INTRODUCTION

TO VIBRATION-
BASED
CONDITION
MONITORING
Dr Bubathi Muruganantham
Application Engineering Manager Honeywell Process Measurement & Control
Offering Management
Pune, India

October 2024
TABLE OF
CONTENTS

1 Vibration
2 Types of vibration monitoring
3 Vibration sensors
4 Types of faults in rotating machines
4.1 Shaft unbalance
4.2 Shaft misalignment
4.3 Bent shaft
4.4 Looseness
4.5 Oil whirl and oil whip
4.6 Bearing fault
4.7 Gear fault
4.8 Bladed machines faults
4.9 Stator faults
4.10 Broken rotor bars
4.11 Eccentricity
4.12 Cracked shaft
5 Standards used in vibration-based condition monitoring
6 Mounting location and its effects
7 Processing of vibration data
8 Definitions
9 References

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VIBRATION
Vibration is a motion/oscillation of a
body about a reference point.
1
A vibration signal captured from a
machine is composed of the sum of the
vibration of each of its components. A
machine can have different vibration
levels under different operating conditions
(load, speed, environment) and it can
be affected by equipment connected
upstream or downstream of the machine.

WHERE DOES VIBRATION COME FROM?

In practice, it is difficult to avoid vibration. It usually occurs because
of the dynamic effects of manufacturing tolerances, clearances,
rolling and rubbing contact between machine parts, and out-of-
balance forces in rotating and reciprocating members.

Vibration waveform has three main characteristics: amplitude,

frequency and phase. These are explained below.

AMPLITUDE
Amplitude represents the intensity of motion from a neutral
position over a time interval or at a specific time. Amplitude can be
expressed/measured as displacement, velocity and acceleration
of motion. It is measured in mm, mm/s, mm/s2, g (9.81 m/s2), dB,
etc. As seen in Figure 1, amplitude is represented by arrows.

Figure 1: Example of amplitude

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FREQUENCY
Frequency denotes how often the motion repeats within a time interval. It
is measured in Hertz (Hz) or Cycles per min (CPM) or Cyles per sec (CPS).
Referring to Figure 2, for a sinusoidal waveform with 1 sec time interval 5 cycles
are presented with a second. Thus, frequency of the waveform is 5 Hz.

Figure 2: Example of frequency

PHASE
Phase is a measure of the time difference between two waveforms. Phase
of vibration signal represents the vibration referring to a reference point
or space. It is measured in degrees (0°-360°). Phase can be relative
(comparison between two vibration sources) and absolute (comparison
between a vibration source and a reference point such as speed). Relative
phase is between -180° to 180°. Absolute phase is between 0° to 360°.

In Figure 3, two vibration sources have the same amplitude

and frequency but different phase. There is a phase shift of
90° (difference in degree for reaching same peak value).
Figure 3: Example of relative phase
In Figure 4 shows an example of an absolute phase. A vibration
signal is filtered to a certain frequency and compared with a
speed signal (tacho). There is a phase shift of 270°.

CAUSES OF VIBRATION IN MACHINES

Forces generated within the machine cause vibration. Forces
can be due to operation in healthy or abnormal condition
(internal and external causes). These forces may:

• Change in direction with time, such as the force

Figure 4: Example of absolute phase
generated by a rotating unbalance.

• Change in amplitude or intensity with time, such as the unbalanced

magnetic forces generated in an induction motor due to an unequal
air gap between the motor armature and the stator (field).

• Result from friction between rotating and stationary machine

components in much the same way that friction from a
rosined bow causes a violin string to vibrate.

• Cause impacts, such as gear tooth contacts or the impacts generated by the
rolling elements of a bearing passing over flaws in the bearing raceways.

• Include randomly-generated forces such as flow turbulence

in fluid-handling devices such as fans, blowers and pumps,
or combustion turbulence in gas turbines or boilers.

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• Vibration can be linked to periodic events in machine operations
(rotating shafts, meshing gear teeth, rotating electric field, etc.). Some
vibrations are due to events that are not completely phase locked to shaft
rotations such as combustion cycles. Vibration can be linked to fluid
flow – for example, in pumps, gas turbines, transformers and valves.

