (3+2i)

43.The integral of the function 𝑑𝑧 where C is the unit circle is :

( )

a) π
b) 2π
c) 0
d) 1
Answer c) 0

44.The integral of the function 𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑠 where C is the unit circle is :

a) 2πi
b) -πi
c) πi

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

d) None of these
Answer a) 2πi
45.The converse of Cauchy integral theorem is
a) Euler’s theorem
b) Liouville’s theorem
c) Morera’s theorem
d) None of these
Answer c) Morera’s theorem
( )
46.The value of 𝑑𝑧 where C is the unit circle |𝑧| = 1 is :
( )

a) 2πi
b) 3πi
c) 4
d) -4
Answer b) 3πi

47.The value of 𝑑𝑧 has the value around the circle C: |𝑧| = in positive
sense
a) tan1
b) 2𝜋𝑖 tan 1
c)
d) None of these
Answer b) 2πi tan1

48.The value of the integral 𝑑𝑧 where C is |𝑧| = 3 is:

( )

a) zero
b)
c)
d) None of these

Answer c)

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

49.The value of the integral 𝑑𝑧 is:

| |
a) zero
b) 2𝜋𝑖
c) 4𝜋
d) None of these
Answer a) zero

50.Let C: |𝑧 − 𝑖| = 2 in positive sense then ( )

𝑑𝑧 is =
a) zero
b)
c)
d) None of these
Answer 𝑏)

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Unit-VIII

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Convergence of sequences and series:

Sequences of Complex Numbers: A sequence of complex numbers {𝑧 }
converges to a limit z if for every positive real number 𝜖, there exists a positive
integer 𝑁 such that ∣ 𝑧 − 𝑧 ∣< 𝜖 for all 𝑛 > 𝑁. This definition is like the
convergence of real sequences but involves complex numbers.
Series of Complex Numbers: A series of complex numbers is the sum of the
terms of a sequence of complex numbers. For example, ∑ 𝑧 , where 𝑧 are
complex numbers.

Power Series:

In complex analysis, power series play a significant role. A power series is

an infinite series of the form
∑ 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑧 ) ,
where 𝑎 are complex coefficients and 𝑧 is a complex number.
Understanding the convergence of power series is crucial for studying
complex functions, as power series are often used to represent complex
functions in terms of their Taylor or Laurent series expansions.

Circle and Radius of convergence of power series:

The circle |𝑧| = 𝑅 which includes in it’s interior |𝑧| < 𝑅 all values for
which the power series ∑ 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑧 ) , converges. is called the circle of
the convergence of the series and R is called radius of convergence of the
series. Formula to calculate radius of convergence of power series is given
by

1
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 |𝑎𝑛|
𝑅 →

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

1 𝑎
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑅 → 𝑎𝑛

provided that these limits exists finitely.

Taylor’s theorem: If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within a circle C with it’s

centre 𝑧 = 𝑎 and radius R, then at every point z inside C,

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎)

( )( )
where 𝑎 =
!

Laurent’s Theorem: Suppose a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the closed ring

bounded by two concentric circles 𝐶 and 𝑐 of centre a and radii
𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 ,( 𝑅 < 𝑅 ). If z is any point on the annulus, then

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + 𝑏 (𝑧 − 𝑎)

Zero of an analytic function: A zero of an analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) is a value of

z such that 𝑓(𝑧) = 0.
Definition: An analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be have a zero of order m if
𝑓(𝑧) is expressible as 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧 − 𝑎) ɸ(𝑧) where ɸ(𝑧) is analytic and
ɸ(𝑎) ≠ 0. 𝑓(𝑧) is said to have a simple zero at z=a if z=a is a zero of order
one.

Singular Points: A singularity or singular point of a function is the point at which

𝑓(𝑧) ceases to be analytic.

Different types of Singularities:

1. Isolated singularity: A point 𝑧 = 𝑎 is said to be isolated singularity of 𝑓(𝑧)
if
i) 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic at 𝑧 = 𝑎

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

ii) 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the deleted neighborhood of 𝑧 = 𝑎.

Example: The function 𝑓(𝑧) = is analytic everywhere except at 𝑧 = 0.
therefore 𝑧 = 0 is an isolated singularity.

2. Removable singularity:

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + 𝑏 (𝑧 − 𝑎)

If the principal part of 𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓𝑓(𝑧) contains no term

contains no term, i.e. if 𝑏𝑛 = 0 for all n then singularity at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is called
removable singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).

3. Pole: If the principal part of 𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓𝑓(𝑧) contains

finite no. of terms, say m then the singularity 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 is called pole of order
m.
4. Essential Singularity: If principal part contains an infinite number of
terms i.e. if 𝑏𝑛 ≠ 0 for infinitely values of n. Then 𝑓(𝑧) has essential
singularity at 𝑧 = 𝑎.

