Cache Memories

In a computer system the program which is to be executed is loaded in the main memory
(DRAM). Processor then fetches the code and data from the main memory to execute the
program.

Cache Memories

AU: Dec.-06,07,08,09,11,12,14,17,18, May-08,09,11,12,13,16,17,19, June-08,13

• In a computer system the program which is to be executed is loaded in the main memory
(DRAM). Processor then fetches the code and data from the main memory to execute the
program. The DRAMS which form the main memory are slower devices. So it is necessary to
insert wait states in memory read/write cycles. This reduces the speed of execution.

• To speed up the process, high speed memories such as SRAMS must be used. But considering
the cost and space required for SRAMS, it is not desirable to use SRAMS to form the main
memory. The solution for this problem is come out with the fact that most of the microcomputer
programs work with only small sections of code and data at a particular time.

• Definition: The part of program (code) and data that work at a particular time is usually
accessed from the SRAM memory. This is accomplished by loading the active part of code and
data from main memory to SRAM memory. This small section of SRAM memory added
between processor and main memory to speed up execution process is known as cache memory.

• Fig. 8.4.1 shows a simplest form of cache memory system.

• A cache memory system includes a small amount of fast memory () and a large amount of slow
memory (DRAM). This system is configured to simulate a large amount of fast memory.

• Cache controller implements the cache logic. If processor finds that the addressed code or data
is not available in cache - the condition referred to as cache miss, the desired memory block is
copied from main memory to cache using cache controller. The cache controller decides which
memory block should be moved in or out of the cache and in or out of main memory, based on
the requirements. (The cache block is also known as cache slot or cache line.)

• The percentage of accesses where the processor finds the code or data word it needs in the
cache memory is called the hit rate/hit ratio. The hit rate is normally greater than 90 percent.

Hit rate =Number of hits /Total number of bus cycles× 100 %

Example 8.4.1 The application program in a computer system with cache uses 1400 instruction
acquisition bus cycle from cache memory and 100 from main memory. What is the hit rate? If
the cache memory operates with zero wait state and the main memory bus cycles use three wait
states, what is the average number of wait states experienced during the program execution ?

Solution : Hit rate=1400 /1400 +100 × 100 = 93.3333 %

Total wait states = 1400 x 0 + 100 × 3 = 300

Average wait states = Total wait states / Number of memory bus cycles

= 300 / 1500 = 0.2

Most Commonly used Cache Organizations

• Two most commonly used system organizations for cache memory are :

• Look-aside and

• Look-through

Look-aside system organization

• The Fig. 8.4.2 shows system of look-aside cache organization. Here,the cache and the main
memory are directly connected to the system bus.
• In this system, the CPU initiates a memory access by placing a physical address on the memory
address bus at the start of read or write cycle.

• The cache memory M1 immediately compares physical address to the tag addresses currently
residing in its tag memory. If a match is found, i.e., in case of cache hit, the access is completed
by a read or write operation executed in the cache. The main memory is not involved in the
process of read or write.

• If match is not found, i.e., in case of cache miss, the desired access is completed by a read or
write operation directed to M2. In response to cache miss, a block of data that includes the target
address is transferred from M2 to M1. The system bus is used for this transfer and hence it is
unavailable for other uses like I/O operations.

Look-through system organization

• The Fig. 8.4.3 shows look-through system of cache organization. Here, the CPU communicates
with cache via a separate (local) bus which is isolated from the main system bus. Thus during
cache accesses, the system bus is available for use by other units, such as I/O controllers, to
communicate with main memory.

• Unlike the look-aside system, look-through cache system does not automatically send all
memory requests to main memory; it does so only after a cache miss.

• A look-through cache systems use wider local bus to link M1 and M2, thus speeding up cache-
main-memory transfers (block transfers).

• Look-through cache system is faster.

Disadvantages:

• It is complex.

• It is costly.

• It takes longer time for M2 to respond to the CPU when a cache miss occurs.