Vibration can be absolute vibration (machine housing) or relative vibration

(shaft and housing). Another type is torsional vibration i.e., angular
fluctuations of the shafts and components such as gears and rotor discs.

The relationship between vibration signals and machine condition

was first recognized by Rathbone (1939) through his paper on
vibration tolerance in Power Plant Engineering magazine.

WHY USE VIBRATION DATA FOR MACHINE HEALTH?

Machines exhibit a characteristic, non-anomalous (acceptable) vibration
“signature”. Acceptable vibration varies based upon not only on the type of
equipment but also operating conditions and even environmental variables such
as temperature or humidity. When an anomaly in machine operation occurs,
the vibration signature changes. The change in vibration signature can capture
majority of failure modes in a machine (particularly rotating machines) and can
thus be used to diagnose problems. ISO 10816/20816 describe the standards
to be adopted for failure mode diagnostics using vibration information.

Some of the most common machinery problems that cause vibration include:

• Misalignment of couplings, bearings and gears

• Unbalance of rotating components

• Looseness

• Deterioration of rolling-element bearings

• Gear wear

• Rubbing

• Aerodynamic/hydraulic problems in fans, blowers and pumps

• Electrical problems (unbalance magnetic forces) in motors

• Resonance

• Eccentricity of rotating components such as “V” belt pulleys or gears

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TYPES OF
VIBRATION
MONITORING
2
Vibration analysis reacts immediately
to abnormality in machines and can
therefore be used for permanent as
well as intermittent monitoring.
Table 1 shows a comparison between the two monitoring methods.

Critical machines often have permanently mounted vibration sensors and

are continuously monitored so that they can be shut down rapidly in the case
of sudden changes which might be a precursor to catastrophic failure.

For the vast majority of machines in a plant, it is not economical to equip them with
permanent sensors for continuous monitoring. The time interval of intermittent
monitoring must be shorter than the minimum required lead times for maintenance
and production planning purposes. In offline monitoring, a large number of
machines can then be monitored intermittently with a single sensor and data logger.

PERMANENT INTERMITTENT
METRIC
MONITORING MONITORING
Generic application Critical machines Non-critical machines

Cost of monitoring High Low

Fault detection Early Delayed, within minimum
required lead times for
maintenance and production
planning purposes and can
chance that fault can be
missed

Table 1: Comparison of permanent and intermittent monitoring

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VIBRATION
SENSORS 3
Vibration (lateral) can be expressed in
three forms: displacement, velocity and
acceleration. Proximity probes measure
relative displacement; seismic velocity
transducers measure velocity; and
accelerometers measure acceleration.
Displacement measurement
• Suitable for low frequency vibration (< 10 Hz) or when the analyst
needs to know precisely the movement of a rotor and not just the
part of the vibration transmitted to the bearing support.

• These measurements are taken directly with proximity probes and

are an indicator of the stress or strain the machine is suffering.

• Its unit can be mm.

Velocity measurement
• An indicator of the level of vibration severity and is proportional to
the level of fatigue that a mechanical system is sustaining.

• These measurements can be taken with a seismic velocity sensor, although

accelerometers are more often used for better frequency response and lower
cost. The accelerometer signal is processed to be converted to velocity units.

Acceleration measurement
• Acceleration is the parameter that gives the best indication of the internal forces
associated with a particular source of vibration (Force = mass × acceleration)

One can convert signal from one measurement to another. For example, using
differentiation (mathematical), displacement to velocity to acceleration can
be estimated. However, due to differentiation, signal is noisy. Hence, this
approach is rarely used. Conversely, acceleration to velocity or velocity-
to-displacement conversion is done through integration. Integration
is carried out accurately with a cheap electronic circuit or via software.
That is one of the main reasons why the accelerometer is the standard
transducer for vibration measurements, since its output signal can be
easily integrated once or twice to obtain velocity or displacement.

3.1 PROXIMITY PROBES

Proximity probes give a measure of the relative distance between the probe tip
and another surface. A proximity pickup system consists of the sensor and a
signal conditioner. The principle is change in electrical inductance of a circuit
brought about by changes in the gap as shown in Figure 5: Operating principle
diagram of proximity probes. Such probes were pioneered by a company called
Bently Nevada. Figure 6 shows the typical location of proximity probes installed
in a bearing cap. It is used to measure shaft radial or axial displacement.

