UNIT-II

INTRODUCTION TO AC CIRCUITS
SYLLABUS: Representation of sinusoidal waveforms - Peak, Average and RMS values -
Phasor representation - power factor - Analysis of single-phase ac circuits consisting of
pure resistor, pure inductor, pure capacitor, R-L, R-C, RLC series circuits-instantaneous
power-real power - reactive power - apparent power.
Sinusoidal Alternating waveform

The sinusoidal alternating voltage can be expressed by the equation

v = Vm sin wt
where v = Instantaneous value of alternating voltage
{Instantaneous value = Max. value × sine of time angle}
Vm = Max. value of alternating voltage
w = Angular velocity of the coil
 Important A.C. Terminology and Relations
• An alternating voltage or current changes continuously in magnitude
and alternates in direction at regular intervals of time.

• It rises from zero to maximum positive value, falls to zero, increases to

a maximum in the reverse direction and falls back to zero again.
 Instantaneous value
• The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called instantaneous value.

• The instantaneous values of alternating voltage and current are represented by

v and i respectively.

• As an example, the instantaneous values of voltage (See Fig.) at 0º, 90º and 270º
are 0, + Vm, −Vm respectively.
 Time period
• The time taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an
alternating quantity is called its time period.
• It is generally represented by T.
• units' seconds
 Frequency
• The number of cycles that occur in one second is called the frequency (f) of the
alternating quantity.
• It is measured in cycles/sec (C/s) or Hertz (Hz).
• One Hertz is equal to 1C/s.

• The frequency of power system is low; the most common being 50 C/s or 50 Hz.
• It means that alternating voltage or current completes 50 cycles in one second.
• The 50 Hz frequency is the most popular because it gives the best results when used
for operating both lights and machinery.
 Amplitude
• The maximum value (positive or negative) attained by an
alternating quantity is called its amplitude or peak value.

• The amplitude of an alternating voltage or current is

designated by Vm (or Em) or Im
 Time period and frequency

• Consider an alternating quantity having a frequency of f C/s and time

period T second.
• Time taken to complete f cycles = 1 second (By definition)
• Time taken to complete 1 cycle = 1/f second
• But the time taken to complete one cycle is the time period T (by
definition).
 Angular velocity and frequency
• In one revolution of the coil, the angle turned is 2π radians and the voltage wave
completes 1 cycle.
• The time taken to complete one cycle is the time period T of the alternating
voltage.
 Frequency and speed
• Consider a coil rotating at a speed of N r.p.m. in the field of P poles.
• As the coil moves past successive north and south poles, one complete cycle is
generated.
• Obviously, in one revolution of the coil, P/2 cycles will be generated.
 Different Forms of Alternating Voltage
• The standard form of an alternating voltage is given by
v = Vm sin θ
= Vm sin ω t
 Values of Alternating Voltage and Current
• In a d.c. system, the voltage and current are constant so that there is no
problem of specifying their magnitudes.
• However, an alternating voltage or current varies from instant to
instant.
• A natural question arises how to express the magnitude of an
alternating voltage or current.
• There are four ways of expressing it, namely
(i) Peak value
(ii) Average value or mean value
(iii) R.M.S. value or effective value
(iv) Peak-to-peak value
 Peak Value
• It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity.

• The peak or maximum value of an alternating voltage or current is

represented by Vm or Im.
• The knowledge of peak value is important in case of testing materials.
• However, peak value is not used to specify the magnitude of alternating
voltage or current.
 AVERAGE VALUE
• The average value of a waveform is the average of all its values over a period.
• The average value of a waveform is also called its d.c. value.

(i) SYMMETRICAL WAVES (e.g. sinusoidal voltage or current), the average value over
one cycle is zero.
However, the average value of positive or negative half is not zero.

(ii) UNSYMMETRICAL WAVES (e.g. half-wave rectified voltage etc.), the average value is
taken over the full cycle.
 Average Value of Sinusoidal waveform
• Definition:
The half-cycle average value of a.c. is that value of steady current (d.c.) which
would send the same amount of charge through a circuit for half the time period of a.c.
as is sent by the a.c. through the same circuit in the same time.
• It is represented by Iavg or Vavg

The equation of an alternating current varying sinusoidally is given by i = Im sin θ

Consider an elementary strip of thickness dθ in the first half-cycle of current wave as

shown in Figure.

Let i be the mid-ordinate of this strip.

Area of strip = i dθ
Similarly, it can be proved that for alternating voltage varying sinusoidally, Vav =
0·637 Vm
 R.M.S. or Effective Value

• The average value cannot be used to specify a sinusoidal voltage or current.

• It is because its value over one-cycle is zero and cannot be used for power calculations.