Residue at pole:
Suppose a single valued function 𝑓(𝑧) has a pole of order m at 𝑧 = 𝑎, then then
by definition of pole the principal part of Laurent’s expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) contains
only m terms so that

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + 𝑏 (𝑧 − 𝑎)

Evidently 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 is called the residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at the pole 𝑧 = 𝑎.

Residue at infinity: If 𝑓(𝑧) has an isolated singularity at 𝑧 = ∞ then Residue at

𝑧 = ∞ is defined as

Res (𝑧 = ∞)= − ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧=−𝑏

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

MCQ
1. If the power series ∑𝑎 𝑧 is convergent but the series ∑|𝑎 𝑧 | is not
convergent then the series ∑ 𝑎 𝑧 is said to be
a. Divergent
b. Oscillatory
c. Conditionally convergent
d. None of these.

Ans. Conditionally convergent

2. The radius of the convergence of the series ∑ 1 − 𝑧 is

a. e
b. 2e
c. 2
d. None of these.

Ans. e
3. The radius of the convergence of the series ∑(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛) 𝑧 is
a. 0
b. ∞
c. 1
d. None of these.

Ans. 0
4. The radius of the convergence of the series∑(3 + 4𝑖) 𝑧 is
a. 5
b. 1/5
c. 4/5

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

d. 3

Ans. 1/5
5. If an analytic function has singularities at a finite number of points (including
that an infinity), then the sum of residues at these points along with infinity is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 0

Ans. 0
6. If f(z) is regular, except at a finite number of poles with in a closed contour C
and continuous on the boundary of C, then ∮ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2π𝑖 ∑𝑅, where ∑𝑅 is
the sum of the residue of f(z) at its poles with in C.
a. Cauchy’s Residue Theorem
b. Laurent’s Theorem
c. Bolzano weir strass Theorem
d. None of these.

Ans. Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

7. Find the value of given integral by Cauchy residue theorem ∫ ( )

=?
a.
b.
c.
d. None of these.

Ans.

8. Jordan’s Inequality is ≤ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≤ 𝜃, where 𝜃 is lying

a. 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤
b. 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤
c. 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

d. None of these.

Ans. 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤
( )
9. The principal part of the Laurent series of f(z) = is
a. 1/z
b. z
c. 1/z2
d. None of these.

Ans. 1/z
10.The expansion of f(z) =ez cos z at z=0
a. 1 + 𝑧 − +⋯
!

b. 1 + 𝑧 − +⋯
!

c. 1 + 𝑧 − +⋯
!

d. 1 + 𝑧 − +⋯
!

Ans. 1 + 𝑧 − +⋯
!

11.A function which has pole as its only singularities in the finite part of the plane
is
a. Mesomorphic function
b. Meromorphic function
c. Entire function
d. None of these.

Ans. Meromorphic function

12.A function which has no singularity in the finite part of the plane is
a. Mesomorphic function
b. Meromorphic function
c. Entire function
d. None of these.

Ans. Entire function

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13.In Laurent series expansion of f(z) = − valid in region |z|>2the

coefficient of is
a. -1
b. 0
c. 1
d. 2

Ans. 0

14.The coefficient 1/z in the Laurent series of is

a. 0
b. 2
c. -1
d. 1

Ans. 2
15.For the function f(z) = ez , z = ∞ is
a. Isolated essential singularity
b. Pole
c. Ordinary point
d. None of these

Ans. Isolated essential singularity

16.Number of poles of the function f(z) = tan is

a. 0
b. 3
c. 2
d. Infinite

Ans. Infinite

17.Number of zeros of the function f(z) = sin is

a. 3
b. 4
c. Infinite

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

d. None of these.

Ans. Infinite

18.The residue of at z = is
a. ½
b. √2
c.
√
d. None of these.

Ans.
√

19.The residue of at z = i is
( )
a. 3/16i
b. 3i/16
c. -3/16i
d. None of these.

Ans. 3/16i

20.The residue of at z = ∞ is
a. 1
b. 0
c. -1
d. 2

Ans. 0

21.The residue of the function f(z) = at z=1 is

( )( )
a. -2
b. 2
c. 1
d. -1

Ans. -2

22.The number of poles of 𝑓(𝑧) = ( )( )

inside the circle |z| = 1 is

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

a. 1
b. 9
c. 5
d. 2

Ans. 1

23.If 𝑓(𝑧) = ( )
, residue of f(z) at z = i is
a. ( + 𝑖)
b. ( − 𝑖)
c. ( + 𝑖)
d. None of these

Ans. ( + 𝑖)

24.The residues of ( )(
at z = 1,2,3 is respectively
)( )

a. , −8 ,
b. 1 , −8 ,
c. ,0 ,
d. None of these

Ans. , −8 ,

25.The third term in the expansion of about the point z =1 using Taylor’s series
is
( )
a.
( )
b.
( )
c.
d. None of these.
( )
Ans.

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

26.If f (z) is entire function the Taylor series is

a. Convergent for all z
b. Divergent of all z
c. Constant
d. None of these.

