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Learning Unit 3: How plants colonized land

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Learning Outcomes:

• Name and discuss the evolutionary adaptations to living on land

characteristic of the four main groups of land plants.

• Distinguish between the main groups of land plants

• Discuss derived characters unique to land plants

• Name the characteristics common to land plants and

charophycean algae

• Describe the life cycle of mosses as well as the structure of their

gametophyte and sporophyte generations

• Describe the life cycle of ferns as well as the structure of their

gametophyte and sporophyte generations

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Introduction

• Earth was lifeless for the first 3 billion years of its history.
• Land plants have diversified into approximately 290,000
species and can live in almost all environments except
extreme ones (mountaintops, deserts, and polar ice sheets
• Plants make life on land possible by producing oxygen and
providing most of the food for terrestrial animals.
• Roots of plants stabilize the soil, creating habitats for other
organisms.
• The plant kingdom's history is marked by adaptation to
changing terrestrial conditions.

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Introduction

Significance of Plants
• Oxygen & Food: Plants provide oxygen through
photosynthesis and are the primary food source for terrestrial
animals.
• Soil Stabilization: Roots help stabilize soil, creating habitats
for other organisms.
• Adaptation: The history of plants is about adapting to
changing terrestrial conditions.

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Evolutionary adaptations to terrestrial living and the phyla

of extant plants

• Charophyceans: Green algae (charophytes) are most

closely related to land plants, sharing key traits such as:
• Cellulose-Synthesizing Complexes (rosette-shaped)
• Peroxisome Enzymes: Minimize carbohydrate loss
during photorespiration.
• Flagellated Sperm: Similar to land plants.
• Cell Plate Formation: Common during cytokinesis.

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• The phylogenetic tree below shows the relationships among

the land plants

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Terrestrial adaptation of land plants

•Terrestrial Adaptations: The transition to land required

adaptations to prevent desiccation, such as:
• Cuticle
• Transport Tissue (vascular system)
• Sporopollenin: Protects spores.

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Derived traits of plants

• Apical Meristems: Growth occurs at the tips of shoots and
roots.
•Alternation of Generations: A multicellular haploid
(gametophyte) and diploid (sporophyte) stage.
• Multicellular, Dependent Embryos: Embryo is nourished by
the maternal plant.
• Spores in Sporangia: Spore walls contain sporopollenin,
the most durable organic material.
• Multicellular Gametangia: Specialized organs for gamete
production.

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Derived Traits

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Derived traits of plants

• Multicellular, Dependent Embryos

• Zygote retained and surrounded by gametophyte tissues, receiving

nutrients.

• Placental transfer cells help with nutrient transfer.

• Spores Produced in Sporangia

• Haploid reproductive cells form gametophytes via mitosis.

• Sporangium contains sporocytes that undergo meiosis to produce

spores.

• Spores are encased in durable walls made of sporopollenin.

• Multicellular Gametangia

• Gametes are produced in multicellular organs (gametangia).

• In contrast, algae produce gametes in unicellular gametangia.

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Origin of land plants

• Origin of Land Plants:
• ~475 million years ago: Plants became widespread during the
mid-Ordovician period, with spores found in sediments.
• Diversification: In about 50 million years, plants diversified
and colonized land areas.
• Main Groups of Land Plants:
• Bryophytes (e.g., mosses)
• Pteridophytes (e.g., ferns, seedless vascular plants)
• Gymnosperms (e.g., conifers)
• Angiosperms (e.g., flowering plants)
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Origin of Land Plants

Seed plants
Pteridophytes
Cones flowers
No seeds

Bryophytes
No Vascular
tissue

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Origin of land plants

• Key Distinctions:
• Multicellular Embryos: Land plants produce embryos that
stay attached to the mother plant for protection and
nourishment, unlike algae.
• Vascular Tissue:
• Bryophytes: Lack xylem and phloem (vascular tissue).
• Pteridophytes: Do not produce seeds.
• Gymnosperms & Angiosperms: Produce seeds,
containing an embryo, food tissue, and protective coat.

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Origin of land plants

Seed Evolution:

• 360 million years ago: First vascular plants to produce seeds.

• Early seeds were not enclosed in specialized chambers.
• Angiosperms:
• Produce seeds within ovaries (flowers).
• Gymnosperms:
• Produce seeds in cones, not ovaries.

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The gametophyte and sporophyte generation of the

bryophytes
Bryophytes Overview:
•Species: ~17,000 species across 3 phyla:
• Bryophyta (mosses)
• Hepatophyta (liverworts)
• Anthocerophyta (hornworts)
•Life Cycle: Similar across groups, but they may not be
closely related—likely a polyphyletic group
Mosses Liverworts Hornworts

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The gametophyte and sporophyte generation of the

bryophytes

Key Characteristics of Bryophytes:

•Small Plants: Found in moist environments; lack woody tissue; form mats
on the ground.
•Gametophyte Dominance: The gametophyte generation is the dominant
stage, while the sporophyte is parasitic on the gametophyte.
•Adaptations for Land:

• Cuticle, stomata & multicellular gametangia allow survival on land.

