The French Revolution

and Napoleon 1789–1815

Section 1 The French Revolution Begins
Section 2 Radical Revolution and Reaction
Section 3 The Age of Napoleon

MAKING CONNECTIONS
What makes a nation?
The Arc de Triomphe is one of the national symbols of France. It was
commissioned by Napoleon in 1806 to commemorate his Grand Army.
Can you name some other national symbols of France? In this chapter
you will learn how France became a nation.
• What are some national symbols of the United States?
• What are the characteristics of a nation?
• What is nationalism?

1789 1793 1799

French King Louis XVI Napoleon leads coup
Revolution executed; Reign of d’état that topples
FRANCE begins Terror begins French government

1790 1800

THE WORLD 1789 1803

George Washington United States
inaugurated as first purchases Louisiana
U.S. president Territory from France
574
Bridgeman-Giraudon/Art Resource, NY, John Lamb/Getty Images
 1815 Who What
1812 Napoleon Identifying Create a
Napoleon Four-Door Book to
defeated at the record who, what,
invades Battle of when, and where facts
Russia When Where
Waterloo while you read about
Napoleon Bonaparte.
1815

1810
Hidalgo leads
Mexican (ISTORY /.,).%
independence Chapter Overview—Visit glencoe.com to preview Chapter 18.
movement
John Lamb/Getty Images, (l) Art Archive/Antochiw Collection, Mexico/Mireille Vautier , (r) Art Archive/Musée de L’Armée, Paris/Dagli Orti
 The French Revolution Begins
The year 1789 witnessed two far-reaching events: the
GUIDE TO READING beginning of a new United States of America and the
The BIG Idea beginning of the French Revolution. Compared with the
Struggle for Rights Social inequality American Revolution, the French Revolution was more
and economic problems contributed to the complex and more radical. The French Revolution
French Revolution.
established both a new political order and a new social
Content Vocabulary order. For that reason, it is considered a turning point in
• estate (p. 576) • bourgeoisie (p. 578) European history.
• taille (p. 576) • sans-culottes (p. 583)

Academic Vocabulary Background to the Revolution

• consumer (p. 577)
• exclusion (p. 581) The Third Estate, the vast majority of the French people, was heavily
taxed and discontented.
People and Events HISTORY & YOU What if you had no say in family concerns despite doing all
• Louis XVI (p. 578) the household chores? Learn how the French people reacted to having no say in
• Tennis Court Oath (p. 579) their government.
• Declaration of the Rights of Man and the
Citizen (p. 581)
French society had changed little since medieval times. Feudal-
• Olympe de Gouges (p. 581)
ism established the privileges and obligations of the three main
social classes. Although there were clergy and wealthy landown-
Reading Strategy
ers in the American colonies, there were no laws giving them spe-
Explaining As you read, use a diagram
cial status, unlike the class system in France. This social injustice
like the one below to list the factors that
caused unrest in eighteenth-century France.
contributed to the French Revolution.

France’s Three Estates

Since the Middle Ages, France’s population had been divided
French
Revolution by law into one of three status groups, or estates. The First Estate
consisted of the clergy, the Second Estate the nobles, and the Third
Estate everyone else. Thus the Third Estate included anyone from
the lowliest peasant to the wealthiest merchant.
The First Estate, or clergy, numbered about 130,000 out of a total
population of 27 million and owned about 10 percent of the land.
The clergy were radically divided. The higher clergy—cardinals,
INDIANA ACADEMIC STANDARDS bishops, and heads of monasteries—were from noble families and
World History and Civilization shared their outlook and interests. The parish priests were often
6.3 Explain the concept of “the Enlightenment” poor and from the class of commoners.
in European history and describe its impact upon The Second Estate, or nobility, numbered about 350,000 and
political thought and government in Europe,
North America, and other regions of the world. owned about 25 to 30 percent of the land. They played a crucial
6.4 Compare and contrast the causes and role in society in the 1700s. They held leading positions in the
events of the American and French Revolutions government, in the military, in the law courts, and in the Roman
of the late eighteenth century and explain their
consequences for the growth of liberty, equality, Catholic Church. Despite controlling most of the wealth of the
and democracy in Europe, the Americas, and kingdom, neither the clergy nor the nobles had to pay the taille
other parts of the world.
(TAH•yuh), France’s chief tax.

576
 France’s Three Estates

The Three Estates in

First Estate Second Estate Pre-Revolutionary France
1.5% 0.5% 10%

25%
98% 65%

Population Land ownership

100%

Taxation
First Estate: Clergy
Second Estate: Nobility
Third Estate: Commoners

Posters of the Three Estates, like the

one shown here, were displayed in
Taille — taxes
France in the late 1700s.
1. Explaining Which estate is being
crushed by taxes in the image on
this poster?
2. Analyzing Which estate con-
tained the majority of people in
France? How could the situation
shown in the poster lead to
Third Estate revolution?

Unlike the First and Second Estates, the grind his flour or press his grapes because
Third Estate was divided by vast differ- the local lord controlled the flour mill and
ences in occupation, level of education, wine press. When the harvest time came,
and wealth. Peasants made up 75 to 80 the peasant had to work a certain number
percent of the Third Estate and owned of days harvesting the noble’s crop. Peas-
about 35 to 40 percent of the land; middle- ants fiercely resented these duties.
class members of the Third Estate owned Another part of the Third Estate con-
the rest. At least half of the peasants had sisted of urban craftspeople, shopkeepers,
little or no land to live on. and workers. These people, too, were
All peasants owed certain duties to the struggling to survive. In the 1700s, the
nobles, which were a holdover from medi- price of consumer goods increased much
eval times when serfdom was widespread. faster than wages, which left these urban
For example, a peasant had to pay a fee to groups with decreased buying power.

CHAPTER 18 The French Revolution and Napoleon 577

Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY
 The struggle for survival led many of these On the eve of the revolution, the French
people to play an important role in the economy was in crisis. Despite these prob-
revolution, especially in Paris. lems, the French king and his ministers
The bourgeoisie (burzh•wah•ZEE), or continued to spend enormous sums of
middle class, was another part of the Third money on wars and court luxuries. The
Estate. This group included about 8 per- queen, Marie Antoinette, was especially
cent of the population, or 2.3 million peo- known for her extravagance and this too
ple. They owned about 20 to 25 percent of caused popular resentment. When the gov-
the land. The bourgeoisie included mer- ernment decided to spend huge sums to
chants, bankers, and industrialists, as well help the American colonists against Brit-
as professional people—lawyers, holders ain, the budget went into total crisis.
of public offices, doctors, and writers. With France on the verge of financial col-
The middle class was unhappy with the lapse, Louis XVI was forced to call a meet-
privileges held by nobles. They did not ing of the Estates-General, representatives
want to abolish the nobility, however, but of all three estates meeting together, to
to better their own position. Some bour- raise new taxes. The Estates-General had
geoisie had managed to become nobles by not met since 1614 because French kings
being appointed to public offices that con- were so powerful.
ferred noble status. About 6,500 new nobles
had been created by appointment during ✓Reading Check Identifying What groups were
the 1700s. part of the Third Estate?
The bourgeoisie also shared certain
goals with the nobles. Both were drawn to
the new political ideas of the Enlighten-
ment. In addition, both groups were
increasingly upset with a monarchical sys-
tem resting on privileges and on an old
and rigid social order. The opposition of
these elites to the old order led them to
take drastic action against the absolute
monarchy of Louis XVI. Jacques-Louis David, a representative
of the Third Estate, depicted its
challenge of the king’s authority in his
Financial Crisis painting, The Oath of the Tennis Court
Social conditions, then, formed a long- June 20th 1789.
standing background to the French Revo- 1. Analyzing Visuals From their
lution. The immediate cause of the dress, what social class do most
revolution was the near collapse of the people in the image appear to be?
French budget. Although the economy had 2. Recognizing Bias Explain why
David’s image might convey a
been expanding for fifty years, there were
biased view of this event.
periodic crises. Bad harvests in 1787 and
1788 and a slowdown in manufacturing
led to food shortages, rising prices for food,
and unemployment. One English traveler
commented on the misery of French
peasants:

PRIMARY SOURCE
“All the country girls and women are without
shoes or stockings; and the plowmen at their
work have neither shoes nor stockings to their
feet. This is a poverty that strikes at the root of
national prosperity.”
—an English traveler in France

578 SECTION 1 The French Revolution Begins

akg-images
From Estates-General to From the start, there were arguments
about voting. Traditionally, each estate
National Assembly had one vote—the First and Second
Estates could outvote the Third Estate
The Third Estate claimed the right to two to one. The Third Estate demanded
have its votes count as much as those of the First and instead that each deputy have one vote.
Second Estates. Under this new system, with the help of a
HISTORY & YOU Have you heard about a riot and few nobles and clerics, the Third Estate
wondered what made people take to the streets? Learn would then have a majority vote. The king
why Parisian workers rioted in the summer of 1789. stated that he favored the current system.
On June 17, 1789, the Third Estate
boldly declared that it was the National
Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates- Assembly and would draft a constitution.
General at Versailles on May 5, 1789. In the Three days later, on June 20, its deputies
Estates-General, the First and Second arrived at their meeting place, only to
Estates each had about 300 representatives. find the doors had been locked. They
The Third Estate had almost 600 repre- then moved to a nearby indoor tennis
sentatives. Most of the Third Estate wanted court and swore that they would continue
to set up a constitutional government that meeting until they had a new constitu-
would make the clergy and nobility pay tion. The oath they swore is known as the
taxes, too. Tennis Court Oath.

Tennis Court Oath

When the 600 delegates were locked out of Versailles,

they walked to a nearby tennis court where they swore
to meet until they had a constitution.

Bailly, the National

Assembly’s president, led
the Tennis Court Oath.

