Network Models

2.1 OSI Reference Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model is a conceptual framework used to
understand and implement standard communication protocols. It divides network
communication into seven layers, each with distinct functions.

Layers and Their Functions:

1. Physical Layer

The Physical Layer is the first and lowest layer in the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) reference model. It is responsible for the physical connection between
devices and deals with the transmission and reception of raw, unstructured data over a
physical medium. Below are its main functions:

1. Bit-by-Bit Transmission

• Converts data into electrical, optical, or radio signals (depending on the medium) for
transmission.

• Ensures the raw bits are transmitted accurately from the sender to the receiver.

2. Physical Medium Control

• Defines the physical connection medium, such as cables (coaxial, twisted pair, fiber
optics) or wireless communication.

• Manages characteristics of the medium, like type and length, and specifies its
compatibility.

3. Data Rate Control

• Defines the rate of data transmission in bits per second (bps).

• Ensures synchronization between sender and receiver for data integrity.

4. Signal Encoding and Decoding

• Converts digital data into physical signals (e.g., voltage, light pulses) suitable for the
medium.

• Includes modulation/demodulation for analog signals.

5. Synchronization

• Maintains proper timing between sender and receiver to ensure bits are transmitted and
interpreted correctly.

6. Line Configuration

• Determines whether the connection uses a point-to-point or multipoint configuration.

7. Topology Design
• Supports different network topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, mesh) for data transmission.

8. Transmission Mode

• Manages the direction of data flow:

o Simplex (one direction only),

o Half-Duplex (both directions but one at a time),

o Full-Duplex (both directions simultaneously).

9. Error Detection (Physical Errors)

• Detects and reports physical issues like signal distortion, noise, and attenuation.

10. Interface Specification

• Defines hardware interfaces such as connectors, pins, voltage levels, and data formats.

The Physical Layer essentially provides the foundation for all higher layers by handling
the physical aspects of data transmission. It ensures that the raw bits can be
transported successfully, regardless of the underlying physical medium.

2. Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is the second layer in the OSI reference model and plays a crucial
role in ensuring reliable data transmission across a physical network.

* Functions of Data Link Layer:

1. Framing

• The Data Link Layer divides the data received from the Network Layer into manageable
units called frames.

• These frames are used to organize data for easier transmission and detection of errors.

2. Error Detection and Correction

• Ensures data integrity by detecting and correcting errors that may occur during
transmission.

• Techniques like cyclic redundancy check (CRC) and checksum are commonly used.

3. Flow Control

• Prevents the sender from overwhelming the receiver by regulating the flow of data.

• Techniques like stop-and-wait and sliding window are employed for flow control.

4. Addressing

• Provides physical addressing using MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to uniquely
identify devices on a network.
• Ensures that data is delivered to the correct device within a local network.

5. Access Control

• Determines how devices share the communication medium, especially in broadcast

networks like Ethernet.

• Manages collisions and ensures fair access using protocols like CSMA/CD (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) or CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance).

6. Error Reporting

• Notifies higher layers of errors or issues that cannot be resolved at the Data Link Layer.

7. Frame Synchronization

• Ensures that the receiver can identify the beginning and end of each frame.

8. Link Management

• Establishes, maintains, and terminates connections between devices for reliable

communication.

9. Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC)

• LLC Sub-layer: Handles error checking, flow control, and framing.

• MAC Sub-layer: Manages access to the physical transmission medium.

By performing these functions, the Data Link Layer ensures error-free and efficient
communication over a physical network medium.

3. Network Layer

The Network Layer is the third layer of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) reference model and is responsible for enabling data
transmission between different networks. Its primary functions include:

1. Logical Addressing (IP Addressing)

• Assigns unique logical addresses (IP addresses) to devices on different

networks.

• Ensures devices can be identified and communicated with across

interconnected networks.

2. Routing

• Determines the best path for data packets to travel from the source to the
destination.

• Uses routing algorithms and protocols like RIP, OSPF, and BGP to decide
optimal paths.

• Relies on routers to forward packets between networks.

 3. Packet Forwarding

• Moves packets from one network to another based on routing tables.

• Uses destination IP addresses to decide where to send packets.

4. Fragmentation and Reassembly

• Splits large data packets into smaller fragments to fit the Maximum Transmission Unit
(MTU) of different networks.