• Water is essential for reproduction.

•Lack of Vascular Tissue:

• No true xylem or phloem.

• Water transport through capillary action, diffusion, and cytoplasmic

streaming.

• No true roots, stems, or leaves.

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The gametophyte
and sporophyte
generation of the
bryophytes

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The gametophyte and sporophyte generation of the

bryophytes

Gametophyte Structure:
•Moss Gametophyte:

• Protonema: One-cell-thick filament, forms from spore germination.

• Gametophore: Upright structure produced from meristems in the

protonema, where gametes are produced.
•Absorption: Gametophytes are one to a few cells thick, obtaining nutrients
and water directly from the environment.
•Water & Nutrient Transport:

• Some species have specialized cells for transport, but they lack lignin
in their walls.
•Anchoring: Gametophytes are anchored by rhizoids, which can be:

• Single elongated cells (liverworts, hornworts)

• Filaments of cells (mosses)

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Classification of seedless vascular plants

(Pteridophytes)

Phylum Lycophyta
• Genera: ~15 genera, 1,000 species (e.g., Lycopods,
Selaginella, Isoetes).
• Historical Context:
• Originated in the Devonian period (~409-363 million
years ago).
• Thrived in Carboniferous period swamps (~363-290
million years ago).
• Large trees (up to 35m) formed forests in the
Carboniferous but did not survive drier climates
afterward.
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Seedless Vascular Plants

The Phyla of Extant Seedless Vascular Plants

Phylum Examples Key Characteristics Approximate

Number of Living
Species
Lycophyta Club mosses Homosporous or heterosporous. Sperm motile. External water 1275
necessary for fertilization. About 17 genera.

Pterophyta Ferns Primarily homosporous (a few heterosporous). Sperm motile. 11,000

External water necessary for fertilization. Leaves uncoil as
they mature. Sporophytes and virtually all gametophytes are
photosynthetic. About 365 genera.

Horsetails Homosporous. Sperm motile. External water necessary for 15

fertilization. Stems ribbed, jointed, either photosynthetic or
nonphotosynthetic. Leaves scalelike, in whorls;
nonphotosynthetic at maturity. One genus.

Whisk ferns Homosporous. Sperm motile. External water necessary for 6

fertilization. No differentiation between root and shoot. No
leaves; one of the two genera has scalelike extensions and
the other leaflike appendages.
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Classification of seedless vascular plants

Phylum Lycophyta
• Modern Lycophytes: Small herbaceous plants.
• Key Features:
• Sporophytes: True roots, stems, and leaves (microphylls).
• Sporophylls: Specialized leaves bearing sporangia,
organized in strobilus.
• Reproduction: Some species are heterosporous (e.g.,
Selaginella); others are homosporous (e.g., Lycopodium).
Legacy: Contributed to the largest coal deposits in geologic
history.

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Classification of seedless vascular plants

Lycophyta

Pterophyta

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Classification of seedless vascular plants

Phylum Pterophytes

• Psilophytes (Whisk Ferns):

• Genera: Psilotum, Tmesipteris (tropical/subtropical regions).

• Key Features: Lack true roots and leaves; dichotomous branching stems;
fungal association.

• Evolution: Simplified characteristics, possibly a derived trait.

• Sphenophytes (Horsetails):

• Genus: Equisetum (~15 species, worldwide distribution).

• Historical Context: Originated in the Devonian

• Key Features: Hollow stems with jointed nodes, rough texture.

• Vascular Tissue: Eustele arrangement with vascular bundles around pith.

• Habitat: Damp areas like riverbanks and marshes.

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Classification of seedless vascular plants

Phylum Pterophyta
Pterophytes (true ferns) Sphenophytes (Horse tail)

Psilophytes (whisk ferns)

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Classification of seedless vascular plants

Life Cycle of a Typical Fern

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The significance of seedless vascular plants

• Lycophyta & Pterophyta: Modern seedless vascular plants.

• Carboniferous Period (290-363 million years ago):

• Forests of these plants formed, contributing to fossil fuel formation.

• Fossil Fuels: Coal, oil, and natural gas originated from these ancient
forests.

• Climate & Geography: Europe and North America near the equator,
covered by vast swamps.

• Peat Formation:

• Dead plants did not fully decay in stagnant water.

• Accumulation of organic material formed peat, which later transformed

into fossil fuels.

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