(m) What is Research?

 Research is the process of finding solutions to a problem after a

thorough study and analysis of the situational factors.
 Types of research
 A case study is an in-depth investigation of a single person, group, event, or situation to
understand it deeply and identify patterns or insights that might apply to similar cases.
 Action research is a research method where researchers work directly within a
community or organization to solve a specific problem. It involves a cycle of planning,
acting, observing, and reflecting to bring about practical changes.
 Business research Business research is the process of gathering, analyzing, and
interpreting information to help make informed business decisions. It aims to
understand market trends, customer behavior, competition,.
 Types of business research:
 To solve a current problem faced by the manager in the work setting. Such
research is called applied research
EXAMPLE: Apple’s iPod sales increased by 200% from 2001 to 2008. but the sales decreased by
6% in 2009. What is the reason for this decrease?
The question is: what will apple do about this problem?
.
 To generate a body of knowledge about how to solve problems that could be
occurred in organizations. This is called basic research or fundamental research.
It is also known as pure research.
 EXAMPLE: University professors engage in basic research in an effort to understand and
generate more knowledge about various aspects of businesses, such as:
How to improve the effectiveness of information systems.

QNO2: WHAT IS SCEITIFIC RESEARCH?

Scientific research focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by-step logical,
organized, and rigorous method to identify the problems, gather data, analyze them,
and draw valid conclusions therefrom.
 The Hallmarks or main distinguishing characteristics of scientific research may be listed
as follows:

1. Purposiveness: Research must have a clear and specific goal.

2. Rigor: It should follow a systematic and thorough approach.
3. Testability: The findings can be tested or verified.
4. Replicability: Other researchers can repeat the study and get similar results.
5. Precision: Results should accurately reflect the reality being studied.
6. Objectivity: Findings are unbiased and based on facts, not opinions.
7. Generalizability: Results apply to broader contexts, not just the study sample.
 8. Parsimony: Conclusions are simple and explain the phenomenon effectively.

QNO3: DEDUCTION AND INDEDUCTIONS (m)

Deductive reasoning: application of a general theory to a specific case.

 Hypothesis testing
 Inductive reasoning: a process where we observe specific phenomena and on this
basis arrive at general conclusions.
 Counting white swans
Both inductive and deductive processes are often used in research.
 The seven steps involved in the hypothetico-deductive method of research stem from
the building blocks discussed above and listed below:
1. a broad problem area
2. Define the problem statement
3. Develop hypotheses
4. Determine measures
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis Identify
7. Interpretation of data
Qno.5: problem solve statement?
1. The broad problem area. The broad problem area refers to the entire situation where
one sees a possible need for research and problem solving
2. Literature survey is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the
published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of
specific interest to the researcher.
Reason of :
I. . Helps to find the important variables that are likely to influence the problem
situation are not left out of the study.
II. Helps the development of the theoretical framework and hypotheses for
testing.
III. The problem statement can be made with precision and clarity.
 IV. Testability and replicability of the findings of the current research are enhanced.
V. One does not run the risk of wasting efforts on trying to rediscover something
that is already known.
Data source:
Primary data is original data collected firsthand by the researcher specifically for
their stu Helps to find the important variables that are likely to influence the problem
situation are not left out of the study. 2. Helps the development of the theoretical
framework and hypotheses for testing. 3. The problem statement can be made with
precision and clarity.dy, like surveys, interviews, or experiments.
Secondary data is data that has already been collected by others, such as
existing research studies, reports, or official statistics, which researchers use to
support their own analysis.
3. Components of good problems:
There are three key criteria to assess the quality of the problem statement
1. It should be relevant
2. It should be feasible
3. It should be interesting

5. citations: Citations are references to sources of information researcher use in their work. They
show where you got their facts, ideas, or quotes from, and give credit to the original author or
creator.

(NB) QNO.06: POPULATONS AND SAMPLE?