Cache Read Operation

• The Fig. 8.4.4 shows the small cache system. Here each cache block is 4 bytes and each
memory address is 10-bit long. Due to this 8 high-order bits form the tag or block address and
the 2 low-order bits define a displacement address within the block.

• When a block is assigned to the cache data memory, its tag is also placed in the cache tag
memory.

• During read operation, the 8 high-order bits of an address are compared with stored tags in the
cache tag memory to find match (cache hit). The stored tag pinpoints the corresponding block in
cache data memory and the 2-bit displacement is used to read the target word.
Cache Write Operation

• The Fig. 8.4.5 shows execution of cache write operation. It uses same addressing technique as
in case of read operation.

• When cache hit occurs, the new data, in this case E6, is stored at the location pointed by
address in the cache data memory, thereby overwriting the old data 5 A.

• Now data in the cache data memory and data in the main memory for given address is different.
This causes cache consistency problem.

Program Locality

• In cache memory system, prediction of memory location for the next access is essential. This is
possible because computer systems usually access memory from the consecutive locations. This
prediction of next memory address from the current memory address is known as program
locality.

• Program locality enables cache controller to get a block of memory instead of getting just a
single address.
• The principle of program locality may not work properly when program executes JUMP and
CALL instructions. In case of these instructions, program code is not in sequence.

Locality of Reference

• We know that program may contain a simple loop, nested loops or a few procedures that
repeatedly call each other. The point is that many instructions in localized area of the program
are executed repeatedly during some time period and the remainder of the program is accessed
relatively infrequently. This is referred to as locality of reference.

• It manifests itself in two ways: temporal and spatial.

• The temporal means that a recently executed instruction is likely to be executed again very
soon.

• The spatial means that instructions stored near by to the recently executed instruction are also
likely to be executed soon.

• The temporal aspect of the locality of reference suggests that whenever an instruction or data is
first needed, it should be brought into the cache and it should remain there until it is needed
again.

• The spatial aspect suggests that instead of bringing just one instruction or data from the main
memory to the cache, it is wise to bring several instructions and data items that reside at adjacent
address as well. We use the term block to refer to a set of contiguous addresses of some size.

Block Fetch

• Block fetch technique is used to increase the hit rate of cache.

• A block fetch can retrieve the data located before the requested byte (look behind)or data
located after the requested byte (look ahead) or both.

• When CPU needs to access any byte from the block, entire block that contains the needed byte
is copied from main memory into cache.

• The size of the block is one of the most important parameters in the design of a cache memory
system.

Block size

1. If the block size is too small, the look-ahead and look-behind are reduced and therefore the hit
rate is reduced.

2. Larger blocks reduce the number of blocks that fit into a cache. As the number of blocks
decrease, block rewrites from main memory becomes more likely.
3. Due to large size of block, the ratio of required data and useless data is less.

4. Bus size between the cache and the main memory increases with block size to accommodate
larger data transfers between main memory and the cache, which increases the cost of cache
memory system.

Elements of Cache Design

• The cache design elements include cache size, mapping function, replacement algorithm write
policy, block size and number of caches.

Cache size: The size of the cache should be small enough so that the overall average cost per bit
is close to that of main memory alone and large enough so that the overall average access time is
close to that of the cache alone.

Mapping function: The cache memory can store a reasonable number of blocks at any given
time, but this number is small compared to the total number of blocks in the main memory. Thus
we have to use mapping functions to relate the main memory blocks and cache blocks. There are
two mapping functions commonly used direct mapping and associative mapping. Detail
description of mapping functions is given in section 8.4.6.

Replacement algorithm: When a new block is brought into the cache, one of the existing blocks
must be replaced, by a new block.

• There are four most common replacement algorithms:

• Least-Recently-Used (LRU)

• First-In-First-Out (FIFO)

• Least-Frequently-Used (LFU)

• Random

• Cache design change according to the choice of replacement algorithm. Detail description of
replacement algorithm is given in section 8.4.8.