Some clergy and nobles

joined in the Oath.

akg-images
 Louis XVI prepared to use force against revolt.” “No, Sire,” replied the duke. “It is
the Third Estate. On July 14, 1789, about a revolution.”
900 Parisians gathered in the courtyard of Louis XVI was informed that he could
the Bastille (ba•STEEL)—an old fortress, no longer trust royal troops to shoot at the
used as a prison and armory. The price of mob. The king’s authority had collapsed in
bread had reached record highs, so the Paris. Meanwhile, all over France, revolts
crowd was hungry and agitated. Accord- were breaking out. Popular hatred of the
ing to rumor, the king’s troops were com- entire landholding system, with its fees
ing, and there was ammunition in the and obligations, had finally spilled over
Bastille. A group of attackers managed to into action.
lower the two drawbridges over the moat. Peasant rebellions became part of the
Members of the French Guard joined the vast panic known as the Great Fear. The
attack. After four hours of fighting, the peasants feared that the work of the
prison warden surrendered. The rebels National Assembly would be stopped by
released the seven prisoners and cut off foreign armies. Rumors spread from vil-
the prison warden’s head. Angered that lage to village that foreign troops were on
there were no munitions, the crowd demol- the way to put down the revolution. The
ished the Bastille brick by brick. Paris was peasants reacted by breaking into the
abandoned to the rebels. houses of the lords to destroy the records
When King Louis XVI returned to his of their obligations.
palace at Versailles after a day of hunting,
the duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt ✓Reading Check Examining Why did the Third
told him about the fall of the Bastille. Louis Estate object to how votes were counted in the
is said to have exclaimed, “Why, this is a Estates-General?

The King Concedes

The women marched fifteen Paris

miles from Paris to Versailles. Versailles

FRANCE
Unlike the rest, this woman is
not dressed like Parisian women
of the Third Estate.

To Versailles, to Versailles, an
18th-century engraving, depicts
French women on their way to
confront Louis XVI.
1. Making Inferences What
was the role of women in the
French Revolution?
Many of the women carried weapons 2. Drawing Conclusions What
abandoned by the French Guard after
they sided with the rebels.
was the purpose of engrav-
ings like this?

Giraudon/Art Resource, NY
End of the Old Regime The King Concedes
In the meantime, Louis XVI remained at
The National Assembly affirmed the Versailles. Used to the absolutist system,
“rights of man” and set up a limited monarchy in the he stubbornly refused to accept the
Constitution of 1791. National Assembly’s decrees. On October
HISTORY & YOU How did George III react to the 5, however, thousands of Parisian
Declaration of Independence? Read how Louis XVI women—described by an eyewitness as
reacted to the events of 1789. “detachments of women coming up from
every direction, armed with broomsticks,
The National Assembly reacted to news lances, pitchforks, swords, pistols and
of peasant rebellions and rumors of a possi- muskets”—marched to Versailles. Some
ble foreign invasion. On August 4, 1789, the of the women then met with the king.
National Assembly decided to abolish all They told him that their children were
legal privileges of the nobles and clergy. starving because there was no bread.
These women forced Louis to accept the
new decrees.
Declaration of the Rights of Man Now the crowd insisted that the king
On August 26, the National Assembly and his family come to Paris to show sup-
adopted the Declaration of the Rights of port for the National Assembly. If the king
Man and the Citizen. Inspired by the Eng- was not under their close watch, they
lish Bill of Rights of 1689 and by the Amer- feared he would rouse the kings and
ican Declaration of Independence and princes from other countries to oppose
Constitution, this charter of basic liberties reform.
began with “the natural and imprescripti- On October 6, the king and his family
ble rights of man” to “liberty, property, returned to Paris. As a goodwill gesture,
security, and resistance to oppression.” they brought wagonloads of flour from the
Reflecting Enlightenment thought, the palace storehouse. They were escorted by
declaration proclaimed that all men were women who chanted: “We are bringing
free and equal before the law, that appoint- back the baker, the baker’s wife, and
ment to public office should be based on the baker’s boy.” The king, the queen,
talent, and that no group should be exempt and their son were now virtual prisoners
from taxation. Freedom of speech and of in Paris.
the press were affirmed.
The declaration raised an important issue.
Should equal rights include women? Many
Church Reforms
deputies agreed, provided that, as one man Under the old regime, the Catholic
said, “women do not hope to exercise politi- Church had been an important pillar of the
cal rights and functions.” One writer, social and political system. The revolution-
Olympe de Gouges, refused to accept this aries felt they had to reform it too. The new
exclusion of women. Echoing the words of revolutionary government had another
the official declaration, she wrote: serious motivation, however: the need for
money. By seizing and selling off Church
lands, the National Assembly was able to
PRIMARY SOURCE
increase the state’s revenues.
”Believing that ignorance, omission, or scorn See page R43
Finally, the Church was formally brought
for the rights of woman are the only causes of to read excerpts from
under the control of the state. A law was Olympe de Gouges’s
public misfortunes and of the corruption of passed called the Civil Constitution of the Declaration of the
governments, the women have resolved to set Clergy. It said that bishops and priests Rights of Woman and
forth in a solemn declaration the natural, the Female Citizen in
were to be elected by the people, not
inalienable, and sacred rights of woman in order the Primary Source
appointed by the pope and the Church
that this declaration, constantly exposed before and Literature
all the members of the society, will ceaselessly hierarchy. The state would also pay the Library.
remind them of their rights and duties.” salaries of the bishops and priests. Because
—from Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of these changes, many Catholics became
the Female Citizen, Olympe de Gouges, 1791 enemies of the revolution.

CHAPTER 18 The French Revolution and Napoleon 581

 New Constitution and government did not have universal sup-
port. Political radicals and economically
New Fears disadvantaged people wanted more
The new Constitution of 1791 set up a reform. The king detested the new govern-
limited monarchy. There was still a king, ment’s regulation of the Church and his
but a Legislative Assembly would make loss of absolute power. While Louis resisted
the laws. The new body was designed to the new constitution, family members and
be conservative. First, only the so-called advisers urged him to take more action.
“active” citizens—men over 25 who paid a In June 1791, the royal family attempted
certain amount of taxes—could vote. All to flee France in disguise. They almost suc-
others were considered “passive” citizens ceeded in reaching allies in the east, but
with equal rights but no vote. Second, the they were recognized and were captured
method of choosing its 745 deputies meant at Varennes and brought back to Paris. In
that only relatively wealthy people would this unsettled situation, the new Legisla-
serve. Not only the clergy, but also govern- tive Assembly met for the first time in
ment officials and judges, would be elected. October 1791 and amended the constitu-
Local governments were put in charge of tion to allow for trying the king if he turned
taxation. The influence of the new govern- against the nation. Although Louis XVI
ment began to spread throughout France. publicly swore to uphold the new consti-
By 1791, the “ancien régime,” or old tution, the constitutional monarchy seemed
order, had been destroyed, but the new already doomed.

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., was an important

spokesman for the civil rights movement in the United Dr. King delivered his famous
States in the 1960s. The purpose of the civil rights “I Have A Dream” speech at the
movement was to gain equal rights for African Lincoln Memorial in Washington,
Americans. These were the same rights that the French D.C., in 1963 during the march
Third Estate had fought for nearly 200 years earlier.
for jobs and freedom.
However, Dr. King advocated nonviolent protest to
accomplish these goals.
• All men are created equal
• All men have basic rights to
liberty, property, and life

 

 

1. Comparing and Contrasting What are

some similarities and differences between
the American civil rights movement and the
French Revolution?
2. Making Inferences Why could a nonviolent
approach to change succeed in the United
States in the 1960s, but not in France in the
late 1700s?

Bob Adelman/Magnum Photos

War with Austria
Over time, some European leaders began to fear that
revolution would spread to their countries. The rulers of
Austria and Prussia even threatened to use force to
restore Louis XVI to full power. Insulted by this threat Vocabulary
and fearing attack, the Legislative Assembly decided to 1. Explain the significance of: estate, taille,
strike first, declaring war on Austria in the spring of consumer, bourgeoisie, Louis XVI, Tennis
1792. The French fared badly in the initial fighting. A Court Oath, Declaration of the Rights of
frantic search for scapegoats began. One observer in Man and the Citizen, Olympe de Gouges,
France noted: exclusion, sans-culottes.

Main Ideas
PRIMARY SOURCE 2. List the reasons for the near collapse of
“Everywhere you hear the cry that the king is betraying us, the government finances in France.
generals are betraying us, that nobody is to be trusted; . . . that Paris 3. Explain why the Catholic Church was
will be taken in six weeks by the Austrians. . . . We are on a volcano targeted for reform.
ready to spout flames.”
4. Identify five occasions when different
—An observer, 1792
groups expressed concern for equality
during the revolution using a web diagram.
Rise of the Paris Commune
Expressions of Equality
In the spring of 1792, angry citizens demonstrated to
protest food shortages and defeats in the war. In August,
Paris radicals again decided the fate of the revolution.
They declared themselves a commune—a popularly run
city council—and organized a mob attack on the royal Critical Thinking
palace and Legislative Assembly. 5. The BIG Idea Summarizing What were
The French Revolution was entering a more radical and the main affirmations of the Declaration of
violent stage. Members of the new Paris Commune took the Rights of Man and the Citizen?
the king captive. They forced the Legislative Assembly to
6. Explaining How were the social and
suspend the monarchy and to call for a National Conven- political concerns among the Three Estates
tion. This time they wanted a more radical change. All the different?
representatives who would decide the nation’s future
7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the painting
would be elected through universal male suffrage, in
of the Tennis Court Oath shown on page
which all adult males had the right to vote. This would 579. How does David’s painting reflect the
broaden the group of voters to include men who did not ideals of the French Revolution?
meet the initial standards for citizenship established by
the Assembly.
Many members of the Paris Commune proudly called
Writing About History
8. Persuasive Writing Olympe de Gouges
themselves sans-culottes, meaning “without breeches.” wrote that “ignorance, omission, or scorn
They wore long trousers, not the knee-length breeches of for the rights of woman are the only
the nobles, which identified them as ordinary patriots causes of public misfortunes and of the
without fine clothes. Often, sans-culottes are depicted as corruption of governments.” Do you agree
poor workers, but many were merchants or artisans—the or disagree? Write a paragraph supporting
elite of their neighborhoods. The revolution was entering your point of view.
a more radical phase because of the threat of foreign inter-
vention to reestablish the monarchy and because economic
conditions in France showed little improvement. This led
to calls for new measures to be taken to secure the future
of the revolution and improve the living conditions of
the people in France. (ISTORY /.,).%
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
✓Reading Check Evaluating What was the significance of the History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central™.
Constitution of 1791?

583
 A Revolution In Clothing
Throughout history, clothing has communicated a person’s social status, age,
gender, marital status, and ethnicity. Before the French Revolution, some of the
Third Estate tried to dress like the nobility. After the revolution, as the Third
Estate gained power, their clothing became the style to copy.

SECOND ESTATE
Wigs or hair
were layered into
powdered curls. According to the sumptuary
Sometimes a hat laws, only noblemen could
with feathers was carry swords.
pinned on top.
Hats were
worn on top of
elaborate wigs
or carried as an
accessory.