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The surface whose distance from the tip is being measured
must be electrically conducting. The medium in the gap must
have a high dielectric value but can be air or gas or oil.

The frequency range is typically 10 kHz. However, the frequency mostly

observed (< 1000 Hz) relate to ‘rotating speed. Faults arising from
components such as bearing, gearbox etc and other process related
may not be detected. Thus,restricts the diagnostic capabilities.
Figure 5: Operating principles of
proximity probes [Ref: 9.a]
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Application: It is particularly useful in rigid Costly: These transducers must be
machinery where very little vibration is permanently installed. This is always costly,
transmitted from the shaft to the machine and even impossible in certain cases.
casing. This situation occurs if the mass
of the housing is of the same order of
magnitude or higher in comparison with the
mass of the shaft.
Insight: It measures both the continuous Frequency range: Limited between 0 Hz to
and varying component of a vibration signal 1,000 Hz.
providing insight related to shaft. Sensitivity: Even small cracks in the shaft
can make the transducer interpret them as a
high vibration activity.

Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of proximity probes Figure 6: Location of proximity probes [Ref: 9.a]

3.2 VELOCITY SEISMIC TRANSDUCERS (a) (b)

The velocity seismic transducer is used in machines where the shaft transmits
vibration to the housing with little damping, i.e., the vibration amplitudes in
the housing are high. Figure 7 shows the internal view and a representative
picture of the sensor. The velocity sensor consists of a permanent magnet
located in the center of a copper wire coil. When the housing vibrates, a
relative movement is created between the magnet and the winding based on
Faraday law, and voltage proportional to the speed of movement is created.
Figure 7: Velocity sensor (a) Internal
construction (b) Actual representation [Ref: 9.b]
It was first developed by Arthur Crawford in late 1940s. They are directly
mounted on the object in horizontal or vertical direction. They are highly
sensitive at low frequencies, are simple to mount and don’t need an external
power supply. Relative to accelerometers, they are heavier and bulkier.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Application: Ideal for remote permanently Size: Higher in size requiring large magnetic
installed base
Insight: Provides direct information on Frequency range: Typically from 10-1000 Hz
vibration severity

Table 3: Advantages and disadvantages of seismic velocity sensor

3.3 ACCELEROMETERS (a)

Accelerometers are well-suited for taking high-frequency vibration data where
large forces with relatively small displacements have to be detected. It can
measure signals between 10 Hz – 10 KHz with good accuracy. Higher frequencies
(b)
measured by accelerometers can cover the frequencies generated by faults in
rotating machinery. However, the frequency response depends on the mounting
methods of the accelerometer. More detail on mounting can be found in Section 6.
(c)
Accelerometers are largely designed based on piezoelectric effect. In a typical
design (Figure 8a), the piezoelectric element or crystal is sandwiched between
a mass and the base. An electric voltage that is proportional to acceleration is
generated due to the external vibration applied on a piezoelectric crystal. Figure 8: Accelerometer (a) Internal
construction (b) Actual representation
(c) MEMS type [Ref 9.c]

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 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Application: Ideal for temporary and remote Output affect by the temperature
permanently installed of the surface
Insight: Can locate the fault

Frequency range: Typically from 10-10000

Hz

Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages of accelerometer

So far, we have seen the contact-type vibration measurement which is

being adopted across industries. There are also non-contact vibration
measurements being developed which are described below.

3.4 LASER VIBROMETER

Laser vibrometer is based on the principle of the laser Doppler. In this
technique, a coherent laser beam is reflected from a vibrating surface and
is frequency shifted according to the absolute velocity of the surface by
the Doppler effect. The frequency shift is measured by an interferometer
and converted to velocity. They can be used for modal analysis. Being
expensive, it is rarely used in equipment health monitoring.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Do no load the measurement object and can Expensive
easily change the measurement point by
deflecting the light beam Bulky and difficult to move around

Table 5: Advantages and disadvantages of laser vibrometers

3.5 MM RADIO WAVES

mmWave is a promising technology for measuring tiny displacements, owing
to its short wavelength. This is the latest method of non-contact vibration
which costs less than laser vibrometers. It could be used in cases where it is
impossible to establish a contact sensor on an object performing mechanical
oscillations due to the complexity of fastening or disrupt object rotation balance.