Populations: Populations refer to groups of individuals, organisms, or entities
that share common characteristics or occupy a specific geographic area. The
term can be used in various contexts:
SAMPLE: A sample is a subset of a population, selected to represent the population for
analysis or study. Samples are used when studying the entire population is impractical
due to time, cost, or other constrain.
Sample frame: A sampling frame is a list or database that includes all the elements or
members of a population from which a sample is drawn.
The need to sample
• A survey of the entire population is impracticable
• Budget: constraints restrict data collection
• Time: constraints restrict data collection
• Results from data collection are needed quickly

Types of sampling
1. Probability: It is a sampling technique in which sample from a larger population are
chosen using a method based on the theory of probability. For a participant to be
considered as a probability sample, he/she must be selected using a random selection.
 Simple random sampling: Simple random sampling is a method of selecting a sample
where every individual or unit in the population has an equal probability of being
chosen. It ensures randomness and eliminates bias in the selection process
Stratified Random sampling: Iinvolves a method where a larger population can be
divided into smaller groups, that usually don’t overlap but represent the entire
population together. While sampling these groups can be organized and then draw a
sample from each group separately
 Gender (e.g., male, female, non-binary).
Income levels (e.g., low, middle, high).
Cluster random sampling: It is a way to randomly select participants when they are
geographically spread out. Cluster sampling usually analyzes a particular population in
which the sample consists of more than a few elements, for example, city, family,
university etc.
Systematic Sampling: It is when you choose every “nth” individual to be a part of the
sample. For example, you can choose every 5th person to be in the sample.
2.Non probability sampling: Non-probability techniques, relying on the judgment of the
researcher, cannot generally be used to make generalizations about the whole population.
Convenience Sampling: It is a non-probability sampling technique used to create sample as
per ease of access, readiness to be a part of the sample, availability at a given time slot or
any other practical specifications of a particular element.
Judgmental Sampling: In the judgmental sampling, also called purposive sampling, the
sample members are chosen only on the basis of the researcher’s knowledge and judgment
Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling method is purely based on referrals and that is how a
researcher is able to generate a sample. Therefore this method is also called the chain-referral
sampling method.
Quota Sampling: Selection of members in this sampling technique happens on basis of a pre-
set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed on basis of specific attributes, the created
sample will have the same attributes that are found in the total population. It is an extremely
quick method of collecting samples.

(NB)REASCEARCH DESIGN and its types

Research design is a plan or blueprint for how to conduct a study. It outlines the methods and
procedures for collecting and analyzing data to answer a research question.

1.Exploratory Study: An exploratory study is a type of research conducted to investigate a problem,

phenomenon, or area where little or no prior information exists. It is used to gain insights, identify
patterns, and establish a foundation for further, more detailed studies.
• When not much is known about the situation
• No information is available
• Extensive preliminary work needed
• Some qualitative study needed (observation, interviews)
2.descriptive study is a type of research aimed at describing the characteristics of a population,
phenomenon, or a specific situation. Unlike exploratory studies, which seek to uncover new
ideas, descriptive studies focus on providing a detailed, accurate picture of the subject being
studied.

3.Hypothesis Testing: Hypothesis testing is a statistical method used to make inferences or

draw conclusions about a population based on a sample of data. It involves formulating two
competing hypotheses, conducting a test using sample data, and determining whether the
sample evidence is strong enough to reject one of the hypotheses.

4.CauSal Study: Researcher wants to delineate(explain) the cause of one or more

problems are called casual study.
5.Co relational Study: When the researcher is delineating the important variables
associated with problem.
STUDY SETTING:
1. Contrived
• Artificial Setting
2. Non Contrived
• Natural Environment
Field Study: Correlation Study in natural environment
Field Experiment: Cause and Effect study in Natural Environment
Lab Experiment: Cause and Effect study in Artificial Environment
Unit of Analysis:
1. Individual as the unit of analysis
• Data will be collected from individual
2. Dyads as the unit of analysis
• Data should be collected from pairs
3. Groups as the unit of analysis
• Team performance
4. Divisions as the unit of analysis
• P&G Divisions
5. Industry as the unit of analysis
• Workforce employed or industry attractive
4. Country as the unit of analysis