Write policy: It is also known as cache updating policy. In cache system, two copies of the same
data can exist at a time, one in cache and one in main memory. If one copy is altered and other is
not, two different sets of data become associated with the same address. To prevent this, the
cache system has updating systems such as: write through system, buffered write through system
and write-back system. The choice of cache write policy also change the design of cache.

Block size: It should be optimum for cache memory system.

Number of caches: When on-chip cache is insufficient, the secondary cache is used. The cache
design changes as number of caches used in the system changes.

Mapping

• Usually, the cache memory can store a reasonable number of memory blocks at any given time,
but this number is small compared to the total number of blocks in the main memory. The
correspondence between the main memory blocks and those in the cache is specified by a
mapping function.

• The mapping techniques are classified as :

1. Direct-mapping technique

2. Associative-mapping technique

• Fully-associative

• Set-associative techniques.

• To discuss these techniques of cache mapping we consider a cache consists of 128 blocks of 16
words each, for a total of 2048 (2 K) words and assume that the main memory has 64 K words.
This 64 K words of main memory is addressable by a 16-bit address and it can be viewed as 4 K
blocks of 16 words each. The group of 128 blocks of 16 words each in main memory form a
page.

Direct-Mapping

• It is the simplest mapping technique.

• In this technique, each block from the main memory has only one possible location in the cache
organization. In this example, the block i of the main memory maps onto block j(j = i modulo
128) of the cache, as shown in Fig. 8.4.6. Therefore, whenever one of the main memory blocks 0,
128, 256, ...... is loaded in are stored in cache, it is stored in cache block 0. Blocks 1, 129, 257,
…… block 1 and so on.

In general the mapping expression is

j = i modulo m

where

i =Main memory block number

j=Cache block (line) number

m= Number of blocks (lines) in the cache

• To implement such cache system, the address is divided into three fields, as shown in Fig.
8.4.6.

• The lower order 4-bits select one of the 16 words in a block. This field is known as word field.

• The second field known as block field is used to distinguish a block from other blocks. Its
length is 7-bits since 27 = 128.

• When a new block enters the cache, the 7-bit cache block field determines the cache position in
which this block must be stored.

• The third field is a tag field. It is used to store the high-order 5-bits of memory address of the
block. These 5-bit (tag bits) are used to identify which of the 32 blocks (pages) that are mapped
into the cache.

• When memory is accessed, the 7-bit cache block field of each address generated by CPU points
to a particular block locationin the cache. The high-order 5-bits of the address are compared with
the tag bits associated with that cache location. If they match, then the desired word is in that
block of the cache. If there is no match, then the block containing the required word must first be
read from the main memory and loaded into the cache.
• This means that to determine whether requested word is in the cache, only tag field is necessary
to be compared. This needs only one comparison.

• The main drawback of direct mapped cache is that if processor needs to access same memory
locations from two different pages of the main memory frequently, the controller has to access
main memory frequently. Since only one of these locations can be in the cache at a time. For
example, if processor want to access memory location 100 H from page 0 and then from page 2,
the cache controller has to access page 2 of the main memory. Therefore, we can say that direct-
mapped cache is easy to implement, however, it is not very flexible.

Associative-Mapping (Fully-Associative Mapping)

• The Fig. 8.4.7 shows the associative-mapping technique. In this technique, a main memory
block can be placed into any cache block position. As there is no fix block, the memory address
has only two fields: word and tag. This techniques is also referred to as fully-associative cache.

• The 12-tag bits are required to identify a memory block when it is resident in the cache. The
high-order 12-bits of an address received from the CPU are compared to the tag bits of each
block of the cache to see if the desired block is present.

• Once the desired block is present, the 4-bit word is used to identify the necessary word from the
cache.

• This technique gives complete freedom in choosing the cache location in which to place the
memory block. Thus, the memory space in the cache can be used more efficiently.
• A new block that has to be loaded into the cache has to replace (remove) an existing block only
if the cache is full.