Hoops, crumpled paper,

or padding was used
to enlarge and fluff
the skirt.

Noblemen wore knee-

length, tight-fitting
breeches. Both men
and women wore
silk stockings.

Only nobility could

SUMPTUARY LAWS
wear satin, lace, and Before the French Revolution abolished the Three Estates, sumptuary
fur according to the laws dictated which materials, styles, and accessories could be worn by
sumptuary laws.
each estate. Even poorer nobles, who did not have many clothes, dressed in
expensive fabrics. The bourgeoisie, wealthier members of the Third Estate,
tried to imitate the style of the Second Estate. Only the sumptuary laws
prevented the bourgeoisie from “impersonating” a member of the nobility.

584
 Women of the Third Estate
Blue, white, and red were wore a hat with a badge and
symbolic colors of the their hair loose.
revolution. It was patriotic

THIRD ESTATE
to wear the bonnet rouge,
or red cap, with a circular
badge known as a tricolor
cockade.
Revolutionary women wore
man-styled jackets over
their dresses.

Practical fabrics and plain

styles replaced expensive
fabrics and fussy styles.

Revolutionaries
made a political
statement by
wearing longer
trousers. These men
became known as
the sans-culottes—
without breeches.

Both men and women shunned

high heels and wore more practical
leather or wooden shoes.

REVOLUTIONARY WEAR
ANALYZING VISUALS
1. Comparing Who sets
fashion trends today, and
During the Reign of Terror, a fashion statement became a political who inspired fashion in
statement. Former nobles and wealthy bourgeoisie learned to avoid the 1700s?
extravagant clothing. People wearing lavish clothes were often singled 2. Making Inferences
out for persecution, even execution. Revolutionary wear was simple, How do today’s clothing
peasant garb in patriotic colors. Some revolutionary attire stayed in styles make political or
style, like the pantelons, or trousers. social statements?

585
 Radical Revolution and Reaction
Just as in the American Revolution, participants in the French
GUIDE TO READING Revolution had different ideas about how to carry out
The BIG Idea revolutionary ideas and achieve their goals. The revolution tore
Struggle for Rights Radical groups France’s political, economic, and social structure apart, which
controlled the revolution, which many people made neighboring countries nervous. The French Revolution
in France and abroad opposed.
became more radical because of internal divisions and because
Content Vocabulary of fear of foreign invasion.
• faction (p. 587)
• elector (p. 593)
• coup d’état (p. 593) The Move to Radicalism
When the new government was faced with many internal crises and
Academic Vocabulary external threats, it broke into factions.
• domestic (p. 588) • external (p. 588)
HISTORY & YOU How does our Congress work to solve problems and pass
People and Events laws? Read how various factions tried to take power in France.
• Georges Danton (p. 586)
• Jean-Paul Marat (p. 586) After his flight to Varennes, Louis XVI remained on the throne
• Jacobins (p. 587) for a year, but it was a chaotic year. Unrest was fueled by continu-
• Committee of Public Safety (p. 588) ing food shortages, military setbacks, and rumors of royalist
• Maximilien Robespierre (p. 588) conspiracies. By August of 1792, the monarchy was over. Rallied
• Reign of Terror (p. 589) by the newly appointed minister of justice, Georges Danton, the
• Directory (p. 593) sans-culottes attacked the palace, and the royal family had to seek
protection from the Legislative Assembly.
Reading Strategy The powerful Paris Commune forced the Legislative Assembly
Classifying As you read, create a to call a National Convention. Before the Convention could meet,
diagram listing actions taken by the National panic and fear again gripped Paris. Rumors spread that impris-
Convention. oned nobles and other traitors were conspiring to defeat the revo-
Actions taken by the National Convention lution. Violence erupted in the streets in September, leaving
1. thousands dead. New leaders of the people emerged, including
2. Jean-Paul Marat, who published a radical journal called Friend of
3. the People. Marat defended the September massacres.
4. Soon the life of the king was at risk. The buildup to his execu-
tion began with the elections for a new National Convention.

The First Republic

In September 1792, the newly elected National Convention
began meeting. The Convention had been called to draft a new
INDIANA ACADEMIC STANDARDS constitution, but it also served as the ruling body of France. It was
World History and Civilization dominated by lawyers, professionals, and property owners. Two-
6.4 Compare and contrast the causes and thirds of its deputies were under the age of 45, but most had some
events of the American and French Revolutions
of the late eighteenth century and explain their
political experience as a result of the revolution. Almost all dis-
consequences for the growth of liberty, equality, trusted the king. It was therefore no surprise that the National
and democracy in Europe, the Americas, and Convention’s first major step on September 21 was to abolish the
other parts of the world.
monarchy and establish a republic, the French Republic.

586
 The Fate of the King

King Beheaded!
In a letter, Philipe Pinel, a physician,
described the king’s execution:

“. . . [Louis XVI] looked at the scaffold with-

out flinching. The executioner at once pro-
ceeded to perform the customary rite by
cutting off the King’s hair, which he put in
his pocket. Louis then walked up onto the
scaffold. The air was filled with the roll of
numerous drums . . . with such force that
Louis’s voice was drowned and it was only
possible to catch a few stray words like ‘I
forgive my enemies’. . .
. . . Louis was fastened onto the deadly
plank of the machine they call the guillotine
and his head was cut off so quickly that he
could hardly have suffered. This at least is a
merit belonging to the murderous instrument
. . . The executioner immediately lifted the
head from the sack into which it fell auto-
matically and displayed it [the head] to the
people. . . .
As soon as the execution had taken place,
the expression on the faces of many specta-
tors changed . . . and [they] fell to crying,
‘Vive la Nation!’ . . . but a great number
withdrew, their spirits racked with pain, to This popular print by Faucher-Gudin depicts
shed tears in the bosom of their families. As Louis XVI’s execution on January 21, 1793.
decapitations could not be performed with-
1. Predicting What does the mood after the
out spilling blood on the scaffold many per-
execution reveal about the next phase of
sons hurried to the spot to dip the end of the revolution?
their handkerchief or a piece of paper in it,
2. Evaluating Is it significant that Louis
to have a reminder of this memorable
XVI’s execution followed almost the same
event.” procedure as everyone else’s? Why or
why not?

The Fate of the King Jacobins (JA•kuh•buhns) club. Increas-

After 1789, citizens had enthusiastically ingly they felt the king needed to be exe-
formed political clubs of varying social and cuted to ensure he was not a rallying point
political views. Many deputies belonged to for opponents of the republic.
these clubs. The Girondins (juh•RAHN• Both factions, or dissenting groups,
duhns) tended to represent areas outside tried to influence the “plain,” the major-
Paris. They feared the radical mobs of Paris ity of deputies who did not belong to any
and leaned toward keeping the king alive. political club. In early 1793, the Moun-
The Mountain represented the interests of tain convinced the Convention to pass a
radicals in Paris, and many belonged to the decree condemning Louis XVI to death.

CHAPTER 18 The French Revolution and Napoleon 587

Mary Evans Picture Library
 Crises and Responses
(l) Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY, (r) Explorer/E.S. Collection/Mary Evans Picture Library

On January 21, the king was beheaded on

the guillotine. Revolutionaries had adopted Disputes between the Girondins and the
this machine because it killed quickly and, Mountain blocked the writing of a consti-
they believed, humanely. The king’s execu- tution. The Paris Commune pressured the
tion created new enemies for the revolu- National Convention to adopt more radical
tion, both at home and abroad. A new crisis measures: price controls on food and uni-
was at hand. versal male suffrage. Peasants in western
The execution of King Louis XVI rein- France and inhabitants of major provincial
forced the trend toward a new radical cities refused to accept the authority of the
phase. Henry de Firmont, a Catholic priest, Convention. Uprisings began in the west
was present at the king’s execution. He and spread to the south.
describes the events he witnessed: After Louis XVI was executed, a coali-
tion of Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal,
PRIMARY SOURCE Britain, and the Dutch Republic took up
arms against France. The French armies
“The path leading to the scaffold was extremely
began to fall back. By late spring 1793, the
rough and difficult to pass; the King was obliged
coalition was poised to invade. It seemed
to lean on my arm, and from the slowness with
which he proceeded, I feared for a moment that possible that the revolution would be
his courage might fail; but what was my destroyed, and the old regime reestab-
astonishment, when arrived at the last step, he lished. Confronted with domestic upris-
suddenly let go of my arm, and I saw him cross ings and external threats, the National
with a firm foot the breadth of the whole scaffold; Convention gave the Committee of Public
and in a loud voice, I heard him pronounce Safety broad powers. This was dominated
distinctly these words: ‘I die innocent of all the by Georges Danton, then by the radical
crimes laid to my charge; I pardon those who had Jacobin Maximilien Robespierre.
occasioned my death; and I pray to God that the
blood you are going to shed may never be visited
on France.’” ✓Reading Check Examining What were the
—Henry de Firmont differences between the Girondins and the Mountain?

