Unit-2( MCOB)

Organisational Behaviour (OB)

Organisational Behaviour (OB) is like peeking behind the curtain of a workplace drama. It
is all about understanding how people, teams, and the overall structure influence the way
we work together. Think of it as the playbook for creating a positive and productive work
environment. From how we talk to each other to the secrets of good leadership, it is the
guide to making work not just a place to clock in but a stage for success!

“Organisational behaviour is a subset of management activities concerned with

understanding, predicting and influencing individual behaviour in an organisational
setting.” – Callahan, Fleenor and Kudson.

Benefits of Studying Organisational Behaviour

• Studying OB helps in understanding the behaviour of employees.
• Studying OB enhances leadership skills.
• Studying OB helps in improving communication.
• Studying OB leads to teamwork and collaboration.
• Studying OB leads to enhanced problem-solving.
• Studying OB optimises performance.
• Studying OB improves conflict resolution.
• Studying OB helps in effective decision-making.
What will you do as an OB Professional?
1. Conduct Organisational Assessments: OB professional would analyse and evaluate
organisational structures, cultures, and processes to identify areas for improvement and
recommend strategies to enhance overall effectiveness.
2. Implement Employee Training Programs: OB professionals will be developing and
delivering training programs focused on interpersonal skills, communication, leadership,
and conflict resolution to improve individual and team performance within the organisation.
3. Facilitate Change Management: OB professional collaborates with leaders to plan and
execute organisational changes, ensuring smooth communication by addressing employee
concerns, managing resistance, and promoting a positive culture.
4. Resolve Workplace Conflicts: OB professional acts as a mediator to identify and
address interpersonal conflicts, promoting healthy working relationships and contributing to
a positive and productive work environment.
5. Conduct Employee Surveys and Feedback Sessions: OB professionals gather feedback
from employees through surveys and discussions to assess job satisfaction, engagement
levels, and overall well-being.
6. Advise on Leadership Development: OB professionals guide organisational leaders on
effective leadership practices, helping them develop a positive leadership style that
promotes employee motivation, teamwork, and organisational success.
Organisational Behaviour Careers
1. Human Resources Specialist:
• Specialises in employee relations and talent acquisition.
• Applies OB principles to introduce a positive workplace culture and ensure effective
personnel management.
2. Organisational Development Consultant:
• Focuses on implementing strategies for organisational change.
• Enhances OB expertise to enhance efficiency, employee engagement, and overall
effectiveness.
3. Training and Development Specialist:
• Designs and delivers training programs.
• Utilises OB concepts to improve interpersonal skills, leadership development, and team
collaboration within the organisation.
4. Employee Relations Manager:
• Handles workplace conflicts and employee grievances.
• Applies OB knowledge to maintain positive employee relations and contribute to a
healthy organisational culture.
5. Corporate Trainer:
• Develops and delivers training sessions on communication, leadership, and teamwork.
• Uses OB principles to enhance individual and team performance.
6. Change Management Consultant:
• Specialises in guiding organisations through transition.
• Utilises OB strategies to manage resistance.
• Ensures successful change implementation.
7. Industrial-Organisational Psychologist:
• Applies psychological principles to the workplace.
• Conducts assessments and interventions to improve organisational structures, leadership
effectiveness, and employee well-being.
8. Diversity Specialist:
• Promotes diversity within the workplace.
• Employed OB insights to create inclusive policies, foster cultural awareness, and
enhance organisational diversity.
9. Performance Analyst:
• Evaluates and optimises organisational performance.
• Utilises OB concepts to identify areas for improvement, enhance team dynamics, and
ensure goal alignment.
10. Leadership Development Coach:
• Provides coaching and guidance to leaders.
• Uses OB theories to enhance leadership skills, foster effective communication, and
promote positive organisational outcomes.

Disciplines Contributing to Organisational Behaviour (OB)

Organisational Behaviour (OB) is an interdisciplinary field that studies human

behaviour within organisations. It seeks to understand, predict, and manage human
behaviour in the workplace to improve organisational effectiveness. Various
disciplines contribute to the OB field to provide insights into how individuals, groups,
and organisations function and interact.