• In such situations, it is necessary to use one of the possible replacement algorithm to select the
block to be replaced.

• Disadvantage:In associative-mapped cache, it is necessary to compare the higher-order bits of

address of the main memory with all 128 tag corresponding to each block to determine whether a
given block is in the cache. This is the main disadvantage of associative-mapped cache.

Set-Associative Mapping

• The set-associative mapping is a of both direct and associative mapping.

• It contains several groups of direct-mapped blocks that operate as several direct-mapped caches
in parallel.

• A block of data from any page in the main memory can go into a particular block location of
any direct-mapped cache. Hence the contention problem of the direct-mapped technique is eased
by having a few choices for block placement.

• The required address comparisons depend on the number of direct-mapped caches in the cache
system. These comparisons are always less than the comparisons required in the fully-associative
mapping.

• Fig. 8.4.8 shows two way set-associative cache. Each page in the main memory is organized in
such a way that the size of each page is same as the size of one directly mapped cache. It is
called two-way set-associative cache because each block from main memory has two choices for
block placement.
• In this technique, block 0, 64, 128,.....4032 of main memory can map into any of the two (block
0) blocks of set 0, block 1, 65, 129,,...., 4033 of main memory can map into any of the two (block
1) blocks of set 1 and so on.

• As there are two choices, it is necessary to compare address of memory with the tag bits of
corresponding two block locations of particular set. Thus for two-way set-associative cache, we
require two comparisons to determine whether a given block is in the cache.

• Since there are two direct-mapped caches, any two bytes having same offset from different
pages can be in the cache at a time. This improves the hit rate of the cache system.

• To implement set-associative cache system, the address is divided into three fields, as shown in
Fig. 8.4.8.

• The 4-bit word field selects one of the 16 words in a block.

• The set field needs 6-bits to determine the desired block from 64 sets. However, there are now
64 pages. To identify a block belongs to a particular page from 64 pages, six tag bits are required.
Example 8.4.2 Consider a cache consisting of 256 blocks of 16 words each, for a total of 4096
(4 K) words and assume that the main memory is addressable by a 16-bit address and it consists
of 4 K blocks. How many bits are there in each of the TAG, BLOCK/SET and word fields for
different mapping techniques ?

Solution: We know that memory address is divided into three fields. We will now find the exact
bits required for each field in different mapping techniques.

a) Direct-mapping

Word bits: We know that each block consists of 16 words. Therefore, to identify each word we
must have (24 = 16) four bit reserved for it.

Block bits: The cache memory consists of 256 blocks and using direct-mapped technique, block
k of the main memory maps onto block k modulo 256 of the cache. It has one to one
correspondence and requires unique address for each block. To address 128 block we require
(28 = 256) eight bits.

Tag bits: The remaining 4 (16 – 4 - 8) address bits are tag bits which stores the higher address of
the main memory.

The main memory address for direct-mapping technique is divided as shown below:

b) Associative-mapping

Word bits: The word length will remain same i.e. 4 bits.

In the associative-mapping technique, each block in the main memory is identified by the tag bits
and an address received from the CPU is compared with the tag bits of each block of the cache to
see if the desired block is present. Therefore, this type of technique does not have block bits, but
all remaining bits (except word bits) are reserved as tag bits.

Block bits: 0

Tag bits: To address each block in the main memory (212 = 4096) 12 bits are required and
therefore, there are 12 tag bits.

The main memory address for direct mapping technique is divided as shown below:
c) Set-associative mapping

Let us assume that there is a 2-way set-associative mapping. Here, cache memory 'is mapped
with two blocks per set. The set field of the address determines which set of the cache might
contain the desired block.

Word bits: The word length will remain same i.e. 4 bits.

Set bits: There are 128 sets (256/2). To identify each set (27 = 128) seven bits are required.

Tag bits: The remaining 5 (16 – 4-7) address bits are the tag bits which stores higher address of
the main memory.