Jean-Paul Marat Maximilien Robespierre

1743–1793 French Revolutionary 1758–1794 French Revolutionary

Marat earned his nickname “drinker of blood” by urging the Robespierre was one of the revolution’s
poor to take what they needed by force. As a radical Jacobin, most important leaders and a radical Jacobin.
Marat condemned the moderate Girondins. In The Death of Marat, He drew his power from the Paris Commune
Jacques-Louis David painted the murder scene and portrayed and the support of the sans-culottes. In the
Marat as a martyr to the revolution. Marat often worked in his National Convention, he preached democracy
bathtub to soothe a skin condition. In Marat’s hand is a letter and universal male suffrage. His nickname
from Charlotte Corday, a Girondin sympathizer, who asked for an was “The Incorruptible” because of his
appointment with him. Corday stabbed Marat in the reputation for integrity. His weaknesses were
bathtub and later stood trial for her crime. Why did self-righteousness and not tolerating any dif-
Marat condemn the approach of the ference of opinion. Robespierre said, “How
Girondins? can one reproach a man who has truth on his
side?” His passion in pursuing the Reign of
Terror frightened many and led to his arrest
and execution. How were Robespierre’s
views different from other revolutionaries?
The Reign of Terror ordered that no mercy be given: “The road
is strewn with corpses. Women, priests,
While the Committee of Public Safety monks, children, all have been put to death.
was in power, thousands were executed. I have spared nobody.” Perhaps the most
notorious violence occurred in Nantes,
HISTORY & YOU Can you name a government that
has executed its critics? Learn about the effects of the
where victims were executed by being
executions in France. sunk in barges in the Loire River.
People from all classes were killed during
the Terror. Clergy and nobles made up about
For roughly a year during 1793 and 1794, 15 percent of the victims, while the rest were
the Committee of Public Safety took con- from the Third Estate. The Committee of
trol of the government. To defend France Public Safety held that all this bloodletting
from domestic threats, the Committee was only temporary. Once the war and
adopted policies that became known as the domestic crisis were over, the true “Repub-
Reign of Terror. lic of Virtue” would follow, and the Decla-
ration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
Crushing Rebellion would be realized. Robespierre wrote:
As a temporary measure, revolutionary
courts were set up to prosecute counter- PRIMARY SOURCE
revolutionaries and traitors. Throughout “. . . [T]he springs of popular government in
France, almost 40,000 people were killed revolution are at once virtue and terror: virtue,
during the Reign of Terror. Of those, 16,000 without which terror is fatal; terror, without which
people, including Marie Antoinette and virtue is powerless. Terror is nothing other than
Olympe de Gouges, died by the guillotine. justice, prompt, severe, inflexible; it is therefore
Most executions occurred in towns that had an emanation of virtue.”
openly rebelled against the Convention. —Robespierre
Revolutionary armies were set up to
bring rebellious cities under the control of The Republic of Virtue
the National Convention. When the Com- In addition to the Terror, the Committee
mittee of Public Safety decided to make an of Public Safety took other steps to control
example of Lyon, 1,880 citizens of that city and shape a French society. Robespierre
were executed. When guillotining proved called this new order the Republic of Vir-
too slow, grapeshot (a cluster of small iron tue—a democratic republic composed of
balls) was used to shoot the condemned good citizens. As outward signs of support
into open graves. A foreign witness wrote: for the republic, the titles “citizen” and
“citizeness” were to replace “mister” and
PRIMARY SOURCE “madame.” Women wore long dresses
inspired by the clothing worn in the ancient
“Whole ranges of houses, always the most Roman Republic.
handsome, burnt. The churches, convents, and all Good citizens would be formed by good
the dwellings of the former patricians were in
education. A law aimed at primary educa-
ruins. When I came to the guillotine, the blood of
those who had been executed a few hours
tion for all was passed but not widely
beforehand was still running in the street. . . . I implemented. Another law abolished slav-
said to a group of sans-culottes that it would be ery in French colonies.
decent to clear away all this human blood. Why Because people were alarmed about high
should it be cleared? one of them said to me. It’s inflation, the Committee tried to control
the blood of aristocrats and rebels. The dogs the prices of essential goods like food, fuel,
should lick it up.” and clothing. The controls did not work
—a German observer at Lyon, 1793 well, however, because the government
had no way to enforce them.
In western France, too, revolutionary From the beginning, women had been
armies were brutal in defeating rebels. The active participants in the revolution,
commander of the revolutionary army although they had no official power.

CHAPTER 18 The French Revolution and Napoleon 589

 During the radical stage of the revolution, paraded before a temple of reason where
women observed sessions of the National the high altar had once stood.
Convention and were not shy about mak- Another example of de-Christianization
ing their demands. was the adoption of a new calendar. Years
In 1793, two women founded the Society would no longer be numbered from the
for Revolutionary Republican Women in birth of Christ but from September 22,
Paris. Most members were working-class 1792—the first day of the French Republic
women who asserted that they were ready and the autumnal equinox. The calendar
to defend the republic. Most men, how- contained 12 months. Each month con-
ever, believed that women should not par- sisted of three 10-day weeks, with the tenth
ticipate in either politics or the military. day of each week a day of rest.
The Convention also pursued a policy of The months were given new names that
de-Christianization. Its members believed referred to agriculture or the climate. Ven-
that the religion encouraged superstition, démiaire, which started in September, meant
rather than the use of reason. The word “vintage time.” These changes in the cal-
saint was removed from street names, endar had a significant effect on religion in
churches were looted and closed by revo- France, eliminating Sundays, Sunday wor-
lutionary armies, and priests were encour- ship services, and church holidays.
aged to marry. In Paris, the cathedral of Robespierre came to realize, however,
Notre Dame, the center of the Catholic reli- that most French people would not accept
gion in France, was designated a “temple these efforts at de-Christianization. France
of reason.” In November 1793, a public was still overwhelmingly Catholic.
ceremony dedicated to the worship of rea-
son was held in the former cathedral. Patri- ✓Reading Check Analyzing How did the
otic young girls dressed in white dresses Committee of Public Safety identify enemies of the state?

August 1793
Committee of October 1793
Public Safety 1,880 citizens of
institutes a levee Lyon executed as
en masse, example to
drafting men into enemies of the
the army revolution

French army recruits

January 1793
Louis XVI
executed after a October 1793
380 to 310 vote March 1793 The Revolutionary
Revolts begin in Calendar is
western France; introduced
counterrevolutionaries
February 1793 executed; anti-Catholic
European monarchs laws passed
rally troops to
restore French
monarchy Secret mass

590 SECTION 2 Radical Revolution and Reaction

(l) Musée Carnavalet, Paris/Giraudon/Bridgeman Art Library, (r) Mary Evans Picture Library
 defenders of the Patrie [homeland] will receive
A Nation in Arms the help that their wounds require. Children will
make lint of old cloth. It is for them that we are
A huge revolutionary army defended
fighting: children, those beings destined to gather
France against invasion.
all the fruits of the revolution, will raise their pure
HISTORY & YOU How would you feel if every hands toward the skies. And old men, performing
young person in your town was drafted? Read to their missions again, as of yore, will be guided to
learn the French reaction to a national draft in 1793. the public squares of the cities where they will
kindle the courage of young warriors and preach
the doctrines of hate for kings and the unity of
As foreign troops gathered on its borders, the Republic.”
the revolution seemed to be in danger. To —from the mobilization decree, August 23, 1793
save the republic, the Committee of Public
Safety issued a decree to raise an army:
Rise of the Revolutionary Army
In less than a year, the new French gov-
PRIMARY SOURCE ernment had raised a huge army—by Sep-
tember 1794, it had over a million soldiers.
“Young men will fight, young men are called It was the largest army ever seen in Europe,
to conquer. Married men will forge arms, transport
and it pushed the invaders back across the
military baggage and guns and will prepare food
Rhine. It even conquered the Austrian
supplies. Women, who at long last are to take
their rightful place in the revolution and follow Netherlands. In earlier times, wars were
their true destiny, will forget their futile tasks: the business of rulers who fought rivals
their delicate hands will work at making clothes with professional soldiers. The new French
for soldiers; they will make tents and they will army was created by a people’s govern-
extend their tender care to shelters where the ment. Its wars were people’s wars.

February 1794
Robespierre addresses “On July 1794
Political Morality” to the Committee of
Convention, stating that a Public Safety
combination of virtue and orders
terror would save the Robespierre’s
Republic from its enemies execution

Robespierre at the guillotine

June 1794
Law of 22
Prairial gives
Robespierre August 1794
more power; Law of 22 1. Determining Cause and
French army Prairial repealed; Effect What did the execu-
ends threat of release of tion of Louis XVI set in motion
foreign in France and in the rest of
prisoners begins
invasion Europe?
2. Drawing Conclusions
Explain why the Reign of
Terror came to an end.
French victory at Fleurus

(l) Private Collection/Bridgeman Art Library, (r) Archivo Iconografico, S.A./CORBIS

 End of the Terror decided to act, lest they be the next vic-
By the summer of 1794, the French had tims. They gathered enough votes to con-
largely defeated their foreign foes. There demn him, and Robespierre was guillotined
was less need for the Reign of Terror, but it on July 28, 1794.
continued nonetheless. Robespierre was After the death of Robespierre, the Jaco-
obsessed with ridding France of all the bins lost power and more moderate
corrupt elements. Only then could the middle-class leaders took control. The
Republic of Virtue follow. Reign of Terror came to a halt. In August
In June 1794, the Law of 22 Prairial was 1794, the Law of 22 Prairial was repealed
passed, which gave Robespierre more and the release of prisoners began.
power to arrest and execute enemies of the
revolution. Deputies in the National ✓Reading Check Evaluating How did the
Convention who feared Robespierre revolutionary army help to create nationalism?

Evaluating the Terror

‘’—all perished, all—

Friends, enemies, of all parties, ages, ranks,
Head after head, and never heads enough
For those that bade them fall.“
—William Wordsworth, The Prelude, Book X, Residence
in France

Percentages of Victims
of the Terror by Class
First Estate—Clergy 8%
Second Estate—
Nobility 10%

Third Estate—Peasants
to Bourgeoisie 82%

Source: Guide de la Révolution Française.

The Radical’s Arms by George Cruikshank

shows the British view of the Reign of Terror.
The banner above the guillotine reads, “No
God! No King! No Religion! No Constitution!”
1. Identifying Points of View What opinion
of the Terror do Wordsworth and
Cruikshank share?
2. Making Inferences Wordsworth’s poem
seems to indicate that “all parties, ages,
ranks” suffered equally during the Terror.
Do the charts on this page and on page
341 support or challenge this view?