Ans. Convergent for all z

27.Series ∑𝑎 converges absolutely if
a. ∑|𝑎 | converges
b. ∑|𝑎 | diverges
c. ∑𝑎 converges
d. None of these.

Ans. ∑|𝑎 | converges

28.The centre of convergence for the power series ∑ (𝑛 + 2𝑖) 𝑧 is
a. 0
b. -i
c. -2i
d. None of these

Ans. 0
29.The point 𝑧 , 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧), 𝑖𝑓
a. 𝑓(𝑧 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
b. 𝑓(𝑧 ) = 0
c. 𝑓(𝑧 ) ≥ 0
d. None of these.

Ans. 𝑓(𝑧 ) = 0
30. The poles of first order are known as-
a. Complex Pole
b. Simple pole
c. Singularities
d. None of these

Ans. Simple Pole

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

31. If 𝑓(𝑧) = ( )
, |𝑧| = 1 ℎ𝑎𝑠
a . Removable Singularity
b. Pole of order 1
c. Pole of order 3
d. essential singularity
Ans. Pole of order 3
32. If f(z) = z3 then it
a. Has an essential singularity at 𝑧 = ∞
b. Has a pole of order 2 at 𝑧 = ∞
c. Has a pole of order 3 at 𝑧 = ∞
d. Is analytic at 𝑧 = ∞

Ans. Has a pole of order 2 at 𝑧 = ∞

33. The number of singularities of coth (z/2) in the circle |z| = 12 is
a. 0
b. 1
c. 3
d. 4

Ans. 3
34.Which of the following functions has a Taylor series expansion that converges
to the function itself for all complex numbers?
a. ez
b. sin z
c. cos z
d. log(1+z)

Ans. ez
35. Which of the following functions has a Taylor series expansion that converges
to the function itself for all complex numbers?
a. e-z
b. sinhz
c. coshz
d. log(1-z)
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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Ans. Coshz
36.Which of the following statements about Laurent series expansions is correct?
a. Laurent series expansions are valid only for functions with finite poles.
b. The principal part of a Laurent series expansion always contains negative
powers of z.
c. A function's Laurent series expansion converges within a finite disk centered
at the singularity.
d. The Laurent series expansion for a function is unique for each choice of
singularity.
Ans. The principal part of a Laurent series expansion always contains negative
powers of z.
37.Which function's Laurent series expansion has an essential singularity at z=0?
a.
b. 𝑒
c.
( )
d. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧

Ans.
( )

38. Which of the following functions has a Laurent series expansion with an
annular singularity?
a. ez
b. Sin z
c. 1/z
d. Log z

Ans. 1/z
39. Which of the following statements is true regarding poles of meromorphic
functions?
a. A pole of order n implies that the function has n distinct poles.
b. A meromorphic function can have only a finite number of poles.
c. The residue of a pole of a meromorphic function is always zero.
d. Poles of a meromorphic function can only be located at integer points.

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Ans. A meromorphic function can have only a finite number of poles.

40. Which of the following statements is true regarding uniform convergence of
power series for complex variables?
a. Uniform convergence implies pointwise convergence.
b. Pointwise convergence implies uniform convergence.
c. Uniform convergence and pointwise convergence are equivalent for power
series in the complex domain.
d. Uniform convergence and pointwise convergence are mutually exclusive for
power series in the complex domain.

Ans. Uniform convergence implies pointwise convergence.

41.The value of ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑠
a. 0
b. 1
c.
d. 𝜋

Ans. 0
42. Which of the following statements accurately describes the behaviour of a
power series on its boundary of convergence in the complex domain?
a. The power series always diverges on its boundary.
b. The power series may converge or diverge on its boundary, depending on
the specific series.
c. The power series always converges uniformly on its boundary.
d. None of these.

Ans. The power series may converge or diverge on its boundary, depending on the
specific series.
43. If the power series ∑𝑎 𝑧 converges for a particular value 𝑧 of z, then it
converges absolutely for all values of z for which |𝑧| < |𝑧 |
a. Abel’ s Theorem
b. Cauchy Theorem.
c. Cauchy Hadamard Theorem
d. None of these.
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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Ans. Abel’s Theorem

44. The radius of the convergence of the series ∑𝑎 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑(𝑛 + 1)𝑎 𝑧 is
a. Equal
b. Not equal
c. Second series has (n+1) times the first one
d. None of these.

Ans. Equal
45.The radius of the convergence of the series ∑𝑎 𝑧 can be determined by
a. lim | |
→
b. lim | |
→
/
c. lim |𝑎 |
→
d. None of these

Ans. lim | |
→

46.∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
a. √𝜋
√
b.
c.
d. None of these
√
Ans.