(VNB) THE RESEARCH PROCESS: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND

HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT
 Theoretical Framework: A theoretical framework represents your beliefs on how
certain phenomena (or variables or concepts) are related to each other (a model) and
an explanation on why you believe that these variables are associated to each other (a
theory).
 Basic steps:
 Identify and label the variables correctly
 State the relationships among the variables: formulate hypotheses
 Explain how or why you expect these relationships
Develop hypotheseS?
Hypoyhsis is testable statement proven that that can be right and wrong.
 A scientific hypothesis must meet two requirements:
1. The hypothesis must be testable
2. The hypothesis must be falsifiable (we can only prove our hypotheses until they
are disproved).
 Types of data:
There are two types of data:
1. Quantitatative data
2. Qualitative data
3. Qualitative data refer to information gathered through interviews and observations.
These data usually for objects than can not be physically measured, like feelings and
attitudes.
 4. Quantitative data refer to information gathered about objects that can be physically
measured. The researcher could obtain these data through the company records,
government statistics, or any formal records.

Variables: In research, variables are characteristics or properties that can change or vary
within an experiment, study, or observation.

 Main types of variables:

 Dependent variable
 Independent variable
 Moderating variable
 Mediating variable (or intervening)

 Dependent Variable:
The outcome or result that is measured in an experiment. It changes in response to the
independent variable.

 Example: In a study on exercise, the weight loss is the dependent variable.

 Independent Variable:
The factor that is changed or controlled in an experiment to test its effect on the dependent
variable.

 Example: In the same study, the amount of exercise is the independent variable.

 Moderating Variable:
A variable that affects the strength or direction of the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables.

 Example: In the exercise study, age might moderate how exercise impacts weight loss
(e.g., exercise may have a stronger effect on younger people).

 Mediating (or Intervening) Variable:

A variable that explains the process or mechanism through which the independent variable
affects the dependent variable.

Veriables and its types

  Definition of Hypotheses: Is a logical relationship between two or more variables
expressed in the form of a testable statement.

Types:
 Directional hypotheses: the direction of the relationship between the variables
(positive/negative) is indicated.
 Example: The greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of
employees.
Or Women are more motivated than men are.

 Nondirectional hypotheses: there are no indication of the direction of the relationships

between variables.
Example: There is a relationship between age and Job satisfaction.
Or There is a differences between the work ethic values of American and Arabian
employees.
 The alternate hypotheses is the opposite of the null hypotheses, is a statement
expressing a relationship between two variables or indicating differences between
groups.
 The null hypotheses is a proposition that states a perfect, exact relationship between
two variables. It states that the population correlation between two variables is equal to
zero (or some exact number).
(NB) DATA ANALYSIS CHAPTER
 Scale: Scale in research refers to the system or method used to measure or categorize
variables. It helps in quantifying variables, making them measurable and comparable.
There are different types of scales used in research.
TYPES OF SCALE:
 A nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign subjects to certain
categories or groups.
For example, the variable of gender, respondents can be grouped into two categories-
male and female.
Notice that there are no third category into which respondents would normally fall.
 Description: Data is categorized and ordered in a specific sequence, but the
intervals between the categories are not equal.
Example: Education level (High School, Bachelor's, Master's, Doctorate).
What is the highest level of education you have completed?
  Interval Scale: Data is ordered, and the intervals between the values are equal, but there
is no true zero point (i.e., zero doesn’t represent the absence of the quantity).
 Example: Temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit (the difference between 10°C and 20°C
is the same as between 20°C and 30°C, but 0°C doesn’t mean no temperature).

Ratio Scale: The highest level of measurement, where data has both equal intervals and a true
zero point, allowing for meaningful ratios.

Example: Weight (a person weighing 0 kg has no weight), Height, Age.