The main memory address for 2-way set associative mapping technique is divided as shown
below:

Example 8.4.3 A block set-associative cache consists of 64 blocks divided into 4 block sets. The
main memory contains 4096 blocks, each consists of 128 words of 16 bits length:

i) How many bits are there in main memory?

ii) How many bits are there in each of the TAG, SET and WORD fields?

Solution: i) Number of bits in main memory:

= Number of blocks x Number of words per block x Number of bits per word

= 4096 × 128 × 16

= 8388608 bits

ii) Number of bits in word field :

There are 128 words in each block. Therefore, to identify each word (27 = 128) 7 bits are
required.

iii) Number of T bits in set field: There are 64 blocks and each set consists of 4 blocks.

Therefore, there are 16 (64/4) sets. To identify each set (24 = 16) four bits are required.

iv) Number of bits in tag field: The total words in the memory are :

4096 x 128 = 524288

To address these words we require (219 = 524288) 19 address lines. Therefore, tag bits are eight
(19-7-4).

Example 8.4.4 A digital computer has a memory unit of 64 K × 16 and a cache memory of 1 K
words. The cache uses direct mapping with a block size of four words. How many bits there in
the tag index, block and word field of the address format?

Solution:Word bits: Number of word bits = log2 22 = 2-bits

Block bits: Number of block = Cache size / Words in each block

Number of block bits= log2 256 = log2 28 = 8 bits.

Tag bits: Number of bits to address main memory

=log2 64 K = log2 216 = 16 bits

Number of Tag bits = 16 - 8 - 2 = 6 bits

Example 8.4.5 A two way set associative cache memory uses block of four words. The cache
can accommodate a total of 2048 words from main memory. The main memory size is 128 K x
32.

i)How many bits are there in the tag index, block and word field of address format?

ii) What is size of cache memory?

Solution: Number of bits in main memory address = log2 128K = log217 = 17 bit

Number of blocks in the cache memory = 2048/4 = 512 blocks

Number of sets in the cache memory = 512/2 = 256 sets

Number of bits in set field = log2256 = log228 = 8 bits

Number of bits in word field = log2 4 = log222 = 2 bits

Number of bits in tag field = 17 – 8 – 2 = 7 bits

Example 8.4.6 A direct mapped cache has the following parameters: cache size = 1 K words,
Block size 128 words and main memory size is 64 K words. Specify the number of bits in TAG,
BLOCK and WORD in main memory address.

Solution : Word bits = log2 128 = 7 bits

Number of blocks = cache size / words in each block = 1K/128 = 8

Number of block bits = log2 8 = 3-bits

Number of address bits to address main memory

= log2 64K = log2216 = 16 bits

Tag bits = 16 – 3 – 7 = 6 bits

Example 8.4.7 How many total bits are required for a direct-mapped cache with 16 kb of data
and 4-word blocks, assuming a 32-bit address?

Dec.-17, May-19, Marks 2

Solution:

16 kb = 4K words =212 words

Block size of 4 words = 210 blocks

Each block has 4 x 32 = 128 bits of data + tag + valid bit

Tag + valid bit = (32 – 10 – 2 - 2) + 1 = 19

Total cache size =210 (128+ 19) = 210 ×147

Therefore, 147 kb are needed for the cache.

Example 8.4.8 You have been asked to design a cache with the following properties:

1) Data words are 32 bits each.

2) A cache block will contain 2048 bits of data.

3) The cache is direct mapped.

4) The address supplied from the CPU is 32 bits long.

5) There are 2048 blocks in the cache.

6) Addresses are to the word.