It has advantages over other methods of non-contact -- for example, if

the object is located at an excessive distance from the transducer or if
there is an optical obstacle such as dust, steam or smoke. These are
conditions where ultrasonic sensors (if distance more than 2 m) or laser
sensors (if presence of optical interference) cannot operate at all.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
No interference with the machine Costlier than contact type

Ability to measure in heavy dust and water

vapor environment

Table 6: Advantages and disadvantages of mm radio waves

Torsional vibration measurement is not covered here. Shaft encoders

and torsional laser vibrometers are used to measure torsional vibrations.
They sometimes carry significant diagnostic information as to machine
condition such as with reciprocating machines and gears.

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TYPES OF FAULTS IN
ROTATING MACHINES 4
In this section, we look at different
faults in rotating machines. These
generally relate to a rotating shaft,
bearing, gearbox, rotor, stator, etc.

4.1 SHAFT UNBALANCE

Definition: Rotation of shaft is more to one side. It
is an unequal distribution of mass t

Cause: Unbalance is the unequal distribution of mass within a rotating

system (dust on fan, erosion of blade, porous material). The geometric
centerline of rotation does not coincide with its mass centerline.

Effect: Excitation forces rotating at the shaft speed is generated mainly in radial
direction. Dynamic balancing (adding weights) to shaft is done to mitigate effect.
Figure 9: Shaft unbalance [Ref: 9.d]
Detection: Fault is detected at a frequency of 1* RPM in the form of a 180°phase
shift across the coupling. (Note: RPM = rotation per minute of shaft).

4.2 SHAFT MISALIGNMENT

Definition: Coupling between two rotors with their supports are not
aligned. They can be parallel misaligned or angular misaligned.

Cause: Assembly issue, unlevelled foundation, the

coupling loosens through use over time.

Effect: The rotating shaft can bend after a bearing failure.

Flexible coupling is used to mitigate the effects.

Detection:
Parallel Misalignment
Angular misalignment

• Strong axial vibration at 1x RPM possibly with 2x and

3x harmonics (i.e. vibration at 2x and 3x RPM).

• The 2x RPM harmonic in the axial direction can reach

a value equal to or even higher than 1x.

• Vibration in the radial direction, probably of smaller Angular Misalignment

amplitude than in the axial direction, in 1x, 2x and 3x.

• The axial phase measurements on both sides of

the coupling are 180° out of phase.

Parallel or offset misalignment

• Strong radial vibration in 1x RPM with 2x and 3x harmonics.

Figure 10: Shaft misalignment

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 • The 2x RPM harmonic in the radial direction can reach
a value equal to or even greater than 1x.

• The radial phase measurements on both sides

of the coupling are 180° out of phase.

4.3 BENT SHAFT

Definition: A rotor is considered bent (permanently bowed) when
it loses its symmetry with respect to its rotating axis.

Cause: Thermal expansion and higher axial load.

Effect: This fault will show signs of misalignment and

unbalance and can change with temperature.
Figure 11: Bent shaft
Detection: It can cause a 1× RPM, 2× RPM component in the axial and radial
direction. However, unlike unbalance, a significant axial vibration will be
measured. Phase shift across the coupling at 180° in axial direction.

4.4 LOOSENESS
Definition: Not enough tightening between different mechanical (a)

elements. It can be categorized into two types: looseness of rotating

elements (rolling element bearings, sleeve bearings, couplings, rotors,
etc.); and structural looseness (benches, casters, anchor bolts, etc.).

Cause: Assembly issues, clearance increase due to wear.

Effect: Can lead to unbalance, misalignment, bent shaft.

Detection: (b)

Rotating element looseness

• Presence of frequency with harmonics (1x, 2x, 3x, etc.),

subharmonics (0.5x) and half harmonics (1.5x, 2.5x, 3.5x, etc.).

• More in radial directions than axial.