• Reassembles the fragments at the destination.

5. Error Handling and Diagnostics

• Detects and manages errors related to packet delivery (e.g., unreachable destinations).

• Uses protocols like ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) for error reporting (e.g.,
"Destination Unreachable" messages in ping).

6. Quality of Service (QoS)

• Prioritizes network traffic to ensure efficient data transmission.

• Helps in handling bandwidth allocation and minimizing network congestion.

7. Congestion Control

• Manages network traffic to prevent overload and ensure smooth data flow.

• Uses techniques like packet buffering and flow control.

Key Protocols in the Network Layer

• IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)

• IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)

• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

• RIP (Routing Information Protocol)

• OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

• BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)

The Network Layer plays a crucial role in ensuring data reaches the correct
destination across different networks, making it essential for the functioning of
the internet and large-scale communication networks.

4. Transport Layer

The Transport Layer is the fourth layer of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) reference model and is responsible for end-to-end
communication, error detection, and flow control between devices.
 Functions of the Transport Layer:

1. Segmentation and Reassembly

• Breaks down large messages into smaller segments for efficient transmission.

• Reassembles segments in the correct order at the destination.

2. End-to-End Communication

• Ensures direct communication between source and destination applications.

• Manages data flow across different networks.

3. Connection Management

• Supports both:

o Connection-oriented communication (TCP) – establishes a dedicated

connection before data transfer.

o Connectionless communication (UDP) – sends data without setting up a

connection.

4. Flow Control

• Prevents data overflow by regulating data transmission speed.

• Uses methods like Sliding Window Protocol to ensure the sender does not overwhelm
the receiver.

5. Error Control

• Ensures data integrity by detecting and correcting errors.

• Uses checksums to verify data accuracy.

• If errors are found, the sender retransmits lost or corrupted data.

6. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

• Multiplexing: Allows multiple applications to share the same transport layer

connection.

• Demultiplexing: Ensures data is delivered to the correct application based on port

numbers.

7. Reliable vs. Unreliable Transmission

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – Provides reliable, connection-oriented

communication.

• UDP (User Datagram Protocol) – Provides faster but unreliable, connectionless

communication.

Key Protocols in the Transport Layer

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – Ensures reliable, ordered data transmission.

• UDP (User Datagram Protocol) – Enables fast, connectionless communication.

• SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) – Supports multiple streams in a single

connection.

The Transport Layer plays a critical role in ensuring smooth, error-free

communication between applications over a network.

5. Session Layer

The Session Layer (Layer 5) of the OSI Reference Model is responsible for
establishing, managing, and terminating communication sessions between
applications. It ensures that data exchanges between devices are properly
synchronized and organized.

Functions of the Session Layer

1. Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination

o Initiates, maintains, and terminates sessions between applications.
o Handles session setup, including authentication and authorization.
o Ensures orderly termination of communication.
2. Synchronization
o Adds synchronization points (checkpoints) in data streams for efficient
recovery in case of failure.
o Useful in long data transmissions, like file transfers or video streaming,
where resuming from a specific point is needed.
3. Dialog Control
o Manages dialog (communication) between two devices.
o Supports full-duplex or half-duplex communication modes.
4. Error Handling and Recovery
o Detects and recovers session failures by restarting from synchronization
points.
5. Session Security and Authentication
o Manages access control and authentication between communicating
systems.
Examples of Protocols Used in the Session Layer
• RPC (Remote Procedure Call) – Allows execution of functions on a remote
system.
• NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) – Provides session services for
Windows networking.
• PAP (Password Authentication Protocol) – Manages authentication in network
communication.