George Cruikshank, The Radical’s Arms, November 13, 1819. Etching with hand coloring. Published by George Humphrey, London, England. Collection of the Grunwald Center for the Graphic
Arts, Hammer Museum, UCLA. Richard Vogler Cruikshank Collection
The Directory
The Constitution of 1795 set up a new government, but it
was unable to inspire trust or solve economic problems.
HISTORY & YOU What kind of government did Americans have after Vocabulary
1781? Read to learn about France’s government after Robespierre. 1. Explain the significance of: Georges
Danton, Jean-Paul Marat, Jacobins, faction,
domestic, external, Committee of Public
With the Terror over, the National Convention moved in Safety, Maximilien Robespierre, Reign of
a more conservative direction. First, it restricted the power Terror, elector, Directory, coup d’état.
of the Committee of Public Safety. Next, churches were
allowed to reopen. Finally, a new constitution was Main Ideas
created. 2. How were most members of the National
To keep any one political group from gaining control, Convention elected in 1792 alike in their
the Constitution of 1795 set up two legislative houses. A political views?
lower house, the Council of 500, drafted laws. An upper 3. Explain both the similarities and the
house of 250, the Council of Elders, accepted or rejected differences between the Girondins and the
proposed laws. Mountain.
The method for election shows that the new govern- 4. Use a table like the one below to contrast
ment was much more conservative than the government government policy during and after the rule
of Robespierre. Members of both houses were chosen by of Robespierre.
electors, or qualified voters. Only those who owned or
rented property worth a certain amount could be elec- During After
tors—only 30,000 people in the whole nation qualified.
This was a significant change from the universal male suf-
frage the Paris Commune had demanded.
Under the new constitution, the executive was a com-
mittee of five called the Directory. The Council of Elders Critical Thinking
5. The BIG Idea Examining Did the
chose the Directors from a list presented by the Council of
French Republic live up to the revolution’s
500. The Directory, which lasted from 1795 to 1799, became ideals of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity?
known mainly for corruption. People reacted against the Write a paragraph to support your opinion.
sufferings and sacrifices that had been demanded in the
6. Summarizing What conditions led to the
Reign of Terror. Some people made fortunes from govern-
Reign of Terror? How did the Committee of
ment contracts or by loaning the government money at Public Safety defend its brutal actions
very high interest rates. They took advantage of the gov- against the people?
ernment’s severe money problems during these difficult
7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the painting
times.
shown on page 588. Explain whether you
At the same time, the government of the Directory faced think this is a realistic depiction of Marat’s
political enemies from both conservatives and radicals. murder or whether the artist is promoting a
Some people wanted to bring back the monarchy, while particular version of events.
others plotted to create a more radical regime like Robe-
spierre’s. Likewise, economic problems continued with no
Writing About History
solution in sight. Finally, France was still conducting 8. Expository Writing Propaganda is
expensive wars against foreign enemies. information spread to help or hurt a cause.
To stay in power, the Directory began to rely on the mili- How does the mobilization decree quoted on
tary, but one military leader turned on the government. page 591 fit the definition of propaganda?
In 1799 the successful and popular general Napoleon Support your argument in an essay.
Bonaparte toppled the Directory in a coup d’état (koo
day•TAH), a sudden overthrow of the government.
Napoleon then seized power.
(ISTORY /.,).%
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
✓Reading Check Describing Describe the government that History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central™.
replaced the National Convention.

593
 Who Should Be a Citizen?
What is a citizen? One definition is a free person who owes loyalty to a nation and
who receives protection, rights, and privileges in return.
Who should be a citizen? At the time of the American Revolution only free, white
adult males who owned property or paid taxes could vote. By 1870, all adult males
“regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude” were granted the right
to vote, but it was 1920 before American women could vote.
In France, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen addressed social
distinctions, but opinions differed on how to interpret the document. Read the
excerpts from Robespierre and d’Aelders and study Fragonard’s painting to see
how they viewed citizenship and the continuing struggle for rights.

SOURCE 1 SOURCE 2

In this speech from October 1789, Maximilien Etta Palm d’Aelders was a woman active in
Robespierre stated his view on property a reform group called the Cercle Social (Social
requirements for holding office and voting. Circle). D’Aelders expressed her opinions in
“The Injustices of the Laws and Favor of Men
at the Expense of Women” (December, 1790).

All citizens, whoever they are, have the right Do not be just by halves, Gentlemen; . . . jus-
to aspire to all levels of office-holding. Nothing tice must be the first virtue of free men, and jus-
is more in line with your declaration of rights, tice demands that the laws be the same for all
according to which all privileges, all distinc- beings, like the air and the sun. And yet every-
tions, all exceptions must disappear. The where, the laws favor men at the expense of
Constitution establishes that sovereignty1 women, because everywhere power is in your
resides in the people, in all the individuals of hands. What! Will free men, an enlightened peo-
the people. Each individual therefore has the ple living in a century of enlightenment and phi-
right to participate in making the law which losophy, will they consecrate3 what has been the
governs him and in the administration of the abuse of power in a century of ignorance? . . .
public good which is his own. If not, it is not The prejudices with which our sex has been
true that all men are equal in rights, that every surrounded—supported by unjust laws which
man is a citizen. If he who only pays a tax only accord us a secondary existence in society
equivalent to a day of work has fewer rights and which often force us into the humiliating
than he who pays the equivalent to three days necessity of winning over the cantankerous4
of work, and he who pays at the level of ten and ferocious character of a man, who, by the
days has more rights than he whose tax only greed of those close to us has become our
equals that value of three, then he who enjoys master—those prejudices have changed what
100,000 livres [French pounds] of revenue has was for us the sweetest and most saintly of
100 times as many rights as he who only has duties, those of wife and mother, into a painful
1,000 livres of revenue. It follows from all your and terrible slavery. . . .
decrees2 that every citizen has the right to par- Oh! Gentlemen, if you wish us to be enthusi-
ticipate in making the law and consequently astic about the happy constitution that gives
that of being an elector or eligible for office back men their rights, then begin by being just
without the distinction of wealth. toward us. From now on we should be your
voluntary companions and not your slaves. Let
us merit your attachment!

1 sovereignty: power; authority 3 consecrate: make sacred

2 decrees: authoritative decisions; declarations 4 cantankerous: having a bad disposition; quarrelsome

594 CHAPTER 18 The French Revolution and Napoleon

 Boissy d’Anglas salutes the head of the deputy Feraud, May 20, 1795, by Alexandre Fragonard

SOURCE 3

On May 20, 1795, an angry mob in the 1. Analyzing What does Robespierre think about
Convention hacked the head off deputy Feraud basing citizenship on whether a person has
and presented it to the chairman, Boissy property or pays taxes?
d’Anglas, who saluted the head. After this 2. Explaining What does d’Aelders mean by
incident, d’Anglas presented measures to women’s “secondary existence in society”?
prevent the return of the Reign of Terror and to 3. Drawing Inferences What do you think
take precautions against anarchy5. Fragonard’s opinion might have been of univer-
Usually the crowds in the balcony were sal suffrage—the right of all citizens to vote?
merely rowdy, insulting and threatening the 4. Comparing Although Robespierre was not a
deputies. At times like the one in the painting, supporter of equal rights for women, list some
they became a mob, invading the chamber similarities between his and d’Aelders’s
and killing deputies with whom they dis- arguments.
agreed. Some leaders thought the poor and 5. Contrasting How does d’Aelders’s portrayal of
the uneducated would take over the govern- women contrast with Fragonard’s?
ment, leading to violence and disorder. They 6. Drawing Conclusions Does universal suffrage
feared “mob rule.” mean anarchy or mob rule? How would you
answer the question “Who should be a citizen?”
Which source has a position most like your own?

5 anarchy: state of lawlessness based on lack of government

authority

CHAPTER 18 The French Revolution and Napoleon 595

Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY
 The Age of Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte dominated French and European history
GUIDE TO READING from 1799 to 1815. During his reign, Napoleon built and lost
The BIG Idea an empire and also spread ideas about nationalism in Europe.
Self-Determination As Napoleon built his
empire across Europe, he also spread the revolu-
tionary idea of nationalism. The Rise of Napoleon
Content Vocabulary Napoleon, a popular general, overthrew the Directory, set up a new
• consulate (p. 598) government, and eventually took complete power.
• nationalism (p. 602) HISTORY & YOU What qualities do you look for in a political leader? Learn what
made the French follow Napoleon.
Academic Vocabulary
• capable (p. 599)
• liberal (p. 601) Napoleon Bonaparte’s role in the French Revolution is com-
plex. In one sense, he brought it to an end when he came to power
in 1799. Yet he was a child of the revolution as well. Without it, he
People and Events
• Napoleon Bonaparte (p. 596)
would never have risen to power, and he himself never failed to
• Civil Code (p. 599)
remind the French that he had preserved the best parts of the rev-
• Anne-Louise-Germaine de Staël (p. 599)
olution during his reign as emperor.
• Duke of Wellington (p. 603)
Early Life
Reading Strategy Napoleon was born in 1769 in Corsica, an island in the Mediter-
Explaining As you read, use a diagram ranean, only a few months after France had annexed the island.
like the one below to list the achievements of His father came from minor nobility in Italy, but the family was
Napoleon’s rule. not rich. Napoleon was talented, however, and won a scholarship
to a famous military school.
Achievements of When he completed his studies, Napoleon was commissioned
Napoleon’s Rule as a lieutenant in the French army. Although he became one of
the world’s greatest generals and a man beloved by his soldiers,
there were few signs of his future success at this stage. He spoke
with an Italian accent and was not popular with his fellow
officers.
Napoleon devoted himself to his goals. He read what French
INDIANA ACADEMIC STANDARDS philosophers had to say about reason, and he studied famous
World History and Civilization
military campaigns. When revolution and war with Europe came
6.4 Compare and contrast the causes and
events of the American and French Revolutions about, there were many opportunities for Napoleon to use his
of the late eighteenth century and explain their knowledge and skills.
consequences for the growth of liberty, equality,
and democracy in Europe, the Americas, and
other parts of the world.
6.7 Analyze and evaluate the influence of
Military Successes
Christianity, the Enlightenment, and democratic Napoleon rose quickly through the ranks. In 1792 he became a
revolutions and ideas in various regions of the captain. Two years later, at age 24, the Committee of Public Safety
world.
7.1 Discuss the rise of nation-states and nation-
made him a brigadier general. In 1796 he became commander of
alism in Europe, North America, and Asia and the French armies in Italy. There Napoleon won a series of battles
explain the causes, main events, and global with qualities he became famous for—speed, surprise, and deci-
consequences of imperialism from these areas.
sive action. Napoleon defeated the armies of the Papal States and

596
 Napoleon’s mother
actually did not
attend, but
Napoleon told The Coronation of the Emperor Napoleon I
David to add her.

New crowns were made

because the originals were lost
during the revolution.

Pope Pius VII is shown

giving his blessing.

David and his students painted 191

portraits, including Josephine’s
children, Napoleon’s siblings, David’s
family, and important dignitaries.

This detail of The Coronation of the Emperor Napoleon I by

Jacques-Louis David shows Napoleon crowning the Empress
Josephine on December 2, 1804. The complete painting,
located at the Louvre, is 20 feet by 32 feet.
1. Describing How is Napoleon portrayed in this painting?
2. Making Inferences How does the painting glorify and
legitimize the Empire?

their Austrian allies. These victories gave Instead, Napoleon suggested striking indi-
France control of northern Italy. Through- rectly at Britain by taking Egypt.
out the Italian campaigns, Napoleon’s Egypt lay on the route to India, a major
energy and initiative earned him the devo- source of British wealth and therefore one
tion of his troops. His keen intelligence, of Britain’s most important colonies. Napo-
ease with words, and supreme self-confi- leon’s goal of taking Egypt was never met,
dence allowed him to win the support of however. The British were a great sea power
those around him. and controlled the Mediterranean. By 1799,
In 1797 he returned to France as a hero. the British had defeated the French naval
He was given command of an army in forces supporting Napoleon’s army in
training to invade Britain, but he knew the Egypt. Seeing certain defeat, Napoleon
French could not carry out that invasion. abandoned his army and returned to Paris.