Structural looseness Figure 12: Looseness (a) Rotating

element (b) Structural [Ref: 9.e]
• Presence of frequency with harmonics (1x, 2x, 3x) in radial
direction. Amplitude of 2x,3x and higher than 1x.

4.5 OIL WHIRL AND OIL WHIP

Definition: It occurs in fluid film bearing when lightly
loaded. It is like a shaft surfing over fluid film.

Cause: At lower loads, there is a mismatch in velocity of oil adjacent to the shaft
and the bearing surface. Also, due to alignment of foundation, thermal effect.

Effect: It can be destructive. It can be eliminated by design

or non-cylindrical bearing or tilting pad bearing. Figure 13: Oil whirl and whip

Detection: Vibration at subharmonics (0.5x, 0.3x)

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4.6 BEARING FAULT
Definition: Defects on the bearing components (inner race, outer
race, cage, balls). Defects include cracks, wear, pitting etc.

Cause: Degraded lubricant, external environment,

fatigue, variable frequency drive currents.

Effect: Misalignment leading to higher vibration and complete

coupling failure leading to secondary damage. Figure 14: Outer race wear

Detection: Presence of frequency at characteristic fault frequencies

related to bearing components with sidebands. Sidebands are frequencies
which would be present around the characteristic fault frequencies.

4.7 GEAR FAULT

Definition: Defects on the gear teeth. Defects include cracks, pitting, missing teeth.

Cause: Degraded lubricant, external environment, fatigue, damaged bearing.

Effect: Misalignment leading to higher vibration, torque imbalance.

Detection: Increase in 2xGMF at initial state followed by harmonics.

Note: GMF = gear meshing frequency, i.e., frequency at which gear

teeth roll. (GMF= number of teeth x rotating shaft speed).

Figure 15: Gear defects [Ref: 9.f]

4.8 BLADED MACHINES FAULTS

Definition: Defect in blades or vanes found in fans, pumps, compressors
and turbines. Defects include cracks, pitting, missing parts.

Cause: Cavitation, fatigue.

Effect: Catastrophic (sometimes) and can lead to secondary

damage on other connected components.
Figure 16: Centrifugal pump
Detection: Increase in amplitude at blade pass frequency blade erosion [Ref: 9.g]
(number of blades x rotating shaft speed).

4.9 STATOR FAULTS

Definition: Shorting of turns in winding; crack in stator core.

Cause: Insulation degradation (higher temperature, moisture, fatigue).

Effect: Complete shorting of motor phase; earth fault.

Detection: Stator fault in induction motors will show at pole passing frequency.
Figure 17: Stator winding shorted [Ref: 9.h]

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4.10 BROKEN ROTOR BARS
Definition: Cracks or missing bar in rotor of motor.

Cause: Manufacturing defect, fatigue, high temperature usage.

Effect: Broken bars cause torque and speed oscillations in the rotor,
provoking premature wear of bearings and other driven components.

Detection: 1x harmonic running speed with rotor fault frequency Figure 18: Missing rotor bar [Image ref: 9.i]
sideband (rotor fault frequency/slip frequency * number of poles).

4.11 ECCENTRICITY
Definition: Offset between the axis of rotation and the axis of symmetry.
Eccentricity can take place in different types of mechanical elements, such
as pulleys, gears and in any relative positioning between two concentric Eccentric Eccentric
pieces -- for example, the rotor and stator of an electric motor. pulley bearing

Cause: Uneven surface wear or manufacturing issue or assembly issue.

Effect: Torque unbalance.

Eccentric Eccentric motor
Detection: Frequency of elements involved (e.g., speed of motor and pulley). gear armature

Figure 19: Eccentricity [Ref: 9.j]

4.12 CRACKED SHAFT

Definition: Surface of shaft has transverse crack which
can open and close during the operation.

Cause: Manufacturing defect, wear due to environment (inside and outside).

Effect: Can be catastrophic.