47.Consider the power series ∑ for which set of complex numbers does this
power series converge absolutely.
a. |𝑧| < 1
b. |𝑧| > 1
c. |𝑧| ≥ 1
d. |𝑧| ≤ 1

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Ans. |𝑧| ≤ 1
48.Which of the following statements about the relationship between uniform
convergence and term-wise integration of power series in the complex domain
is true?
a. Uniform convergence implies term-wise integration
b. Term-wise integration implies uniform convergence.
c. Uniform convergence and term-wise integration are equivalent.
d. There is no relationship between uniform convergence and term-wise
integration.

Ans. Term-wise integration implies uniform convergence.

49.Which of the following best describes an essential singularity of a complex
function?
a. An isolated singularity where the function approaches infinity.
b. An isolated singularity where the function has a pole of order greater than
one.
c. An isolated singularity where the function cannot be analytically continued.
d. An isolated singularity where the function has a Laurent series with
infinitely many negative powers of z.

Ans. An isolated singularity where the function cannot be analytically continued.

50.At an essential singularity, the Laurent series expansion of a function:
a. Contains only negative powers of z
b. Contains both positive and negative powers of z
c. Contains only positive powers of z
d. Cannot be expanded into a Laurent series
Ans. Contains both positive and negative powers of z

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Model-Question Paper

1. Let 𝑓: (𝑀, 𝑑) → (𝑹, 𝜌) be a continuous function. Then, for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑹 the set
{𝑥: 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑎} is
a. Closed
b. Open
c. Both open and closed
d. Neither open nor closed
Answer: (b)-open
2. Let 𝑓: (𝑀, 𝑑) → (𝑹, 𝜌) be a continuous function. Then, for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑹 the set
{𝑥: 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑎} is
a. Closed
b. Open
c. Both open and closed
d. Neither open nor closed
Answer: (a)-closed
Dr Shailendra Kumar & Dr Pradeep Kumar
B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

3. Let 𝑓: (𝑹, 𝑑) → (𝑹, 𝜌) be a continuous function and 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for every

rational number 𝑥. Then,
a. 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for each real 𝑥
b. 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 for each real 𝑥
c. 𝑓(𝑥) < 0 for each real 𝑥
d. 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0 for each real 𝑥
Answer: (a)- 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for each real 𝑥

4. If 𝑑(𝑥, 𝐴) = inf{𝑑(𝑥, 𝑎): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴} and 𝑑(𝑥, 𝐴) = 0. Then,

a. 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
b. 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴̅
c. 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
d. 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴̅
Answer: (b)- 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴̅

5. Every derived set in a metric space is

a. Open set
b. Dense set
c. Closed set
d. Both open and closed
Answer: (c )- closed set
6. Arbitrary union of open sets in a metric space is
a. Open
b. Closed
c. Open and closed both
d. None of these
Answer: (a)- open
7. Any finite set in a metric space
a. Open
b. Closed
c. Dense
d. None of these
8. The set of rational numbers is
a. Open set
b. Closed set
c. Dense set

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

d. 𝑄 = 𝑄 i.e., the closure of 𝑄 is 𝑄 itself

Answer: (c )- Dense set
9. Choose the wrong statement:
a. 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴
b. (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
c. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ⊂ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)
d. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ⊂ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
Answer: (d )- (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ⊂ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
10.The set 1, , , … … , , … ∪ {0} is

a. Open
b. Closed
c. Both open and closed
d. Neither open nor closed
Answer: (b)- closed
1. In a metric space, a set 𝐴 is closed if and only if
a. the complement of 𝐴 is closed
b. the complement of 𝐴 is finite
c. the derived set of 𝐴 is contained in 𝐴
d. 𝐴 is contained in derived set of 𝐴
Answer: (c )- the derived set of 𝐴 is contained in 𝐴
11.In a metric space, a set 𝐴 is open if and only if
a. 𝐴 ≠ 𝐴
b. 𝐴 = 𝐴
c. 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴̅
d. 𝐴̅ ⊂ 𝐴
Answer: (b)- 𝐴 = 𝐴
12.In a metric space, a set 𝐴 is closed if and only if
a. 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴
b. 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴
c. 𝐴 = 𝐴̅
d. 𝐴̅ ≠ 𝐴
Answer: (c )- 𝐴 = 𝐴̅

13.Which of the following statements about homeomorphisms is true?