Disciplines Contributing to Organisational Behaviour (OB)

1. Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour and mental processes. In OB,
psychology helps analyse individual behaviour within organisations, including motivation,
perception, decision-making, and stress management. Organisational behaviour uses
psychological principles to design effective training programs, assess employee
satisfaction, and develop strategies for enhancing employee well-being.
2. Social Psychology
Social psychology focuses on how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are
influenced by the presence and actions of others. It explores topics such as group dynamics,
social influence, and leadership. In organisational behaviour, social psychology sheds light
on issues, like team dynamics, communication, conflict resolution, and leadership
effectiveness. It helps organisations create harmonious work environments.
3. Sociology
Sociology examines the structure and functioning of societies and social groups. In OB,
sociology is concerned with the organisational structure, culture, and the impact of social
norms and values on behaviour. Sociological insights help organisations understand the
effects of culture on employee behaviour, diversity and inclusion, and the role of
institutions and systems in shaping organisational practices.
4. Anthropology
Anthropology studies human societies, cultures, and behaviours across time and space. In
OB, anthropology explores the cultural aspects of organisations, including norms, rituals,
and symbols. Anthropological perspectives assist organisations in managing cultural
diversity, developing cross-cultural communication strategies, and adapting to global
markets.
5. Economics
Economics analyses the allocation of resources and the behaviour of individuals and firms
in economic systems. In OB, economics helps understand how incentives, rewards, and
decision-making processes affect employee behaviour and performance. Economic
principles are used in OB to design compensation systems, incentive plans, and cost-
effective HR policies.
6. Political Science
Political Science is the study of government, politics, and the exercise of power in society.
Political science is relevant in the context of organisational behaviour (OB) because it helps
us understand the distribution and dynamics of power within organisations, the influence of
individuals and groups in decision-making, and the political strategies employed to shape
organisational policies and actions. By applying political science concepts, OB
professionals can navigate and manage power relations, conflicts, and the broader political
context that affects organisational behaviour and effectiveness.
Absolutes in Organisational Behaviour (OB)
In the field of OB, several fundamental concepts and principles are considered absolutes, as
they consistently hold and guide organizational practices:
1. Individual Differences: People in organisations differ in terms of abilities, personalities,
and values. Recognising and respecting these differences is essential for effective
management.
2. Motivation and Engagement: Motivated and engaged employees are more productive.
Understanding what motivates individuals and how to keep them engaged is a cornerstone
of OB.
3. Leadership: Effective leadership is crucial for organisational success. Different
leadership styles and approaches can have varying impacts on employee performance and
satisfaction.
4. Communication: Effective communication is essential for teamwork, conflict
resolution, and information flow within organisations.
5. Organisational Culture: Culture shapes employee behaviour and influences the
organisation’s overall effectiveness. A positive and supportive culture can lead to better
performance and employee retention.
6. Conflict Resolution: Conflict is inevitable in organisations. Understanding and
managing conflicts constructively is a key skill in OB.
7. Change Management: Organisations must adapt to changing environments. Managing
change, whether related to technology, strategy, or culture is a significant focus in OB.
8. Ethical Behavior: Ethical behaviour and decision-making are critical to maintaining
trust and reputation in organisations. Unethical behaviour can have severe consequences.