In the below Fig.8.4.11, there are 8 fields (labeled a,b,c,d,e,f,g and h), you will need to indicate
the proper name or number of bits for a particular portion of this cache configuration. AU May-
19, Marks 8

Solution:

f. (name) -You are being asked to show what part of a physical address form the index, offset,
and tag. < f > refers to the most significant bits of the address - so this is the tag.

g. (name) - It follows that the next part of the address is the index.
h. (name) - The least significant bits form the offset.

c. (number) - There are 211 bits / block and there are 25 bits / word. Thus there are 26 words /
block so we need 6 bits of offset.

b. (number) - There are 211 blocks and the cache is direct mapped (or "1-way set associative").
Therefore, we need 11 bits of index.

a. (number) - The remaining bits form the tag. Thus, 32 - 6 - 11 = 15 bits of tag.

d. (number) - Field < d > refers to the fact that a tag must be stored in each block. Thus, 15 bits
are kept in each block.

e. (number) Field < e > asks you to specify the total number of bits / block. This.is 2048.

We need to compare the valid bit associated with the block, the tag stored in the block, and the
tag associated with the physical address to determine if the cache entry is useable or not. The
tags should be the same and the valid bit should be 1.

Cache Size

There are 2048 blocks in the cache and there are 2048 bits / block. There are 8 bits/byte. Thus,
there are 256 bytes / block

2048 blocks × 256 bytes / block =219 bytes (or 0.5 MB)

Comparison between Mapping Techniques

Cache Coherency

• In a single CPU system, two copies of same data, one in cache memory and another in main
memory may become different. This data inconsistency is called as cache coherence problem.

• Cache updating systems eliminates data inconsistency in the main memory caused by cache
write operations.

• In multiprocessor systems, another bus master can take over control of the system bus. This bus
master could write data into a main memory blocks which are already held in the cache of
another processor. When this happens, the data in the cache no longer match those held in main
memory creating inconsistency.

• The 80386 supports four different approaches to prevent data inconsistency, that is to protect
cache coherency:

1. Bus watching (snooping) 2. Hardware transparency

3. Non-cacheable memory 4. Cache flushing

Bus watching: In bus watching, cache controller invalidates the cache entry, if another master
writes to a location in shared memory which also resides in the cache memory. Fig. 8.4.12 shows
bus watching.

Hardware transparency : In hardware transparency, accesses of all devices to the main memory
are routed through the same cache or by copying all cache writes both to the main memory and
to all other caches that share the same memory. Fig. 8.4.13 shows hardware transparent system.

Non-cacheable memory: The 80386DX can partition its main memory into a cacheable and
non-cacheable memory. By designing shared memory as non-cacheable memory cache
coherency can be maintained, since shared memory is never copied into cache.

Cache flushing: To avoid data inconsistency, a cache flush writes any altered data to the main
memory and caches in the system are flushed before a device writes to shared memory.

Cache Updating Policies

• In a cache system, two copies of same data can exist at a time, one in cache and one in main
memory. If one copy is altered and other is not, two different sets of data become associated with
the same address. To prevent this, the cache system has updating systems such as: write through
system, buffered write through system and write-back system.

Write through System

• The cache controller copies data to the main memory immediately after it is written to the
cache. Due to this, main memory always contains a valid data and thus any block in the cache
can be overwritten immediately without data loss.

• The write through is a simple approach.

• This approach requires time to write data in main memory with increase in bus traffic.

• This in effect reduces the system performance.

Buffered Write through System

• In buffered write through system, the processor can start a new cycle before the write cycle to
the main memory is completed. This means that the write accesses to the main memory are
buffered.

• In such systems, read access which is a "cache hit" can simultaneously when main memory is
updated.

be performed

• However, two consecutive write operations to the main memory or read operation with cache
"miss" require the processor to wait.

Write-Back System

• In a write-back system, the alter (update) bit in the tag field is used to keep information of the
new data. If it is set, the controller copies the block to main memory before loading new data into
the cache.

• Due to one time write operation, number of write cycles are reduced in write-back system. But
this system has following disadvantages.

• Write-back cache controller logic is more complex.

• It is necessary that, all altered blocks must be written to the main memory before another
device can access these blocks in main memory.