a. A homeomorphism maps interior points to boundary points

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

b. A homeomorphism maps dense sets to nowhere dense sets

c. A homeomorphism maps compact sets to non-compact sets
d. A homeomorphism maps isolated points to accumulation points
Answer: (d) - A homeomorphism maps isolated points to accumulation
points
14.Let X be a topological space and Y be a metric space. If there exists a
homeomorphism between X and Y what can be said about the topology of
X?
a. X must be discrete
b. X must be Hausdorff
c. X must be compact
d. must be connected
Answer: (b) - X must be Hausdorff
15.Consider the function 𝑓: [0,1] → [0,2] defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥. Is f is a
homeomorphism?
a. Yes, it is a homeomorphism
b. No, it is not a homeomorphism because it's not surjective
c. No, it is not a homeomorphism because it's not injective
d. No, it is not a homeomorphism because it's not continuous
Answer: (a)- Yes, it is a homeomorphism
16.Which of the following statements about homeomorphisms is true?
a. A homeomorphism maps open sets to closed sets
b. A homeomorphism maps compact sets to open sets
c. A homeomorphism maps connected sets to disconnected sets
d. A homeomorphism maps boundary points to interior points
Answer: (b)- A homeomorphism maps compact sets to open sets
17.Which of the following statements about uniformly continuous functions is
true?
a. Every uniformly continuous function is Lipschitz continuous
b. Every Lipschitz continuous function is uniformly continuous
c. Uniformly continuous functions are always bounded
d. Uniformly continuous functions do not preserve bounded sets
Answer: (b)- Every Lipschitz continuous function is uniformly continuous
18.Which of the following functions is uniformly continuous on the interval
[0, 2]

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = cos
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin
d. 𝑓(𝑥) =
e. Answer: (a)- 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
19.Which of the following functions is a contraction map on the interval [0,1]
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥
c. 𝑓(𝑥) =
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥
𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟: (c)- 𝑓(𝑥) =
20.Let 𝑓: [𝑎, 𝑏] → [𝑎, 𝑏] is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏).
Then, f has a unique fixed point if
a. |𝑓 (𝑥)| ≤ 𝛼 < 1 for all 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏
b. |𝑓 (𝑥)| ≥ 𝛼 for all 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏
c. |𝑓(𝑥)| ≤ 𝛼 < 1 for all 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏
d. |𝑓(𝑥)| ≥ 𝛼 for all 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏
Answer: (a) -|𝑓 (𝑥)| ≤ 𝛼 < 1 for all 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏
21.Let 𝑓: (𝑋, 𝑑) → (𝑌, 𝜌) be a function. Then, 𝑓 is continuous if and only if
a. 𝑓 (𝐺) is closed set in 𝑋 for any closed set 𝐺 in 𝑌
b. 𝑓 (𝐺) is open set in 𝑋 for any closed set 𝐺 in Y
c. 𝑓 (𝐺) is open set in 𝑌 for any open set 𝐺 in X
d. 𝑓 (𝐺) is closed set in 𝑌 for any closed set 𝐺 in X
Answer: (d)- 𝑓 (𝐺) is closed set in 𝑋 for any closed set 𝐺 in 𝑌
22.The characteristic function
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺
𝜒 (𝑥) =
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∉ 𝐺
is continuous if
a. G is open
b. G is closed
c. G is both open and closed
d. G is dense
Answer: (c )- G is both open and closed
23.Let 𝑓: 𝑹 → 𝑵 be a continuous function. Then,

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

a. 𝑓 is constant
b. 𝑓 is not constant
c. 𝑓 exists
d. 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒
Answer: (a)- 𝑓 is constant
24.Let 𝑓: 𝑵 → 𝑹 be a function. Then,
a. 𝑓 is not continuous
b. 𝑓 is continuous
c. 𝑓 is constant
d. 𝑓 exists
Answer: (b)- 𝑓 is continuous
25.Choose the correct statement
a. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦| is a metric on a set M
b. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦 | is a metric on a set M
c. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦 | is a metric on a set M
d. 𝐦𝐚𝐱 {𝑑 , 𝑑 } is a metric, where 𝑑 and 𝑑 are metrices on a set M
Answer: (a)- 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦| is a metric on a set M
26.Choose the wrong statement
e. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦| is a metric on a set M
f. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦 | is a metric on a set M
g. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦 | is a metric on a set M
h. 𝐦𝐢𝐧 {𝑑 , 𝑑 } is a metric, where 𝑑 and 𝑑 are metrices on a set M
Answer: (c)- 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦 | is a metric on a set M
27.Let 𝜌: 𝑹𝟐 × 𝑹𝟐 → 𝑹, 𝑹 is the set of real numbers. Then, the taxi-cab metric
is
a. 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = max {|𝑥 − 𝑥 |, |𝑦 − 𝑦 |}
b. 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = min{1, d(x, y)}, 𝑑 is a metric on R
c. 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑥 | + |𝑦 − 𝑦 |
d. 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 − 𝑥 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦 )

28.A usual metric space (𝑿, 𝑑) on the set of real or complex numbers is
a. Bounded
b. Unbounded
c. Discrete
d. Unbounded and discrete both