6. Presentation Layer
The Presentation Layer (Layer 6) of the OSI Reference Model is responsible for
the formatting, encryption, and compression of data exchanged between
applications. It ensures that data is in a readable and transferable format across
different systems.
 Functions of the Presentation Layer
1. Data Translation
o Converts data into a format that can be understood by the receiving
system.
o Handles character encoding (e.g., ASCII to EBCDIC) and data
conversion (e.g., integer to floating point).
2. Data Encryption & Decryption
o Provides security by encrypting data before transmission and
decrypting it upon reception.
o Common encryption protocols: SSL (Secure Sockets Layer), TLS
(Transport Layer Security).
3. Data Compression & Decompression
o Reduces the size of data to optimize bandwidth usage.
o Used in multimedia applications (e.g., JPEG for images, MP3 for
audio, MPEG for videos).
4. Character Encoding & Code Conversion
o Converts character sets (e.g., Unicode, ASCII) to maintain
compatibility between systems.
5. Serialization (Data Structuring)
o Converts complex data structures (like objects in programming) into
a storable and transmittable format (e.g., XML, JSON).
Examples of Protocols Used in the Presentation Layer

• SSL/TLS – Encrypts and secures communication over networks.

• JPEG, PNG, GIF – Image compression formats.

• MP3, AAC – Audio compression formats.

• MPEG, MP4 – Video compression formats.

• ASCII, EBCDIC, Unicode – Character encoding standards.

7. Application Layer

The Application Layer (Layer 7) of the OSI Reference Model is the topmost
layer responsible for providing network services to end-user applications. It acts
as a bridge between the user and the network, ensuring communication
between applications running on different systems.
 Functions of the Application Layer
1. Network Virtual Terminal
o Allows users to log in to remote systems as if they were directly
connected.
o Example: Telnet (remote login).
2. File Transfer, Access, and Management (FTAM)
o Facilitates file transfer and management between systems.
o Example: FTP (File Transfer Protocol), TFTP (Trivial File Transfer
Protocol).
3. Mail Services
o Enables email communication between users.
o Example: SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), POP3 (Post Office
Protocol), IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol).
4. Directory Services
o Provides distributed database services for managing user and system
information.
o Example: LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol).
5. Remote Access Services
o Allows users to remotely access applications and data over a
network.
o Example: RDP (Remote Desktop Protocol).
6. Network Resource Sharing
o Supports access to shared resources like printers, databases, and
files.
o Example: NFS (Network File System), SMB (Server Message
Block).
7. Web Services and Browsing
o Provides protocols for web communication and data retrieval.
o Example: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), HTTPS (Secure
HTTP).
Examples of Protocols Used in the Application Layer

• HTTP/HTTPS – Web browsing.

• FTP, TFTP – File transfer.

• SMTP, IMAP, POP3 – Email communication.

• DNS (Domain Name System) – Resolves domain names to IP addresses.

• SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) – Network monitoring and

management.

Would you like a detailed explanation of any specific function or protocol?

2.2 TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP Reference Model is a practical framework for Internet-based communications. It has
four layers:
Network Access Layer

Internet Layer

Transport Layer

Application Layer

Layers and Their Functions:

1. Application Layer

o Similar to OSI’s top three layers.

o Protocols: HTTP, FTP, DNS.

2. Transport Layer

o Ensures data reliability.

o Protocols: TCP, UDP.

3. Internet Layer

o Handles logical addressing and routing.

o Protocols: IP, ICMP.

4. Network Access Layer

The Network Access Layer (also called the Link Layer) is the lowest layer of the
TCP/IP model. It is responsible for the physical transmission of data over
network hardware like cables, Wi-Fi, and switches.

Functions of the Network Access Layer

1 Data Framing

• Encapsulates IP packets into frames before transmission.

• Adds a header (containing MAC addresses) and a trailer (for error detection).

2 MAC Addressing

• Uses Media Access Control (MAC) addresses to identify devices within a local network
(LAN).

• Every network device has a unique MAC address assigned by the manufacturer.

3 Error Detection & Correction

• Uses Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) or checksums to detect errors in frames.

• If errors are detected, the corrupted frame is discarded or retransmitted.

4 Physical Transmission of Data

• Converts frames into electrical, radio, or optical signals for transmission.

• Works with network hardware like Ethernet cables, fiber optics, Wi-Fi, and modems.
 5 Media Access Control (MAC) Mechanisms

• Manages how devices share the network medium to prevent collisions.

• Uses protocols like CSMA/CD (Ethernet) and CSMA/CA (Wi-Fi) to avoid conflicts in
data transmission.

6 Mapping IP to MAC (Address Resolution Protocol - ARP)

• Translates IP addresses into MAC addresses using ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).

• Ensures that packets reach the correct physical device in a local network.