CHAPTER 18 The French Revolution and Napoleon 597

Art Archive/Dagli Orti
Consul and Emperor Napoleon’s Domestic

Kress Collection, Washington, D.C./Bridgeman Art Library

In Paris, Napoleon took part in the coup
d’état of 1799 that overthrew the Directory Policies
and set up a new government, the
Napoleon brought stability to France
consulate. In theory, it was a republic, but, and established a single law code that recognized the
in fact, Napoleon held absolute power. equality of all citizens before the law.
Napoleon was called first consul, a title
HISTORY & YOU How would you feel if a govern-
borrowed from ancient Rome. He appointed
ment official checked all your mail before you read it?
officials, controlled the army, conducted Read how many of Napoleon’s policies reduced freedom.
foreign affairs, and influenced the legisla-
ture. In 1802 Napoleon was made consul
for life. Two years later, he crowned him- Napoleon once claimed that he had pre-
self Emperor Napoleon I. served the gains of the revolution. Since he
destroyed the republican form of govern-
✓Reading Check Describing What personal ment when he took power, how could
qualities gained Napoleon so much popular support? Napoleon make this assertion? As we look

Napoleon’s rule had a direct connection to expansion in the United States.

In 1803 Napoleon sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States for
$15 million. The boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase ran from the Mississippi
River to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian
border. This sale has been called the greatest land deal in history.
The Louisiana Territory was originally claimed by France in 1682, went to
Spain in 1763, and back to France in 1800. This last exchange closed the port
of New Orleans to Americans. President Thomas Jefferson sent two ministers
to France to address the problem. They threatened to create an alliance with
Great Britain if the French failed to respond. Napoleon offered the entire
territory for sale, an offer Jefferson couldn’t resist.
• Napoleon gained $15 million for his military
campaigns, particularly against Great Britain, and
he could now focus on his European campaigns
rather than on struggles across the Atlantic.
• The United States doubled in size and gained full
control of the Mississippi River, along with resources
such as minerals, farm and grazing land, forests,
and wildlife.

 

 

1. Explaining Why did Napoleon sell the

Louisiana Territory?
2. Making Connections Why was it important
for the United States to control New Orleans?
at Napoleon’s domestic policies, it will be When they married, they lost control over
possible to judge whether the emperor’s any property they had. They could not tes-
claims had any merit. tify in court, and it became more difficult History
ONLINE
for them to begin divorce proceedings. In
Student Web
Peace with the Church general, the code treated women like chil- Activity—
One of Napoleon’s first moves at home dren, who needed protection and who did Visit glencoe.com to
was to establish peace with the Catholic not have a public role. learn more about
Napoleon Bonaparte.
Church, the oldest enemy of the revolu-
tion. In matters of religion, Napoleon him- A New Bureaucracy
self was a man of the Enlightenment. He Napoleon is also well known because he
believed in reason and felt that religion created a strong, centralized adminis-
was at most a social convenience. Since tration. He focused on developing a
most of the French were Catholic, Napo- bureaucracy of capable officials. Early on,
leon felt it was good policy to mend rela- the regime showed that it did not care
tions with the Church. about rank or birth. Public officials and
In 1801 Napoleon came to an agreement military officers alike were promoted based
with the pope, which recognized Catholi- on their ability. Opening careers to men of
cism as the religion of a majority of the talent was a reform that the middle class
French people. In return, the pope would had clamored for before the revolution.
not ask for the return of the church lands Napoleon also created a new aristocracy
seized in the revolution. based on meritorious service to the nation.
With this agreement, the Catholic Church Between 1808 and 1814, Napoleon created
was no longer an enemy of the French about 3,200 nobles. Nearly 60 percent were
government. It also meant that people military officers, while the rest were civil
who had acquired church lands in the rev- service or state and local officials. Socially,
olution became avid supporters of only 22 percent of this new aristocracy were
Napoleon. from noble families of the old regime; about
60 percent were middle class in origin.
Codification of the Laws
Napoleon’s most famous domestic
achievement was to codify the laws. Before
Preserver of the Revolution?
the revolution, France had almost 300 dif- In his domestic policies, then, Napoleon
ferent legal systems. During the revolu- did keep some major reforms of the French
tion, efforts were made to prepare a single Revolution. Under the Civil Code, all citi-
law code for the entire nation. However, zens were equal before the law. The con-
the work was not completed until Napo- cept of opening government careers to
leon’s reign. more people was another gain of the revo-
Seven law codes were created, but the lution that he retained.
most important was the Civil Code, or On the other hand, Napoleon destroyed
Napoleonic Code, introduced in 1804. It some revolutionary ideals. Liberty was
preserved many of the principles that the replaced by a despotism that grew increas-
revolutionaries had fought for: equality of ingly arbitrary, in spite of protests by such
all citizens before the law; the right of the citizens as the prominent writer Anne-
individual to choose a profession; religious Louise-Germaine de Staël. Napoleon shut
toleration; and the abolition of serfdom down 60 of France’s 73 newspapers and
and all feudal obligations. banned books, including de Staël’s. He
For women and children, the Civil Code insisted that all manuscripts be subjected
was a step back. During the radical stage to government scrutiny before they were
of the revolution, new laws had made published. Even the mail was opened by
divorce easier and allowed children, even government police.
daughters, to inherit property on an equal
basis. The Civil Code undid these laws. ✓Reading Check Evaluating What was the
Women were now “less equal than men.” overall effect of Napoleon’s Civil Code?

CHAPTER 18 The French Revolution and Napoleon 599

 SPREADING THE PRINCIPLES OF
THE REVOLUTION
As a result of his conquests, Napoleon spread Napoleon’s Family & His Empire (1799–1812)
revolutionary ideals and nationalism throughout
RELATIVE TITLE DATE
Europe. To ensure loyalty, Napoleon installed his
relatives on the thrones of the lands he conquered. A Caroline [sister] & Joachim Murat Duke and Duchess of
1806
When Napoleon named his brother Jerome king of Berg
Westphalia, he explained the importance of B Jerome [brother] Bonaparte King of Westphalia 1807
spreading the principles of the French Revolution.
Princess of Lucca and 1806
“What the peoples of Germany desire most C Elisa [sister] Bacciochi Piombino
impatiently is that talented commoners should Duchess of Tuscany 1809
have the same right to your esteem and to
King and Queen of
public employments as the nobles, that any D Caroline [sister] & Joachim Murat 1808
Naples
trace of serfdom . . . should be completely
abolished. . . . The peoples of Germany, the E Pauline [sister] Borghese Duchess of Guastalla 1806
peoples of France, of Italy, of Spain all desire
equality and liberal ideas. . . . The buzzing of the F Prince Eugène de Beauharnais Viceroy of Italy 1805–
privileged classes is contrary to the general [Napoleon’s stepson] Prince of Venice 1807
opinion. Be a constitutional king.”
—Napoleon Bonaparte G Louis [brother] Bonaparte
King and Queen of 1806–
& Hortense de Beauharnais
Holland 1810
[Napoleon’s stepdaugher]

H Joseph [brother] Bonaparte King of Spain 1806

NAPOLEONIC EUROPE, 1799–1812

KINGDOM France, 1799
OF DENMARK French Empire, 1812
AND NORWAY SWEDEN Dependent states, 1812
N States allied withMoscow
Napoleon, 1812
a

Se
50
°N W North States allied against Napoleon, 1812
UNITED c
Sea lti
E KINGDOM Ba French victory
S
SIA 20°E 30°E 40°E
London G PRUS
RHI ION

Berlin
GRAND
NE

B Jena
T

DUCHY OF
OF EDERA

AT L A N T I C 1806 WARSAW
THE

OCEAN Paris A
F

RUSSIAN EMPIRE
CON

Austerlitz
Ulm 1805
FRENCH 1805 Vienna
EMPIRE SWITZ. AUSTRIAN
EMPIRE
E
KI F I
NG TA

40°
O

N 1. Location In which areas

L

DO LY
GA

H
C would you expect the ideals
M
U

Madrid of the revolution to be

RT

F
Corsica popular? Why?
PO

Elba D
S PA I N
KINGDOM 2. Regions If Napoleon had not
OF NAPLES established his empires, do
Sardinia
Strait of you think the same ideas
Gibraltar Medite would have spread in
0° r rane Europe? Why or why not?
an
Se Sicily
a See StudentWorks™ Plus
0 400 kilometers AFRICA or glencoe.com.
10°E
Crete
0 400 miles
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
Napoleon’s Empire against Britain. These states included
Prussia, Austria, Russia, and Sweden.
As Napoleon conquered Europe, he
spread nationalist ideas. Inspired by those ideas, con- Spreading the Principles
quered peoples resisted Napoleon’s armies and
helped bring about the collapse of his empire. of the Revolution
HISTORY & YOU How would Americans react to a Within his empire, Napoleon sought to
foreign country dictating trade policy to their govern- spread some of the principles of the French
ment? Read how Napoleon tried to bar trade with Revolution, including legal equality, reli-
Britain. gious toleration, and economic freedom. In
the inner core and dependent states of his
Grand Empire, Napoleon tried to destroy
Napoleon is, of course, known less for the old order. The nobility and the clergy
his domestic policies than for his military everywhere in these states lost their spe-
leadership. His conquests began soon after cial privileges. Napoleon decreed equality
he rose to power. of opportunity with offices open to those
with ability, equality before the law, and
religious toleration. The spread of French
Building the Empire revolutionary principles was an important
When Napoleon became consul in 1799, factor in the development of liberal tradi-
France was at war with a European coali- tions in these countries.
tion of Russia, Great Britain, and Austria. Like Hitler 130 years later, Napoleon
Napoleon realized the need for a pause in hoped that his Grand Empire would last
the war. “The French Revolution is not fin- for centuries, but his empire collapsed
ished,” he said, “so long as the scourge of almost as rapidly as it was formed. Two
war lasts. . . . I want peace, as much to set- major reasons help explain this collapse:
tle the present French government, as to Britain’s ability to resist Napoleon and the
save the world from chaos.” In 1802 a peace rise of nationalism.
treaty was signed, but it did not last long.
War with Britain broke out again in 1803.
Gradually, Britain was joined by Austria, British Resistance
Russia, Sweden, and Prussia. In a series of Napoleon was never able to conquer
battles at Ulm, Austerlitz, Jena, and Eylau Great Britain because of its sea power,
from 1805 to 1807, Napoleon’s Grand Army which made it almost invulnerable. Napo-
defeated the Austrian, Prussian, and Rus- leon hoped to invade Britain, but the Brit-
sian armies. ish defeated the combined French-Spanish
From 1807 to 1812, Napoleon was the fleet at Trafalgar in 1805. This battle ended
master of Europe. His Grand Empire was Napoleon’s plans for invasion.
composed of three major parts: the French Napoleon then turned to his Continental
Empire, dependent states, and allied states. System to defeat Britain. The aim of the
The French Empire was the inner core of Continental System was to stop British
the Grand Empire. It consisted of an goods from reaching the European conti-
enlarged France extending to the Rhine in nent to be sold there. By weakening Britain
the east and including the western half of economically, Napoleon would destroy its
Italy north of Rome. ability to wage war.
Dependent states were kingdoms ruled The Continental System also failed.
by relatives of Napoleon. Eventually these Allied states resented being told by Napo-
included Spain, Holland, the kingdom of leon that they could not trade with the
Italy, the Swiss Republic, the Grand Duchy British. Some began to cheat. Others
of Warsaw, and the Confederation of the resisted. Furthermore, new markets in the
Rhine—a union of all German states except Middle East and in Latin America gave
Austria and Prussia. Britain new outlets for its goods. Indeed,
Allied states were countries defeated by by 1810, British overseas exports were at
Napoleon and then forced to join his struggle near-record highs.