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Answer: (b)- Unbounded

29.The metric space (𝑀, 𝜌) with 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) = min{𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦), 2} for any metric 𝑑 on
any set M is
a. Bounded
b. Unbounded
c. Discrete
d. Unbounded and discrete both
Answer: (a)- bounded
30.Any convergent sequence in a metric space is
a. always unbounded
b. always Bounded
c. sometimes unbounded
d. sometimes bounded
Answer: (b)- always bounded
31.Any convergent sequence in a metric space is
a. Unbounded
b. Cauchy sequence
c. Not Cauchy sequence
d. None of these
Answer: (b)- Cauchy sequence
32.Any Cauchy sequence in a metric space is
a. always unbounded
b. always Bounded
c. sometimes unbounded
d. w3sometimes bounded
Answer: (b)- always bounded
33.Let (𝑎 ) = be a sequence in 𝑀 = (0, 1). Then, (𝑎 )
a. converges in 𝑀
b. not a Cauchy sequence in 𝑀
c. unbounded
d. not converges in 𝑀
Answer: (d)- not converges in M
34.Let (𝑎 ) = be a sequence in 𝑀 = (0, 1). Then, (𝑎 )
a. converges in 𝑀
b. a Cauchy sequence in 𝑀
c. unbounded

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

d. converges to ∞
Answer: (b)- a Cauchy sequence in 𝑀
35.A subsequence of any convergent sequence (𝑎 )
a. unbounded
b. is not convergent
c. is convergent and converges to the same limit as (𝑎 )
d. is convergent but converges to the different limit as (𝑎 )
Answer: (c )- is convergent and converges to the same limit as of (𝑎 )
36.The singleton set and empty set are
a. Open
b. Dense
c. Connected
d. Compact
Answer: (c )-connected
37.Infinite discrete space is
a. Open
b. connected
c. disconnected
d. Compact
Answer: (c )-disconnected
38.Infinite discrete space is
a. unbounded
b. connected
c. locally compact
d. Compact
Answer: (c )-locally compact
39.The set of real number with usual metric is
a. Not compact
b. Disconnected
c. Both compact and disconnected
d. Neither compact nor connected
Answer: (a)- not compact
40.Continuous image of compact set is
a. Connected
b. Open
c. Closed
d. Compact

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Answer: (d)- compact

41.Continuous image of connected set is
e. Connected
f. Open
g. Closed
h. Compact
Answer: (a)- connected
42.Continuous image of locally connected set is
a. locally connected
b. connected
c. open
d. closed
Answer: (a)- locally connected
43.Continuous image of locally compact set is
a. locally connected
b. connected
c. locally compact
d. closed
Answer: (c )- locally compact
44.Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be metric space, then X is disconnected if and only if
a. There exists a continuous function on discrete two space
b. There exists a continuous function on indiscrete two space
c. There does not exist a continuous function on discrete two space
d. None of these
Answer: (a)- There exists a continuous function on discrete two space
45.All the intervals in R are
a. Open
b. Closed
c. Compact
d. Connected
Answer: (d)- Connected
46.All the closed intervals in R are
a. Open
b. Closed
c. Compact
d. disconnected
Answer: (c)- compact

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

47.Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be metric space, then X is disconnected if and only if

a. There exists a proper subset of X which is both open and closed
b. There exists two proper subset of X which is both open and closed
c. There does not exist a proper subset of X which is both open and closed
d. There exists a proper subset of X which is either open or closed
Answer: (a)- There exists a proper subset of X which is both open and
closed
48.Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be metric space, then X is connected if and only if
a. There exists a proper subset of X which is both open and closed
b. There exists two proper subset of X which is both open and closed
c. There does not exist a proper subset of X which is both open and
closed
d. There exists a proper subset of X which is either open or closed
Answer: (c)- There does not exist a proper subset of X which is both open
and closed
49.The set of rational numbers is
a. Open
b. Closed
c. Connected
d. Disconnected
Answer: (d)- disconnected
50.The set of irrational numbers is
a. Open
b. Closed
c. Compact
d. Disconnected
Answer: (d)- disconnected
51. Polar form of the complex number −5 + 5𝑖 is:
a) 5√2𝑒
b) 5√2𝑒
c) 5√2𝑒
d) None of these
Answer c) 5√2𝑒
52. Which of the function is discontinuous at 𝑧 = 0? 𝑓(𝑧) =
a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

b) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧
c) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑧
d)
Answer d)
53. The function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦 is :
a) continuous everywhere
b) discontinuous at 𝑥 = 0
c) bounded
d) None of these
Answer a) continuous everywhere
54. At 𝑧 = 0 the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧̅ is
a) not analytic
b) not differentiable
c) not continuous
d) none of these
Answer b) not differentiable
55. For any two complex numbers 𝑧 & 𝑧 |𝑧 − 𝑧 | is:
a) ≥ |𝑧 | − |𝑧 |
b) ≥ |𝑧 | + |𝑧 |
c) = |𝑧 | + |𝑧 |
d) None of these
Answer a) ≥ |𝑧 | − |𝑧 |
56. A conjugate harmonic of 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 is
a) 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
b) 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦
c) −𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 1
d) 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒
Answer c) −𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 1
57. the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑧 is:
a) continuous everywhere
b) analytic in finite complex plane
c) analytic everywhere expect the points where 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 = 0
d) none of these
Answer c) analytic everywhere expect the points where 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 = 0
58. An analytic function with constant modulus is:
a) Variable