Organisational Behaviour – Concept, Nature and Role

Organizational behaviour (OB) refers to the examination of individual and group
dynamics within a corporate environment. While each enterprise is distinct and varies
across sectors, the common aspiration among them is to foster an organizational culture that
harmonizes productivity with employee contentment. Executives frequently employ
insights from OB to decipher team functionalities and individual contributions and
behaviours within the office space. This discourse delves into the essence of organizational
behaviour, scrutinizes its merits and demerits, illustrates instances, and demystifies the
elements influencing OB.
What is Organizational Behavior?
Organizational behaviour (OB) is an interdisciplinary field that examines the interactions
among employees and the processes within an organization to build a harmonious and
effective work environment. OB sheds light on individual conduct within a company, the
collaboration of teams, and the interconnected effects of these elements. It encompasses the
study of behavioural relationships among staff and groups within a business context.
Notably, OB takes into account cultural dimensions, including gender, ethnicity, and the
social dynamics of the workplace.
Implementing OB principles can assist workers in defining their own objectives and
comprehending the influences on them. Organizational behaviour can be explored both in
practice and theory, drawing from disciplines such as psychology, anthropology, and
management science. These academic perspectives enable organizations to devise strategies
and frameworks to innovate and enhance the occupational atmosphere. The study of OB
typically includes topics like negotiation, stereotyping, and decision-making, which
collectively provide insights into an organization’s ethos and forecast employee conduct.
Concept of Organisational Behaviour
Organisational Behaviour is based on several fundamental principles that relate to the
nature of people and organizations. The fundamental principles of OB include:
1. Individual Uniqueness: Stemming from psychological principles, this concept
acknowledges that from birth, each person is distinct, shaped by unique experiences that
further differentiate them from others. Individuals vary across multiple dimensions,
including intelligence, physical attributes, personality, learning abilities, and
communication skills. It is the individual who bears responsibility and makes decisions,
while a group’s power is latent until its members act in concert.
2. The Entirety of a Person: This notion suggests that an organization hires not merely
the skills of an individual but also their preferences, biases, and personal history. One’s
domestic life is intertwined with their professional existence, necessitating that
organizations provide a conducive work environment that promotes both professional
and personal growth and fulfillment.
3. Causality in Behavior: Unseemly behaviour in an individual often has underlying
causes, which could range from domestic issues to challenges in punctuality. When
such behaviour surfaces, it is incumbent upon managers to discern the root cause and
address it effectively.
4. Respect for Individual Dignity: Every person, irrespective of their position, deserves
to be treated with respect and dignity. This principle emphasizes the importance of
recognizing and valuing each job, thereby fostering the improvement of individual
aspirations and capabilities. It stands in opposition to the notion of treating employees
merely as economic instruments.
5. The organization as a social entity: Organizations function as complex social systems,
a concept derived from sociological studies. These systems are subject to both social
and psychological norms that dictate organizational activities. Within an organization,
there exists a blend of formal and informal social structures, emphasizing the
organization’s capacity for dynamic evolution over maintaining rigid relationships.
Each component within this system relies on the others for its function.
6. Shared interests among organizational participants: The principle of mutual interest
underscores the symbiotic relationship between individuals and organizations.
Organizations come into existence and persist through a shared interest among their
 members. Individuals join organizations to fulfill their personal ambitions, while
organizations depend on individuals to achieve their collective goals. A lack of shared
interest can lead to disarray within the group. Conversely, a unified purpose galvanizes
members to collaboratively address organizational challenges rather than casting blame.
7. Holistic concept: The holistic approach to organizational behaviour synthesizes the
aforementioned six principles into a comprehensive framework. This perspective
examines the interplay between individuals and organizations, considering the full
spectrum of personal, group, organizational, and societal dimensions. It involves taking
into account the diverse viewpoints within an organization to grasp the factors shaping
behaviour. Rather than isolating specific incidents or issues, this approach evaluates
them within the broader context that they influence and are influenced by.
Nature of Organisational Behaviour
1. Diversity: Organizational behaviour recognizes the unique differences among
individuals, valuing diversity in backgrounds, skills, and perspectives as a source of
strength and innovation within a company.
2. Adaptability: It emphasizes the need for organizations to be adaptable, allowing them
to respond effectively to changes in the market, technology, and workforce dynamics.
3. Motivation: Understanding what motivates employees is crucial in Organisational
Behaviour, as it directly influences productivity, job satisfaction, and retention rates
within an organization.
4. Leadership: Effective leadership is a cornerstone of Organisational Behaviour, as
leaders shape the culture, set the vision, and guide employees towards achieving
organizational goals.
5. Communication: Clear and open communication channels are vital for the smooth
operation of an organization, facilitating collaboration and minimizing
misunderstandings.
6. Productivity: Organisational Behaviour aims to enhance productivity by optimizing the
work environment, ensuring that employees have the resources and support they need to
perform at their best.
7. Well-being: Employee well-being is a focus area in Organizational Behaviour, with the
understanding that a healthy work-life balance contributes to better performance and
lower turnover.
8. Innovation: Encouraging innovation is part of Organizational Behaviour, as it drives
growth and keeps organizations competitive in their respective industries.
9. Ethics: Organizational Behaviour upholds ethical standards and practices, ensuring that
organizations operate with integrity and respect for all stakeholders.
Role of Organizational Behaviour
The Role of organizational behaviour is multifaceted and crucial for the success of any
organization. Here are some key points highlighting its importance:
1. Performance Improvement: Organizational Behaviour helps in identifying ways to
increase productivity and efficiency, leading to better performance outcomes for both
individuals and the organization.
2. Employee Satisfaction: By understanding the needs and motivations of employees,
Organizational Behaviour contributes to creating a work environment that enhances job
satisfaction and employee retention.
3. Leadership Development: Organizational Behaviour provides insights into effective
leadership styles and practices, enabling the development of leaders who can inspire
and guide their teams.
4. Change Management: It equips organizations with the tools to manage and adapt to
change, ensuring resilience and flexibility in a dynamic business landscape.
5. Conflict Resolution: OB offers strategies for resolving interpersonal and group
conflicts, fostering a harmonious workplace.
6. Organizational Culture: It plays a significant role in shaping and maintaining a
positive organizational culture, which is essential for long-term success.
7. Team Dynamics: Organizational Behaviour studies how teams work and interact,
which is vital for building strong, collaborative teams that can achieve collective goals.
8. Communication Enhancement: It improves communication within an organization,
ensuring that information flows effectively between different levels and departments.
9. Decision-Making: OB aids in the decision-making process by providing a better
understanding of human behaviour and organizational dynamics.
10. Innovation Encouragement: It encourages innovation by creating an environment
where new ideas are valued and employees feel empowered to share their creativity.