Definition:
• The effective or r.m.s. value of an alternating current is that steady current (d.c.) which
when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of
heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same resistance
for the same time

• For example, when we say that the r.m.s. or effective value of an alternating current is
5A, it means that the alternating current will do work (or produce heat) at the same rate
as 5A direct current under similar conditions.
 Illustration of RMS value
• Consider the half-cycle of a non-sinusoidal alternating current i [See Fig. (i)] flowing
through a resistance RΩ for t seconds.
• Divide the time t in n equal intervals of time, each of duration t/n second.
• Let the mid-ordinates be i1, i2, i3,.....in. Each current i1, i2, i3,.....in will produce
heating effect when passed through the resistance R as shown in Fig.(ii).
• Suppose the heating effect produced by current i in R is the same as produced by some
direct current I flowing through the resistance R for the same time t.
Since heat produced in both cases is the same,

= Square root of the mean of the squares of the current

= root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value
• It is also called effective value because it is this value which tells the energy transfer
capability of a.c. source.
(i) For symmetrical waves, the r.m.s. or effective value can be found by considering half-
cycle or full-cycle.
It is because second half is the negative of the first half and the r.m.s. value depends
upon the squares of the instantaneous values.
However, for unsymmetrical waves, full-cycle should be considered.
(ii) The r.m.s. value of symmetrical wave can also be expressed as :
 R.M.S. Value of Sinusoidal Current
• The equation of the alternating current varying sinusoidally is given by i = Im sin θ
• Consider an elementary strip of thickness dθ in first half-cycle of the squared current wave
(shown dotted in Fig.).
 FORM FACTOR
(i) Form factor: The ratio of r.m.s. value to the average value of an alternating quantity is
known as form factor i.e

• The value of form factor depends upon the waveform of the alternating quantity.
• Its least value is 1 (e.g. for square wave, rectangular wave) and may be as high as 5 for
other waveforms.

• For a sinusoidal voltage or current,

The form factor gives a measure of the “peakiness” of the waveform.

• For instance, a sine wave is peakier than a square wave.
• Hence the former has a greater form factor (1·11) than the latter.
• Similarly, a triangular wave is peakier than a sine wave and has a form factor of
1·15.
 Peak factor
• The ratio of maximum value to the r.m.s. value of an alternating quantity is known
as peak factor i.e.

The value of peak factor also depends upon the waveform of the alternating quantity.
For an alternating voltage or current varying sinusoidally, its value is 1·414 i.e

Peak factor is also called crest factor or amplitude factor

 PHASE AND PHASE DIFFERENCE
▪ Phase of a particular value of an alternating quantity is the
fractional part of time period or cycle through which the quantity
has advanced from the selected zero position of reference.

▪ When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have

different zero points, they are said to have a phase difference.

phase difference between voltage and current is φº.

 PHASOR DIAGRAM
• Consider a sinusoidal voltage wave v and sinusoidal current wave i of the same
frequency. Suppose the current lags the voltage by φ.

• The two alternating quantities can be represented on the same phasor diagram
because the phasors Vm and Im
 A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING PURE RESISTANCE
• Consider a circuit containing a pure resistance of R Ω connected across an alternating
voltage source [See Fig.].
• Let the alternating voltage be given by the equation:

• As a result of this voltage, an alternating current i will flow

in the circuit.
• The applied voltage must overcome the drop in the resistance
only i.e.

Substituting the value of v, we get,

The value of i will be maximum (i.e., Im) when sin ωt = 1

(i) Phase angle: It is clear from eqs. (i) and (ii) that the applied voltage and the circuit
current are in phase with each other i.e. they pass through their zero values at the
same instant and attain their positive and negative peaks at the same instant.

(ii) Power: In any circuit, electric power consumed at any instant is the product of
voltage and current at that instant i.e
• Average power over a complete cycle is to be considered

(iii) Power Factor:

Power factor = cos f = cosine of angle between V and I

Here f=0 , cos f=1; UNITY POWER FACTOR

 A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING PURE INDUCTOR
• When an alternating current flows through a pure inductive coil, a back e.m.f. (= L di/dt)
is induced due to the inductance of the coil.

Applied alternating voltage = Back e.m.f.

Consider an alternating voltage applied to a pure inductance of L henry as shown in Fig.

• This back e.m.f. at every instant opposes the change in current through the coil.
• Since there is no ohmic drop, the applied voltage has to overcome the back e.m.f. only.
• Let the equation of the applied alternating voltage be v = Vm sin ω t ...(i)

...(ii)

...(iii)
 v = Vm sin ω t

(i) Phase angle:

• It is clear from voltage and current equations, current lags the voltage by π/2
radians or 90º.
• Hence in a pure inductance, current lags the voltage by 90º.
• This is also indicated by the phasor diagram shown in above figure.
(ii) Inductive reactance:
Inductance not only causes the current to lag behind the voltage but it also limits the
magnitude of current in the circuit.

This quantity ωL is called the inductive reactance XL of the coil.

(iii) Inductive susceptance (BL):
Just as conductance is the reciprocal of resistance (i.e., G = 1/R), similarly,
inductive susceptance is the reciprocal of inductive reactance i.e

(iv) Power:
(v) Power Factor:

• Power factor = cos f = cosine of angle between V and I

• Here f=90 , cos f=0; ZERO POWER FACTOR LAGGING (ZPF)

 A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING PURE CAPACITOR
• Consider an alternating voltage applied to a capacitor of capacitance C farad as shown in
Figure.