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

b) may be variable or constant

c) constant
d) none of these
Answer c) constant
59. If a function is analytic at all points of a bounded domain except finitely
many points, then these points are called:
a) singular points
b) simple points
c) continuous points
d) none of these
60. The equation |𝑧 − 1| = |𝑧 + 𝑖| represents:
a) line through origin whose slope is one
b) a line through origin whose slope is -1
c) an ellipse whose foci are at 𝑧 = 1, −𝑖
d) a circle through origin
Answer b) a line through origin whose slope is -1
61. which of the function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in complex plane where 𝑓(𝑧) =
a) 𝑅𝑒 𝑧
b) 𝐼𝑚 𝑧
c) 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑧
d) 𝑒
Answer d) 𝑒
62. A single valued function 𝑓(𝑧) defined in a domain D is said to be analytic at a
point of 𝑧 of D if it is differentiable:
a) at 𝑧
b) at the origin
c) in some neighbourhood of 𝑧
d) in some deleted neighbourhood of 𝑧
Answer c) in some neighbourhood of 𝑧
63. The function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧̅
a) analytic everywhere
b) analytic at origin only
c) nowhere analytic
d) None of these
Answer c) nowhere analytic
64. The path of the definite integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 is:

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

a) the line segment joining the points 𝑧 = 𝑎 & 𝑧 = 𝑏

b) any curve joining the points 𝑧 = 𝑎 & 𝑧 = 𝑏
c) any circle such that the points 𝑧 = 𝑎 & 𝑧 = 𝑏 lie on it
d) any rectangle whose two vertices are the points 𝑧 = 𝑎 & 𝑧 = 𝑏
Answer b) any curve joining the points 𝑧 = 𝑎 & 𝑧 = 𝑏
65. ∫ 𝑑𝑧, where L is any rectifiable arc joining the points 𝑧 = 𝑎 & 𝑧 = 𝑏 is equal
to:
a) z
b) z-a-b
c) a-b-z
d) b-a
Answer d) b-a
66. ∫ |𝑑𝑧| where L is any rectifiable arc joining the points 𝑧 = 𝑎 & 𝑧 = 𝑏 is
equal to:
a) 𝑏 − 𝑎
b) |𝑏 − 𝑎|
c) arc length of L
d) 0
Answer b) |𝑏 − 𝑎|

67. If L represents a square bounded by 𝑥 = ±𝑎, 𝑦 = ±𝑎 then the value of

is :
a) 2𝜋𝑖
b) 𝜋𝑖
c) 0
d) 4𝜋𝑖
Answer a) 2𝜋𝑖
68. If L is circle |𝑧 + 3𝑖| = 1, then the value of is :
( )

a) 0
b) 𝜋𝑖
c) 2𝜋𝑖
d) none of these
Answer d) none of these

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

69. Value of 𝑑𝑧 , where C: |𝑧| = 3

a) 0
b) 2𝜋𝑖𝑒
c) 2𝜋𝑖𝑒
d) 2𝜋𝑖
Answer c) 2𝜋𝑖𝑒
70. Value of ( )
𝑑𝑧 , where C: |𝑧| = 4

a) 𝑒
b) 𝑒
c) 0
d) None of these
Answer b) 𝑒
!
71. Value of ( )
𝑑𝑧 , where C: |𝑧| = 3
a) 2
b) 0
c) 𝜋𝑖
d) none of these
72. What does a contour integral represent
a) The sum of residues of a function at its poles.
b) The line integral of a complex-valued function along a curve in
the complex plane.
c) The limit of a function as it approaches a singularity.
d) The integral of a function over a contour in the real plane.
Answer b) The line integral of a complex-valued function along a curve in
the complex plane.
73. When can the Residue Theorem be applied to evaluate a contour
integral?
a) Only for functions with no singularities.
b) Only for functions with poles inside the contour.
c) Only for functions that are entire.
d) Only for functions with isolated singularities.
Answer d) Only for functions with isolated singularities.

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

74. Evaluate, where ( )

𝑑𝑧 is the unit circle centered at the origin,
traversed counterclockwise
a) 2𝜋𝑖
b) −2𝜋𝑖
c)
d) −
Answer b) −2𝜋𝑖
75. Which property holds true for contour integrals of analytic functions in
simply connected regions?
a) The contour integral depends on the path taken between the
endpoints.
b) The contour integral is path-independent.
c) The contour integral is always zero.
d) The contour integral is undefined
Answer b) The contour integral is path-independent.
76. Which of the following best describes the principle of integrating along
contours?

a) It allows the integration of complex functions along any path in

the complex plane.
b) It restricts integration to only real-valued functions along the x-
axis.
c) It limits integration to functions that are continuous in the
complex plane.
d) It enables the calculation of line integrals using polar
coordinates.
Answer a) It allows the integration of complex functions along any path in
the complex plane.
77. Which of the following statements regarding contour deformation is true?
a) Contour deformation allows changing the shape of a contour
without changing the value of the integral.
b) Contour deformation only works for contours that lie entirely in
the real plane.
c) Contour deformation is not applicable to analytic functions.