What is Individual Behaviour?

Individual behavior meaning can be understood as how a person acts, what they think, and
how they react to internal and outside forces while working at a company. It covers many
parts of who someone is, like personality traits, values, beliefs, feelings, and what drives
them to do their job. The way someone behaves can affect how people get along, how teams
work together, and the overall culture of the whole organization. Managers and leaders must
understand these behaviors to build workplaces where people do their best, enjoy their jobs,
and the company does well. By looking closely at individual behavior, companies can make
plans to help workers feel supported and make the workplace better at getting things done.

Factors Affecting Individual Behaviour

Factors Affecting Individual Behavior at Work Individual conduct within an organizational

setting is influenced by numerous components that form how laborers see their duties and
communicate with others. Understanding these elements is fundamental for administrators to
make viable procedures that enhance worker execution and fulfillment.

Personality

Identity is a center part of individual conduct, comprising of the distinctive attributes and
qualities that persuade how somebody thinks, feels, and acts. Distinctive identity standards,
like the broad Five (availability, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness,
neuroticism), give experiences into how identity characteristics affect work environment
collaborations and execution. Understanding laborers' identities can assist administrators with
changing their methodologies to better rouse and include people.

Values

Principles are profoundly held theories that direct people's conduct and choices. They shape
how people see their jobs inside an association and can impact their responsibility, virtuous
benchmarks, and general laborer fulfillment. Associations that synchronize their qualities
with those of their laborers can cultivate a more concordant and productive work condition.
Attitudes

Attitudes allude to an individual's feelings and assessments with respect to specific people,
articles, or occasions. Positive mindsets towards work, colleagues, and the association can
prompt higher occupation fulfillment and better execution. Then again, negative dispositions
can hamper profitability and make a harmful work condition. Administrators can impact
mindsets through proficient correspondence and acknowledgment.