• In case of power failure, the data in the cache memory is lost, so there is no way to tell which
locations of the main memory contain old data. Therefore, the main memory as well as cache
must be considered volatile and provisions must be made to save the data in the cache.
Replacement Algorithms

• When a new block is brought into the cache, one of the existing blocks must be replaced, by a
new block.

• In case of direct-mapping cache, we know that each block from the main memory has only one
possible location in the cache, hence there is no choice. The previous data is replaced by the data
from the same memory location from new page of the main memory.

• For associative and set-associative techniques, there is a choice of replacing existing block. The
choice of replacement of the existing block should be such that the probability of accessing same
block must be very less. The replacement algorithms do the task of selecting the existing block
which must be replaced. • There are four most common replacement algorithms:

• Least-Recently-Used (LRU)

• First-In-First-Out (FIFO)

• Least-Frequently-Used (LFU)

• Random

• Least-Recently-Used: In this technique, the block in the set which has been in the cache
longest with no reference to it, is selected for the replacement. Since we assume that more-
recently used memory locations are more likely to be referenced again. This technique can be
easily implemented in the two-way set-associative cache organization.

• First-In-First-Out: This technique uses same concept that stack implementation uses in the
microprocessors. In this technique, the block which is first loaded in the cache amongst the
present blocks in the cache is selected for the replacement.

• Least-Frequently-Used: In this technique, the block in the set which has the fewest references
is selected for the replacement.

• Random: Here, there is no specific criteria for replacement of any block. The existing blocks
are replaced randomly. Simulation studies have proved that random replacement algorithm
provides only slightly inferior performance to algorithms just discussed.

Example 8.4.9 Consider web browsing application. Assuming both client and server are
involved in the process of web browsing application, where can caches be placed to speed up the
process? Design a memory hierarchy for the system. Show the typical size and latency at various
levels of the hierarchy. What is the relationship between cache size and its access latency? What
are the units-of data transfers between hierarchies? What is the relationship between the data
location, data size, and transfer latency? AU: Dec.-18, Marks 7
Solution: a) Assuming both client and server are involved in the process of web browsing
application, caches can be placed on both sides - web browser and server.

b) Memory hierarchy for the system is as follows:

1. Browser cache, size = fraction of client computer disk, latency = local disk = latency.

2. Proxy cache, size=proxy disk, latency = LAN+ proxy disk latencies

3. Server-side cache, size = fraction of server disk, latency = WAN + server disk

4. Server storage, size = server storage, latency = WAN + server storage. Latency is not directly
related to cache size.

c) The units of data transfers between hierarchies are pages.

d) Latency grows with page size as well as distance.

Review Questions

1. What is cache memory? Why is it implemented? AU May-16, Marks 4

2. Explain the need for cache memory. AU: Dec.-12, Marks 4

3. Explain the block diagram of cache memory system.

4. What is program locality?

5. Define locality of reference. What are its types? AU: Dec.-06, Marks 2

6. Define the terms: spatial locality and temporal locality. AU May-08, Marks 2

7. Explain the concept of block fetch.

8. Discuss the various mapping techniques used in cache memories. AU June-08, 13, May-16,
Dec.-09, 12

9. What is a mapping function? What are the ways the cache can be mapped? AU May-11,
Marks 16

10. Explain about direct mapping in cache memory. AU: Dec.-08, Marks 8

11. Explain about associative mapping in cache memory.

12. Explain about set associative mapping in cache memory. AU: Dec.-08, Marks 8
13. Write notes on set associative mapping of cache. AU: Dec.-07, Marks 4

14. Explain different types of mapping functions in cache memory. AU: Dec.-11, 12, 18, May-
19, Marks 16

15. Explain the various mapping techniques associated with cache memories. AU :May-12, 13,
Marks 10

16. Explain the various cache replacement policies in the cache memory. AU May-09, Marks
16

17. Explain mapping functions in cache memory to determine how memory blocks are placed in
cache. AU: Dec.-14, Marks 8

18. Explain the different mapping functions that can be applied on cache memories in detail. AU
May-17, Marks 13