 The following rating scales are often used in organizational research.

1. Dichotomous scale
2. Category scale
3. Likert scale
4. Numerical scale
5. Semantic differential scale
6. Itemized rating scale
7. Fixed or constant sum rating scale
8. Stapel scale
9. Graphic rating scale
10. Consensus scale

Goodness of measures Goodness of measures refers to how well a measurement tool or model
reflects the underlying concept it is intended to measure. In the context of data analysis,
statistics, and research, the "goodness" typically focuses on the reliability, validity, and accuracy
of the measurement. There are several key aspects:

1. Reliability: This refers to the consistency of a measure. A reliable measure will yield the
same results under consistent conditions. Common tests of reliability include Internal
consistency Test-retest reliability, Inter-rater reliability
2. Validity: This refers to how well the measure actually measures what it is intended to
measure. There are several types of validity: Construct validity, Content validity,
Criterion-related validity.
3. Accuracy: The degree to which a measure correctly reflects the true value of what it is
measuring. This is often concerned with minimizing bias or error in the data.
4. Sensitivity and Specificity: In some cases, these are important measures of a tool’s
effectiveness, particularly in diagnostic testing. Sensitivity Specificity
(NB) DATA COLLECTION

 Sources of Data:
 Primary data: information obtained firsthand by the researcher on the variables of
interest for the specific purpose of the study.
Examples: individuals, focus groups, panels
 Secondary data: information gathered from sources already existing.
Examples: company records or archives, government publications, industry analyses
offered by the media, web sites, the Internet, and so on.
 Data collection Methods are an integral part of research design. There are several data
collection methods, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
 Data collection methods include three main methods:
1- Interviewing: It could be unstructured or structured interviews.
2- Questionnaires
3- Other Methods of Data Collection
 Interviewing
The unstructured and structured interviews have several forms:
Interviews Face-to-face
Telephone interviews
Computer-assisted interviews
Electronic media interviews
 Unstructured Interviews are so labeled because the interviewer does not enter the
interview setting with a planned sequence of questions to be asked of the respondent.
 Structured Interviews are those conducted when it is known at the outset what
information is needed.
The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to be asked of the respondents
either personally, through the telephone or through the medium of a PC.
 The Questioning Technique
 Funneling
In the beginning of an unstructured interview, it is advisable to ask open-ended
questions to get a broad idea and form some impressions about the situation. For
example a question that could be asked, would be:
“what are some of your feelings about working for this organization?”
 Unbiased Questions
It is important to ask questions in a way that would ensure the least bias in the
response. For example:
“Tell me how you experience your job”
this question is better than,
“The work you do must be really boring; let me hear how you experience it”
 Clarifying Issues
 To make sure that the researcher understands issues as the respondent intends to
represent them, it is advisable to restate or rephrase important information given by
the respondent. For example, if the interviewee says,
“There is an unfair promotion policy in this organization; seniority does not count at
all. It is the juniors who always get promoted”.
 Helping the Respondent to Think Through Issues.
If the respondent is not able to verbalize his perceptions, or replies, “I don’t know,”
the researcher should ask the question in a simpler way or rephrase it. For example, the
respondent might be asked which task he would prefer to do: serve a customer or do
some filing work.
 Taking Notes
when conducting interviews, it is important that the researcher makes written notes
as the interviews are taking place, or as soon as the interview is terminated
Personal Interview:
 Advantages
 Can clarify doubts about questionnaire
 Can pick up non-verbal cues
 Relatively high response/cooperation
 Special visual aids and scoring devises can be used
 Disadvantages
 High costs and time intensive
 Geographical limitations
 Response bias / Confidentiality difficult to be assured
 Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers
 Trained interviewers

Questionnaire Design
 Definition
A questionnaire is a pre-formulated, written set of questions to which the
respondent records his answers
 Steps
2. Determine the content of the questionnaire
3. Determine the form of response
4. Determine the wording of the questions
5. Determine the question sequence
6. Write cover letter