Key Technologies & Protocols in the Network Access Layer

Technology/Protocol Function

Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) Wired LAN communication

Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) Wireless LAN communication

ARP (Address Resolution Maps IP addresses to MAC

Protocol) addresses

PPP (Point-to-Point Used for direct communication

Protocol) between two nodes

Used in WANs for efficient data

Frame Relay, ATM
transmission

Avoids collisions in Ethernet and

CSMA/CD & CSMA/CA
Wi-Fi networks

Example Workflow in the Network Access Layer

1. A web request is made from a laptop to a website.

2. The IP packet is generated by upper layers.

3. The Network Access Layer adds a MAC address, creating a frame.

4. The frame is converted into electrical (Ethernet) or radio signals (Wi-Fi).

5. The router/switch receives the frame, checks the MAC address, and forwards it to the
correct device.

Would you like further details on any specific aspect?

Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Models:

Here is a comparison between the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model and the
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Model:

Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model

ISO (International Organization for

Developed By U.S. Department of Defense (DoD)
Standardization)

General model for network Model specifically for Internet-

Purpose
communication based communication

Number of
7 Layers 4 Layers
Layers

1. Physical 2. Data Link 3. Network 4. 1. Network Access (or Link) 2.

Layers Transport 5. Session 6. Presentation 7. Internet 3. Transport 4.
Application Application

Uses well-defined Internet

Protocols Used Not specific to any protocol
protocols (TCP, IP, UDP, etc.)

Defines functions of each layer Focuses on practical

Functionality
separately implementation and protocols

Reliability Strictly follows layer separation More flexible and adaptable

Used as a reference model, not for Used for real-world networking

Implementation
implementation and communication

Mainly for learning and teaching network Used in modern Internet

Usage
concepts communication

Provides both connection-oriented Uses TCP for reliable

Transport Layer (TCP) and connectionless (UDP) communication and UDP for fast
services communication

Combines application,
Application Defines application layer separately
presentation, and session into a
Support from presentation and session layers
single layer

Key Differences:

1. Number of Layers: OSI has 7 layers, while TCP/IP has 4 layers.

2. Usage: OSI is a theoretical model for learning, while TCP/IP is practical and widely
used in real-world networks.

3. Application Layer: OSI model has separate Application, Presentation, and Session
layers, whereas TCP/IP combines them into one Application layer.
 4. Flexibility: OSI strictly follows layer separation, while TCP/IP is more flexible in how
protocols interact.

Would you like a detailed explanation of any specific part?

2.3 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The TCP/IP Protocol Suite is a collection of protocols for the Internet. Key protocols include:

• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): For web communication.

• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): For file sharing.

• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): For email.

• DNS (Domain Name System): Resolves domain names to IP addresses.

• TCP/UDP: Transport protocols.

• IP (Internet Protocol): For addressing and routing.

2.4 Addressing

Addresses identify devices in a network. There are four types:

1. Physical Addresses:

o Hardware-based (e.g., MAC address).

o Example: 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E.

2. Logical Addresses:

o Software-based (e.g., IP address).

o Example: 192.168.1.1.

3. Port Addresses:

o Identify specific processes.

o Example: Port 80 (HTTP), Port 25 (SMTP).

4. Specific Addresses:

o For broadcasting or multicasting.

o Example: 255.255.255.255 (broadcast).

2.5 IP Addressing
2.5.1 Classful Addressing:
• Divides IP addresses into five classes: A, B, C, D, E.
• Classes A, B, C are used for host addressing.
Class Range of First Octet Network/Host Division Default Subnet Mask
A 0-127 Network.Host.Host.Host 255.0.0.0
B 128-191 Network.Network.Host.Host 255.255.0.0
C 192-223 Network.Network.Network.Host 255.255.255.0
2.5.2 Classless Addressing:
• Introduced to overcome the limitations of classful addressing.
• Uses CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing).
• Example: 192.168.1.0/24, where /24 denotes the number of bits in the network prefix.
Diagram for Classful Addressing:
Class A: 0.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255
Class B: 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255
Class C: 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.255

Summary

• The OSI and TCP/IP models are essential for understanding network protocols.

• Addressing ensures proper device identification.

• IP addressing methods (classful and classless) are critical for efficient IP management.

Functionality of Layers in more detail