CHAPTER 18 The French Revolution and Napoleon 601

 Nationalism The Fall of Napoleon
A second important factor in the defeat of
Napoleon was nationalism. Nationalism is After major losses in Russia and
the sense of unique identity of a people Austria, Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.
based on common language, religion, and HISTORY & YOU Today there are some rulers who
national symbols. Nationalism was one of go into exile to avoid prosecution in their homelands.
the most important forces of the nineteenth Read why in 1815 the French government exiled
century. A new era was born when the French Napoleon.
people decided that they were the nation.
Napoleon marched his armies through
Napoleon’s downfall began in 1812
the Germanies, Spain, Italy, and Poland,
when he decided to invade Russia. Within
arousing new ideas of nationalism in two
only a few years, his fall was complete.
ways. First, the conquered peoples became
united in their hatred of the invaders. Sec-
ond, the conquered peoples saw the power Disaster in Russia
and strength of national feeling. It was a The Russians had refused to remain in
lesson not lost on them or their rulers. the Continental System, leaving Napoleon
with little choice but to invade. He knew
✓Reading Check Explaining Why did being a sea the risks in invading such a large country,
power help Britain to survive an attack by the French? but he also knew that if he did not punish

DISASTER IN RUSSIA
30°E 35°E
N 40°E
Russia had rebelled against the Continental System, 0 100 kilometers
so Napoleon invaded in 1812 to force his ally to comply. 0 100 miles W
E
His Grand Army was used to striking quickly and living Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
S
off the land, but the Russians were ready for him.
September 7 — Borodino In the only full-scale
battle between them, the French defeated the September 14 — Moscow As
French advance Russians but lost 30,000 men. Napoleon arrived, the Russians
RUSSIAN set fire to Moscow, destroying
W

French retreat
Baltic EMPIRE
e st

three-quarters of the city.

ern

Sea August 16 –18 — Smolensk After three

June 24, 1812 — Neman Napoleon’s Dvina R. Moscow
R. days of fighting, Napoleon led his tired skva
army of 600,000 crossed the Neman Borodino Mo
Polotsk army deeper into Russia.
River, following the retreating Russians.
Glubokoye Vitebsk 55°N
Oka R.
Kovno Maloyaroslavets
PRUSSIA
Berezina

Smolensk October 19 — Moscow After

December 13, 1812 — Neman Vilna waiting five weeks for the Russians
The remaining 40,000 of the Borisov to surrender, the French retreated
Molodechno November 9 — Smolensk There
R.

Grand Army crossed the Neman without food or supplies.

River, leaving Russia. were not enough supplies to feed
Dnieper R.

Minsk the starving French.

November 26–29 — Berezina Thousands of Napoleon’s

GRAND DUCHY troops died crossing the river to escape the Russians.
OF WARSAW

Napoleon’s 1812 Russian Campaign*

Advancing Retreating 1. Human-Environment
Interaction How did the
June 24 Oct. 19 Russians use their environ-
ment to defeat the French?
Aug. 16–18 Nov. 9 2. Movement Napoleon was
known for setting traps.
Sept. 7 Dec. 13 Using the map and the
graph, explain how he fell
= 10,000 French soldiers *These figures are approximations.
into a Russian trap.
Source: Dictionary of Napoleonic Wars. 50°N
the Russians for ignoring the Continental System, other
nations would follow suit.
In June 1812, a Grand Army of more than 600,000 men
entered Russia. Napoleon’s hopes depended on a quick
victory over the Russians. The Russian forces, however,
refused to do battle. Instead they retreated for hundreds of Vocabulary
1. Explain the significance of: Napoleon
miles. As they retreated, they burned their own villages
Bonaparte, consulate, Civil Code, capable,
and countryside to keep Napoleon’s army from finding Anne-Louise-Germaine de Staël, liberal,
food. When the Russians did fight at Borodino, Napoleon’s nationalism, Duke of Wellington.
forces won an indecisive victory, which cost many lives.
When the Grand Army finally reached Moscow, they
Main Ideas
found the city ablaze. Lacking food and supplies for his
2. What were four major principles that were
army, Napoleon abandoned the Russian capital in late Octo- reflected in the Civil Code?
ber. As the winter snows began, Napoleon led the “Great
3. List the powers Napoleon exercised as first
Retreat” west across Russia. Thousands of soldiers starved
consul.
and froze along the way. Fewer than 40,000 of the original
600,000 soldiers arrived back in Poland in January 1813. 4. Using a diagram like this one, identify the
This military disaster led other European states to rise reasons for the rise and fall of Napoleon.
up and attack the crippled French army. Paris was cap- Napoleon’s Rise and Fall
tured in March 1814. Napoleon was soon sent into exile on Rise
the island of Elba, off the northwest coast of Italy. The vic-
torious powers restored monarchy to France in the person
of Louis XVIII, brother of the executed king, Louis XVI. Fall

The Final Defeat Critical Thinking

The new king had little support, and the French people 5. The BIG Idea Summarizing How did
were not ready to surrender the glory of empire. Nor was nationalism unify the people in countries
Napoleon ready to give up. Restless in exile, he left the that Napoleon invaded? Write a paragraph
island of Elba and slipped back into France. The new king defining the importance of nationalism to
the ultimate downfall of Napoleon.
sent troops to capture Napoleon, who opened his coat and
addressed them: “Soldiers of the 5th regiment, I am your 6. Connecting Events How did the principles
Emperor. . . . If there is a man among you [who] would kill of the French Revolution spread throughout
his Emperor, here I am!” Europe?
No one fired a shot. Shouting “Vive l’Empereur! Vive 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the portrait on
l’Empereur!”—“Long live the Emperor! Long live the page 598. How does David portray
Emperor!”—the troops went over to his side. On March Napoleon, and why do you think Napoleon
20, 1815, Napoleon entered Paris in triumph. wanted artists to produce paintings like
this one?
Russia, Great Britain, Austria, and Prussia responded to
Napoleon’s return. They again pledged to defeat the man
they called the “Enemy and Disturber of the Tranquility of Writing About History
the World.” Meanwhile, Napoleon raised another French 8. Persuasive Writing Was Napoleon an
army of devoted veterans who rallied from all over France. enlightened ruler or a tyrant? Write a paper
supporting your view. Be sure to include
He then readied an attack on the allied troops stationed
pertinent information about Napoleon’s
across the border in Belgium. Civil Code.
At Waterloo in Belgium on June 18, 1815, Napoleon met
a combined British and Prussian army under the Duke of
Wellington and suffered a bloody defeat. This time, the
victorious allies exiled him to St. Helena, a small island in
the south Atlantic. Napoleon remained in exile until his
death in 1821, but his memory haunted French political (ISTORY /.,).%
life for many decades.
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central™.
✓Reading Check Examining Why did Napoleon invade Russia?

603
 Visual Summary
You can study anywhere, anytime by downloading quizzes
and flash cards to your PDA from glencoe.com.

Place Louis
XV, Near th
CAUSES of the French Revolution e Louvre Pa
Paris, in 17
75
lace,

• France was ruled by absolute monarchy.

• A rigid social class system existed.
• The government was bankrupt. Statue of King Louis XV
• The Third Estate had no voice in government.
• Bad harvests, rising food prices, and unfair
taxation caused civil unrest.
• The political goals of the nobility and middle
class challenged the monarchy.

ecame
ace Lo uis XV B n in 1792.
Pl utio
a Révol
Pl ace de L
The guillotine replaced the
statue of King Louis XV.

SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
of the French Revolution
• The end of the monarchy caused initial chaos.
• France was attacked by foreign countries.
• The beheading of royals and the Reign of Terror
led to internal disorder.
• Napoleon seized power and became
emperor of France.

Place de La Révolution Bec

ame
Place de La Concorde (Harmo
ny).

LONG-TERM EFFECTS
of the French Revolution The Egyptian obelisk
replaced the guillotine.
• Napoleon’s army conquered other
countries and changed many
traditional political and class systems.
• French armies spread nationalism
and Enlightenment ideals to other
countries.

The Madeleine began as a temple

to honor Napoleon’s soldiers.

604 CHAPTER 18 The French Revolution and Napoleon

(t) Musée des Beaux-Arts, France/Giraudon/Art Resource, NY, (c) Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY, (b) Giraudon/Art Resource, NY
 Assessment
INDIANA STATEWIDE TEST PRACTICE
TEST-TAKING TIP
As you read a primary source, pause when you reach an unfamiliar word and make sure you understand
what the word refers to. Doing so will help you find the answer to a test question more easily.