• Let the equation of the applied alternating voltage be

• As a result of this alternating voltage, alternating current will flow through the circuit.
• Let at any instant i be the current and q be the charge on the plates

The value of i will be maximum (i.e., Im) when sin (ω t + π/2) is unity.
(i) Phase angle:
• It is clear from voltage and current equations that current leads the voltage by π/2
radians or 90º.
• Hence in a pure capacitance, current leads the voltage by 90º.

(ii) Capacitive reactance:

Capacitance not only causes the voltage to lag current, but it also limits the magnitude of
current in the circuit.
• Clearly, the opposition offered by capacitance to current flow is 1/ωC.
• This quantity 1/ωC is called the capacitive reactance XC of the capacitor.

(iii) Capacitive susceptance (BC):

• Just as inductive susceptance is the reciprocal of inductive reactance (i.e. BL = 1/XL),

• similarly, capacitive susceptance is the reciprocal of capacitive reactance i.e.
(iv) Power:
• Instantaneous power is given by

Hence power absorbed in a pure capacitance is zero.

(v) Power Factor:

Power factor = cos f = cosine of angle between V and I

Here f=90 , cos f=0; ZERO POWER FACTOR LEADING (ZPF)

 BEHAVIOUR OF DIFFERENT LOADS WHEN CONNECTED TO AC SUPPLY

TYPE OF LOAD PHASOR DIAGRAM PHASE ANGLE POWER FACTOR

f=0 cos f=1
RESISTIVE OR R-LOAD
UNITY

f=90 cos f=0

INDUCTIVE OR L-LOAD
LAGGING

f=90 cos f=0

CAPACITIVE OR C-LOAD
LEADING
 R-L Series A.C. Circuit
• This is the most general case met in practice as nearly all a.c circuits contain both
resistance and inductance.
• Figure below shows a pure resistance of R ohms connected in series with a coil of
pure inductance L henry.
• The voltage drop VR ( = I R) is in phase with current and is represented in magnitude and
direction by the phasor OA.
• The voltage drop VL ( = I XL) leads the current by 90° and is represented in magnitude and
direction by the phasor AB.
The applied voltage V is the phasor sum of these two drops:
(i) Phase angle:
• It is clear from the phasor diagram that circuit current I lags the
applied voltage V by f.
• This fact is also illustrated in the wave diagram shown in Figure.
• The value of phase angle f can be determined from the phasor diagram

(ii) Impedance: The total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by a circuit is
called impedance Z of the circuit. In R-L series circuit
(iii) Admittance (Y):
Admittance of an a.c circuit is the reciprocal of its impedance i.e.

(iv) Power Instantaneous power:

where V and I are the r.m.s. values of voltage and current.

 IMPEDANCE TRIANGLE
• The phasor diagram of a R-L series circuit is shown.
• Dividing each side of the phasor diagram by the same factor I, we get a triangle whose
sides represent R, XL and Z. Such a triangle is known as Impedance triangle

It enables us to calculate :
 R-C Series A.C. Circuit
• Figure shows a resistance of R ohms connected in series with a capacitor of C farad.
(i) Phase angle:
It is clear from the phasor diagram that circuit current I leads the applied voltage V by f.
(ii) Power:
 R-L-C Series A.C. Circuit
• Figure below shows R, L and C connected in series across a supply voltage V (r.m.s.). The
resulting circuit current is I (r.m.s.).
POWER:

THREE CASES OF R-L-C SERIES CIRCUIT:

 APPARENT, TRUE AND REACTIVE POWERS
• Consider an inductive circuit in which circuit current I lags the applied voltage V by f.
• The phasor diagram of the circuit is shown in Figure below:

• The current I can be resolved into two rectangular components viz.

(i) I cos f in phase with V.
(ii) I sin f ; 90° out of phase with V
 1. Apparent power:
• The total power that appears to be transferred between the source and load is called apparent
power.
• It is equal to the product of applied voltage (V) and circuit current (I)
Apparent power, S = V × I = VI
• It is measured in volt-ampers (VA).
• Apparent power has two components viz true power and reactive power.
2. True power:
• The power which is consumed in the circuit is called true power or active power.
• The product of voltage (V) and component of total current in phase with voltage (I cos f) is equal to
true power i.e.

It is measured in watts (W).

3. Reactive power:
• The component of apparent power which is neither consumed nor does any
useful work in the circuit is called reactive power.
• The product of voltage (V) and component of total current 90° out of phase with
voltage (I sin f) is equal to reactive power.

It is measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR).

 POWER TRIANGLE

• This is a right-angled triangle and indicates the relation

among apparent power, true power and reactive power
 POWER FACTOR
• The power factor (i.e., cos f ) of a circuit can be defined in one of the following ways
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