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

d) Contour deformation is used to avoid singularities in the

complex plane.
Answer a) Contour deformation allows changing the shape of a contour
without changing the value of the integral.
78. In which scenario is a contour integral path-independent?
a) When the function has singularities along the contour.
b) When the function is continuous everywhere in the complex
plane.
c) When the function is analytic in a simply connected region.
d) When the contour is not closed.
Answer c) When the function is analytic in a simply connected region.
79. In which type of region is every analytic function differentiable?
a) Open regions
b) Closed regions
c) Simply connected regions
d) Multiply connected regions
Answer c) Simply connected regions
80. What type of singularity can Cauchy's Integral Formula handle?
a) Poles
b) Removable singularities
c) Essential singularities
d) Branch points
Answer a) Poles
81. What is the residue of a function 𝑓(𝑧) at a pole 𝑧
a) The value of the function at 𝑧 .
b) The coefficient of in the Laurent series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧)
around 𝑧
c) The value of the function at 𝑧 times the value of its derivative at
𝑧 .
d) None of these
Answer b) The coefficient of in the Laurent series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧)
around 𝑧 .
82. Calculate the residue of at the pole 𝑧 = 1.
( )( )
a)
b)

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

c)
d)
Answer c)
83. What is the residue of at 𝑧 = ∞?
a) 0
b) 1
c) -1
d) ∞
Answer a) 0
84. Use the residue theorem to evaluate ( )
𝑑𝑧 where C is the unit
circle centered at the origin traversed counterclockwise:
a) 2𝜋𝑖
b) −2𝜋𝑖
c) 𝜋𝑖
d) −𝜋𝑖
Answer a) 2𝜋𝑖
85. What is the residue of ( )
at 𝑧 = 1?
a)
b)
c)
d) 𝑒
Answer b)
86. What is the residue of 𝑒 at 𝑧 = 0
a) 0
b) 1
c) -1
d) Not defined
Answer a) 0
87. What is the residue of at 𝑧 = 𝑖
( )

a)

b)

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

c)
d)
Answer a)
88. What is the Taylor series expansion of 𝑒 centered at 𝑥 = 0
a) ∑
!
b) ∑ 𝑥
c) ∑
!
d) None of these
Answer a) ∑
!
89. Which statement best describes the remainder term in Taylor series?
a) It ensures that the Taylor series converges to the function for all
values of 𝑥.
b) It represents the difference between the actual value of the
function and its approximation using the Taylor series.
c) It is always zero for functions that have Taylor series
expansions.
d) It is proportional to the value of the function at the center of
expansion.
Answer b) It represents the difference between the actual value of the
function and its approximation using the Taylor series.
90. A function which has poles as it’s only singularities in the finite part
of the plane is said to be
a) zeros
b) singularities
c) poles
d) simple points
Answer b) singularities
91. A function which has poles as it’s only singularities in the finite part
of the plane is said to be:
a) an analytic function
b) a meromorphic function
c) an entire function
d) a finite function
Answer b) a meromorphic function

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

92. For the function 𝑓(𝑧) = tan ( ), 𝑧 = 0 is

a) isolated essential singularity
b) non- isolated essential singularity
c) pole
d) none of these
Answer b) non- isolated essential singularity
93. For the function 𝑓(𝑧) = , 𝑧 = 0 is
a) essential singularity
b) pole
c) removable singularity
d) none of these
Answer c) removable singularity
94. For the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 , 𝑧 = ∞ is
a) isolated essential singularity
b) pole
c) ordinary point
d) none of these
Answer a) isolated essential singularity
95. 𝑧 = 0 for the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧 is:
a) isolated singularity
b) non- isolated singularity
c) pole
d) none of these
Answer b) non- isolated singularity
96. Number of zeros of the function 𝑓(𝑧) = sin ( ) is :
a) 3
b) 4
c) ∞
d) none of these
Answer c) ∞
97. Number of the poles of the function 𝑓(𝑧) = tan 𝑖𝑠 ∶
a) 2
b) 4
c) ∞
d) none of these

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B. Sc. 6th Semester Metric spaces and complex analysis/B030601T

Answer c) ∞
98. Number of the isolated singularities of the function 𝑓(𝑧) = is:
( )
a) 1
b) 2
c) 5
d) infinite
Answer d) infinite
99. A zero of order one is said to be
a) simple pole
b) simple
c) singularity of order one
d) none of these
Answer b) simple
100. The function 𝑓(𝑧) = has
a) isolated essential singularity at z=0
b) pole of order one at z=0
c) removable singularity at z=0
d) none of these
Answer c) removable singularity at z=0

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Dr Shailendra Kumar & Dr Pradeep Kumar