Motivation

Inspiration is a pivotal driver of individual conduct, swaying how hard people work and their
resilience in defeating difficulties. Various hypotheses, like Maslow's Levels of Requirement
and Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, clarify diverse parts of inspiration and its effect on
conduct. By understanding what inspires laborers, associations can make procedures to build
responsibility and execution.

Perception

Perception is the methodology by which people decipher and make sense of their condition
and encounters. It affects how laborers see their parts, associates, and the association overall.
Administrators ought to perceive that individual observations can change essentially, driving
to contrasting interpretations of a similar circumstance, and work to make clear
correspondence channels to lessen confusions.

Emotions

Feelings play a critical part in shaping individual conduct and choice making forms. They can
influence work environment connections, execution, and general prosperity. Associations that
advance passionate insight and assist laborers with overseeing their feelings can build group
work and make an optimistic work climate.

Social Influences
Social impacts, including family, companions, and organizational culture, fundamentally
affect individual conduct. The standards and desires inside a work environment can shape
how people act and communicate with one another. Understanding these societal elements
can assist associations with cultivating joint effort and a feeling of having a place among
laborers.

What is Personality?
Personality can be described as a rich tapestry of inner psychological characteristics that
both mould and mirror an individual’s thoughts and behaviours within their surroundings.
These inner traits encompass a diverse array of qualities, attributes, traits, factors, and
mannerisms that set one person apart from another. Personalities wield substantial influence
over a person’s choices, whether it be in selecting products or choosing where to shop.
Moreover, they significantly shape how consumers respond to a company’s communication
efforts.
The term “personality” traces its origins to the Greek word “persona”, meaning “to speak
through.” Personality represents the amalgamation of characteristics and qualities that
constitute a person’s distinctive identity. It signifies the role an individual assumes in
public life. Every person possesses a unique, personal character that serves as a primary
driver of their behaviour, defining their personality.
In the realm of Organizational Behavior, an individual’s personality plays an exceptionally
pivotal role in assessing their conduct within an organisation. When a person in a senior
organisational role exhibits an incompatible personality, it can have detrimental effects on
relationships and potentially lead to unrest in the workplace.
Determinants of Personality
The determinants of personality are the various factors and influences that shape an
individual’s unique pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. These determinants help
explain why individuals differ in their personalities and why they respond differently to
various situations. The key determinants of personality include Hereditary factors,
Environmental factors, Situational factors, Cultural factors, Social factors, etc.

I. Hereditary Factors

Heredity, also known as genetics, refers to the influence of genetic factors and biological
inheritance on an individual’s personality. It involves the transmission of traits and
characteristics from parents to their offspring. Various aspects are considered regarding
heredity when it comes to the study of personality, some of them are:
1. Genetic Inheritance: The genetic makeup of an individual is a critical determinant of
their personality. Specific genes and combinations of genes can predispose individuals to
certain traits and behaviours. For example, genes may contribute to temperament,
intelligence, and susceptibility to mental health conditions.
2. Twin and Family Studies: Research on identical and fraternal twins, as well as family
studies, has provided substantial evidence for the hereditary basis of personality. These
studies have demonstrated that certain personality traits, such as introversion-extroversion
and neuroticism, tend to have a genetic component.
3. Gene-Environment Interplay: It is important to note that genetics interact with
environmental factors. Genes can influence how individuals respond to their surroundings
and the experiences they encounter. This interaction is known as gene-environment
interplay and plays a crucial role in shaping personality.

II. Environmental Factors

Environmental factors encompass the external influences and experiences that individuals
encounter throughout their lives. These factors can significantly shape and mold an
individual’s personality. Here are key aspects of environmental determinants:
1. Family Environment: The family is often the primary socialising agent in a person’s
life. The way parents raise their children, including their parenting style and family
dynamics, can profoundly influence personality development. For example, a nurturing and
supportive family environment can foster self-confidence and a positive self-concept.
2. Cultural and Societal Influences: Cultural norms, values, and societal expectations
impact how individuals perceive themselves and others. Cultural factors, including cultural
values and social norms, shape personality traits and behaviours. For instance, collectivist
cultures may emphasisze conformity and interdependence, while individualist cultures may
promote autonomy and self-expression.
3. Peer Groups and Socialisation: Peer groups, friends, and social interactions outside the
family environment play a pivotal role in personality development. Peer influence can
shape attitudes, values, and behaviours, particularly during adolescence when peer
acceptance is highly valued.