Detection: Open crack at a 1× RPM, 2× RPM. Breathing

Figure 20: Cracked shaft due
crack at 1× RPM, 2× RPM and 3xRPM (higher). to corrosion [Ref: 9.k]

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STANDARDS USED
IN VIBRATION-
BASED CONDITION
5
MONITORING
FOR PROXIMITY PROBES: API 670

MACHINE ACCELERATION VELOCITY

Frequency Amplitude Frequency Amplitude
(Hz) (g pk) (Hz) (ips rms)
Gearbox 1-10k 0-50 10-1k 0-1
Pumps, Fans, Motors
with Shaft Speed less than 5-1k 0-10 5-1k 0-1
750 rpm
Pumps, Fans, Motors
with Shaft Speed greater 10-5k 0-10 10-1k 0-1
than 750 rpm

Table 7: Proximity probes

FOR VELOCITY SENSOR: VDI 2056 AND ISO 2372

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For accelerometer: ISO 10816/ISO 20816 (under development)

ISO 10816-1 is a document that sets out guidelines for the measurement and
evaluation of mechanical vibration of machines, as measured on non-rotating parts.

Class I machines may be separate driver and driven, or coupled with units comprising
operating machinery up to approximately 15kW (approx 20hp).
Class I machinery - electrical motors 15kW (20hp) to 75kW (100hp), without special
foundation, or Rigdly mounted engines or machines up to 300kW (400hp) mounted on
special foundations.
Class III machines are large prime movers and other large machinery with large rotating
assemblies mounted on rigid and heavy foundation which are reasonably stiff in the direction
of vibration.
Class IV includes large prime movers and other large machinery wuth large rotation assemblies
mounted on foundations which are relatively soft in the direction of the measured vibration (i.e.,
turbine generators and gas turbines grater than 100MW (approx 13500hp) output.

VELOCITY
VELOCITY RANGE LIMITS AND MACHINE CLASSES
SEVERITY
Large Machines
Small Medium Less Rigid
mm/s in/s Machines Machines Rigid Supports Supports Class
RMS Peak Class I Class II Class III IV
0.28 0.02 Good
0.45 0.03
0.71 0.04
1.12 0.06
1.80 0.10
2.80 0.16
4.50 0.25 Satisfactory
7.10 0.40
11.20 0.62 Unsatisfactory
18.00 1.00 (alert)
28.00 1.56 Unacceptable
45.00 2.51 (danger)
The ISO 10816-3 standard provides criteria for evaluating the
vibration of machinery according to measurements taken on non-
rotating parts, such as bearings, bearing pedestals or housings.

ISO 10816-3 applies to machine sets which have a power above 15 kW

and operating speeds between 120 and 15,000 RPM [ Ref 9.l].

ISO 10816-3 GROUP 1 GROUP 2

Large machines Medium machines
300 kW < power < 50 MW 15 kW < power < 300 kW
in/sec mm/sec Motor Motor
peak rms height > 315 mm 160 mm < height < 315 mm
0.61 11.0
Damage occurs
0.39 7.1

0.25 4.5 Restricted operation

0.19 3.5
Unrestricted
0.16 2.8
operation
0.13 2.3

0.08 1.4
Newly
0.04 0.7 commissioned
machinery
0.00 0.0

Foundation Rigid Flexible Rigid Flexible

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MOUNTING LOCATION
AND ITS EFFECTS 6
Mounting is a very important aspect of the
vibration measured from a sensor. When
the sensor is attached to the machine,
the vibration from inside the machine
causes the sensor to vibrate, which is
picked up by the electronics inside.
If the sensor is not mounted correctly, the sensor will vibrate in a way
unrelated to the machine, and the vibration data will be useless. Thus,
the job of the person responsible for data collection is critical.

The method of securing the sensor in the machine directly determines the
high frequency cutoff (Table 6), since the sensor machine contact acts as a
mechanical low pass filter. High frequencies are very low in amplitude (and
energy) and are the first type of content to be affected by the mounting method,
as there may be loss of energy during transmission to the vibration sensor.

There are several mounting methods used today (Figure 21).

Each has pros and cons, so one needs to make sure that the
mounting technique used is in line with the requirement.

Figure 21: Methods to mount a vibration sensor and its frequency spectrum

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 MOUNTING METHODS HIGHEST FREQUENCY

Handheld 2000 Hz

Magnet mounting 5000 Hz

Adhesive mounting 6000 Hz

Screw mounting 7000 Hz

Table 8: Mounting method typical frequency limits

The best mounting method is, of course, by screwing the sensor to the
surface of the machine at the measurement location. However, due to
the cost, this method is only used in permanent monitoring systems.
In order to capture signals at very high frequency (from 6 to 15 kHz),
the use of silicon-based greases and adhesives is recommended.