Reviewing Vocabulary Reviewing Main Ideas

Directions: Choose the word or words that best complete the Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
sentence.
Section 1 (pp. 576–583)
1 Paris Commune members, many of whom were
called , considered themselves ordinary 5 Who called a meeting of the Estates-General
patriots.
in 1789?
A priests
A Members of the First Estate
B sans-culottes
B Members of the Third Estate
C aristocrats
C King Louis XVI
D bureaucrats
D Olympe de Gouges
2 One of three classes into which French society 6 Which right did the Third Estate claim in the
was divided before the revolution is referred to National Assembly?
as a/an .
A To have freedom of religion
A taille
B To have access to the Louvre
B estate
C To have their votes count as much as the other Estates
C faction
D To form their own militia
D assembly
7 The Constitution of 1791 set up which form of
3 A/an is a sudden overthrow of the
government?
government.
A A limited monarchy
A election
B An absolute monarchy
B rebellion
C A democracy
C coup d’état
D A republic
D crowning
Section 2 (pp. 586–593)
4 In 1799 Napoleon headed a new government
called the .
8 What did the European nations that opposed the
A consulate revolution threaten to do?
B Reign of Terror
C Glorious Revolution A Execute Louis XVI
D Republic of Virtue B Form a Republic of Virtue
C Take away France’s territories
D Invade France

Need Extra Help?

If You Missed Questions . . . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Go to Page . . . 583 576 593 598 578 579 582 591
Go
GOOn
ON

CHAPTER 18 The French Revolution and Napoleon 605

 9 Thousands of people who opposed the Critical Thinking
government were executed when was Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
in power.
A Louis XVI 14 Why was the French invasion of Russia a failure?
B the Estates-General A England came to Russia’s aid.
C the Committee of Public Safety B Napoleon was defeated before he could invade.
D Napoleon C Barriers kept the French army from entering Russia.
D Brutal weather and Russia’s vast area made victory
10 What event happened at the end of the Reign impossible.
of Terror?
A The execution of King Louis XVI Base your answers to questions 15 and 16 on the map below
B The creation of the Committee of Public Safety and your knowledge of world history.
C The execution of Maximilien Robespierre
D Napoleon’s overthrow of the Directory
Reign of Terror
Section 3 (pp. 596–603) Center of execution N

W E

11 What is one of the principles of the Napoleonic Arras S

code?
Paris
A It strengthened the power of the clergy.
B It furthered women’s rights. Angers
C It stated all citizens were equal before the law. Nantes
FRANCE
D It preserved traditional French society.
Lyon
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
12 What was the goal of the Continental System? Bordeaux
Orange
A Codify laws throughout Europe
B Cut off trade between Britain and France’s allies Toulon
Marseille
C Conquer Russia 0 200 kilometers
Mediterranean
D Create a strong, centralized bureaucracy in Europe 0 200 miles Sea
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

13 Where was Napoleon defeated for the final time?

A Annecy in France
B Waterloo in Belgium 15 Which city was not a center of execution?
C Leipzig in Germany A Marseille
D Moscow in Russia B Nantes
C Versailles
D Bordeaux

16 What do the locations of the centers of execution

reveal about the influence of the Reign of Terror
in France?
A It affected all of France.
B It only affected Paris.
C It only affected people outside of France.
D It only affected people in western France.
Need Extra Help?
If You Missed Questions . . . 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Go to Page . . . 589 592 599 601 603 602 606 606
GoGO
OnON

606 CHAPTER 18 The French Revolution and Napoleon

 Assessment
17 Why did the National Convention decide to Constructed Response
execute Robespierre? Directions: Write a short essay in response to each of the following
A He was a member of the royal family. questions. A well-written essay will:
B They feared that he sold secrets to Britain. • address all parts of the question
C He led the attack on the Bastille. • incorporate information from the chapter
D They feared his power and his fanaticism. • cite facts, examples, and details relevant to the question
Analyze the cartoon and answer the question that follows. Base • use a logical and clear plan of organization
your answer on the cartoon and on your knowledge of world
history. 19 How was the Declaration of the Rights of Man
and the Citizen influenced by Enlightenment
thought?

20 Discuss a period of government during the

French Revolution or the Napoleonic Empire and
explain how it did or did not promote the growth
of liberty, equality, and democracy.

21 Compare and contrast the events of the American

and French Revolutions. Did they have similar
motivations?

STOP

The Estates-General forging a new constitution

18 What opinion is the cartoonist expressing?

A France is filled with hardworking citizens.
B France is being destroyed by fighting between the
Three Estates.
C France’s Three Estates worked together to create
a document.
D France’s Third Estate works harder since his hammer
is on the anvil.

(ISTORY /.,).%
For additional test practice, use Self-Check Quizzes—
Chapter 18 at glencoe.com.

Need Extra Help?

If You Missed Questions . . . 17 18 19 20 21
STOP
Go to Page . . . 592 607 581 586 586

CHAPTER 18 The French Revolution and Napoleon 607

The Granger Collection, New York
 N O T E B O O K

House Beautiful VERBATIM

Incurable romantics just might
rate the Taj Mahal the greatest
wonder of the world. It was
“should
So far as he is able, a prince
stick to the path of good but, if
the necessity arises, he should know
built by the Mogul emperor
Shah Jahan as a tribute to his
late wife, Queen Mumtaz Ma-
how to follow evil.
”
NICCOLÒ MACHIAVELLI,
from his book The Prince, explaining
hal, and contains her mauso- how to succeed in politics
leum. Work on this love letter
of a marble building began in
1626 in Agra. It took 20,000 “helpHereme.stand
Amen.
I. I can do no other. God

”
workers 22 years to complete MARTIN LUTHER,
it. For kings and queens look- who supposedly uttered these words
to Charles II at the Diet of Worms,
ing to create an architectural in refusing to back down from his

GETTY IMAGES
splash, the Taj is a tough act criticisms of the Catholic Church
to follow.
“areThestrictly
people of the various provinces
forbidden to have in their
possession any swords, short swords,
Stone Work bows, spears, firearms, or other types
of arms. The possession of unneces-
When Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798,
sary implements makes difficult the
he wanted to rock their world. That hasn’t
collection of taxes and dues and
happened. But now, a year later, his army
has found a rock that could shake up
our world. French soldiers unearthed
tends to foment uprisings.
”
TOYOTOMI HIDEYOSHI,
whose military victories in Japan’s
the stone near the Egyptian town of provinces allowed him to rule a unified
Rosetta. One side of it is covered country until his death in 1598
with inscriptions written in Greek,
Egyptian as spoken in ancient times,
and Egyptian hieroglyphics. No one
“ingIfonI have seen further, it is by stand-
the shoulders of giants.
”
VISUAL ARTS LIBRARY (LONDON)/ALAMY

SIR ISAAC NEWTON,

has yet been able to translate hiero-
stating modestly that his discoveries
glyphics. If all three inscriptions are owe a debt to the work of earlier scientists
the same message, scholars could
use the Greek words to decode the
hieroglyphics. If that ever happens, “I have
It will appear from everything which
said, that it is not regulation
this “Rosetta Stone” may be the key to [of the slave trade], it is not mere pal-
understanding ancient Egypt. liatives, that can cure this enormous
evil. Total abolition is the only possible
”
cure for it.
WILLIAM WILBERFORCE,
SCHOOL DAZE leader of the antislavery movement
in England, in a stirring speech given
In Elizabethan England today, Morning (7:30 to 1:00): in the House of Commons in 1789
most school kids focus on learning Dancing, Breakfast, French,
to speak and read Latin. After all, Latin, Writing, Drawing, Prayers,
BRAND X PICTURES/ALAMY IMAGES

courses in universities are taught Recreation, Dinner

in that language. But English
Afternoon (1:00 to 5:30):
royalty is expected to have a more
Cosmography (the study of Earth
wide-ranging education. At right
and the heavens), Latin, French,
is a typical day for a young royal
Writing, Prayers, Recreation, Supper
taught by a private tutor at home.

608 UNIT 3 TIME Notebook

 THE EARLY MODERN WORLD:
1350–1815

THE ULTIMATE RENAISSANCE MAN BY THE NUMBERS

Leonardo da Vinci is 5 The number of moons first
celebrated for his paint- observed by Galileo through a tele-
ings and drawings. But scope, in 1610, which proves that not
less widely appreciated is all heavenly bodies orbit the Earth, as
the fabulous Florentine’s has previously been believed
talent as an inventor.
5

THE BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY/GETTY IMAGES

In his many notebooks, The number of weeks that Ivan
Leonardo has sketched the Terrible punished the city of
and described in detail Novgorod for supposed conspiracy
an incredible array of de- against him. Besides pillaging and
destroying buildings, he had countless
vices. Here is just a small
citizens put to death.
sample of his output.
But beware: one of these
inventions is an invention 224 The number of days it took
Columbus to sail from Europe to the
of ours. Which one?
Americas and back
1. Parachute 5. Self-propelled car 9. Diving bell
2. Giant crossbow 6. Drilling machine 10. Machine gun 2,000 The number of pounds
3. Flying ship 7. Military tank 11. Printing press of sugar that Dutch merchants
charged for one enslaved African in
4. Wristwatch 8. Paddleboat 12. Helicopter 1654
Answer: 4

Milestones
DIED. AKBAR THE MAGNIFICENT, FOUNDED. THE ROYAL AFRICAN can now grab unclaimed areas of
in 1605, Mogul ruler of most of COMPANY, in 1672. The British gov- Africa and a small part of South
northern India. This great Muslim ernment has given the company ex- America. Spain seems to have got-
leader set up an efficient system of clusive permission to trade in slaves. ten the short end of the stick: It’s
government and severely punished The company expects to transport an unlikely that any valuable lands will
corruption by those in power. He average of 5,000 enslaved persons a be found beyond the Atlantic.
taxed Muslims and non-Muslims year from Africa.
DISCOVERED. How blood moves
alike. A tolerant ruler, he allowed
SIGNED. THE TREATY OF through the human body, by Wil-
Hindus great control of their terri-
TORDESILLAS in 1494, by Spain and liam Harvey. In a book published in
tories and so gained their loyalty.
Portugal, which divides the world 1628, the English scientist nixes the
into two halves along an imagi- idea that arteries pump blood. He
nary line curving north and south says that the heart circulates blood
through the Atlantic Ocean. Every and that vessels return it to the
new land discovered west of the line heart for recirculation. Many doc-
will belong to Spain. Everything east tors have given Harvey’s theories
of it will belong to Portugal, which their heartfelt recommendation.
THE BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY/GETTY IMAGES

CRITICAL THINKING
1. Analyzing Information In what way might the Rosetta Stone
be helpful to historians?

2. Drawing Conclusions Why did some people think that the

Treaty of Tordesillas favored Portugal over Spain?

UNIT 3 The Early Modern World 609