At the end of the day, it is often a compromise between how early

you want to detect problems - depending on the machine’s use
and failure modes - and the solution’s “user-friendliness”.

DO’S

• The piezoelectric vibration sensor must be as close as possible to the

machine’s surface. Direct stud mounting or epoxy and cementing
pads are most commonly used when screw is not possible.

• The sensor should be mounted in a location as close to the bearings as possible.

• To avoid unintended conduction, ensure all contaminants are removed

from isolation material. Isolator mounting bases protect against high
voltage, static electricity build-up, ESD shocks and grounding issues such
as poor ground bonding, ground loops or different ground potentials.

• 2-pole magnets provide the best connection on curved surfaces.

• Flat magnets are ideal for flat surfaces.

• For accurate trending, mark measurement locations to ensure

readings are taken in the same place every time.

• For measurements above 1,000Hz (60,000 cpm), the spot-faced surface should
be flat within 1 mil and have a surface texture no greater than 32 microinches.

DON’TS

• Avoid mounting the sensor on thin sections, guards, cantilevers or vibration-

free areas (antinodes), or areas with extreme temperature variations.

• Avoid getting debris between the sensor and the surface as this
can dramatically reduce the upper frequency response limit.

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PROCESSING OF
VIBRATION DATA
There are multiple ways of processing vibration
7
data. Here are some simple methods:

Time domain: Statistical parameters: root mean

square, peak to peak, kurtosis, crest factor.

Frequency domain: Frequency spectrum

with trending of amplitude of fault
frequencies associated with each fault.

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DEFINITIONS
8
Absolute vibration: Absolute vibration refers to the vibration of the
rotor relative to the ground such as bearing housing vibration. It is
measured using a velocity seismic sensor or accelerometers.

Relative vibration: Relative vibration refers to the vibration of the rotor

relative to bearing seat. It is measured using proximity probes.

Torsional vibration: Torsional vibration is the twisting of a shaft around

its axis due to varying torque. It can be represented as a fluctuation in
the rotational velocity of a rotating components. Torsional vibration can
be measured using a torsiograph, encoder, or laser vibrometer.

Characteristic fault frequencies and sidebands: Characteristic fault frequencies

is used in reference to bearing fault. Faults in each location of bearing such outer
race, inner race, cage, and balls can generate vibration at a certain frequency.

Z = number of rolling elements, d = rolling element diameter, D =

bearing pitch diameter, α = contact angle, and fr = shaft speed.

Sidebands are frequencies which would be present around the

SLIP FREQUENCY: Slip frequency
characteristic fault frequencies. An example is shown below.
of a motor is the difference
between synchronous speed
(speed at rated frequency) and
1x BPFI
actual motor speed. (For 4 pole,
2x BPFI
50 Hz motor, synchronous
Amplitude

Sidebands at speed is 1500 rpm).

1x RPM
1x RPM POLE PASSING FREQUENCY:
2x RPM Pole passing frequency is the
product of slip frequency and
the number of poles of a motor.
Frequency

Figure 22: Sideband frequency

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REFERENCES
9
a. https://power-mi.com/content/displacement-sensors

b. https://power-mi.com/content/seismic-velocity-transducers

c. https://power-mi.com/content/piezoelectric-transducers

d. https://ludeca.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/
Ludeca-Betavib-UnbalanceVibration-Infographic.pdf

e. https://power-mi.com/content/looseness

f. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2017.13775

g. http://ijtf.org/2021/performance-enhancement-of-centrifugal-pump-
through-cavitation-reduction-using-optimization-techniques/

h. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/54865

i. https://www.eaton.com/ecm/groups/public/@pub/@
electrical/documents/content/pct_918822.pdf

j. https://power-mi.com/content/eccentricity

k. https://www.efficientplantmag.com/2012/07/
failure-analysis-of-machine-shafts/

l. https://www.iso.org/standard/78311.html

Introduction to Vibration-Based Condition Monitoring | www.honeywell.com | 19

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