III. Situational Factors

Situational factors refer to the immediate context or circumstances an individual

encounters. While personality is generally considered relatively stable, situations can
temporarily influence behavior and expression.
1. Stress and Coping Mechanisms: High-stress situations, such as academic exams, job
interviews, or personal crises, can evoke different aspects of an individual’s personality.
People may exhibit resilience, adaptability, or anxiety depending on the situation and their
coping mechanisms.
2. Role and Context: The roles individuals assume in various situations can lead to role-
specific behaviors. For example, someone may exhibit assertiveness and leadership traits in
a work environment but be more passive in social settings.
3. Mood and Emotional State: An individual’s mood and emotional state at a given
moment can affect their behaviour and expression. For instance, someone in a cheerful
mood may exhibit extroverted traits, while someone feeling anxious may display
introverted tendencies.

IV. Cultural Factors

Cultural factors encompass the societal and cultural environment in which an individual is
immersed. These factors shape an individual’s values, beliefs, and behaviours. Key aspects
of cultural factors include:
1. Cultural Values: Each culture has its unique set of values and beliefs that influence an
individual’s worldview. These values can encompass concepts like collectivism versus
individualism, egalitarianism, and the importance of tradition.
2. Social Norms: Cultural norms dictate acceptable behaviour within a specific society or
community. These norms impact an individual’s choices and actions in various social
contexts, including family, work, and social interactions.

V. Social Factors

Social factors encompass the broader societal context and interpersonal relationships that
an individual experiences throughout their life. These factors include:
1. Peer Influence: The influence of friends and peer groups can significantly shape an
individual’s personality, values, and behaviours. Peer pressure, social acceptance, and the
desire for social belonging can impact decision-making.
2. Social Support: The quality and nature of an individual’s social relationships, including
friendships and support networks, have a profound effect on emotional well-being and can
influence personality traits like resilience and self-esteem.
Big Five Personality Traits
What are Big Five Personality Traits?
The Big Five Personality Traits, also called the Five Factor Model, is described as a way to
understand the different elements of a person’s personality. These traits together describe
the character of an individual and are remembered by an acronym called OCEAN.
• O – Openness
• C – Conscientiousness
• E – Extraversion
• A – Agreeableness
• N – Neuroticism

In the past, people had lots of different traits to describe personalities. But over time, they
found five big traits that make up personality. These five traits help us understand people
better. Researchers worked hard to figure out these traits, and now many people agree with
them. The five main building blocks of personality are known as the Big Five traits. Each
trait can manifest differently in different people and contribute to their unique personalities.
Big Five Personality Traits
1. Openness
This trait also known as ‘openness to experience’, is related to imagination and curiosity.
People high in openness tend to have a broad range of interests and are eager to explore
new ideas and experiences. They are often creative, open-minded, and willing to consider
unconventional points of view. On the other hand, individuals low in openness may be
more traditional, prefer routine, and are less interested in trying new things.
2. Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness means being good at organising, staying disciplined, and working
towards goals. People who are very conscientious are often neat, pay close attention to
small things, and make plans ahead of time. They are also dependable and responsible. On
the other hand, those with low conscientiousness might find it hard to control their
impulses, keep things organised, and finish tasks on time.
3. Extraversion
Extraversion, also known as extroversion, is a trait in a person’s personality that tells about
how social and outgoing a person is. It means they are lively, friendly, talkative, confident,
and show their feelings a lot. People with high extraversion like being with others and it
makes them feel more active and happy. On the other hand, those with low extraversion,
called introverts, are quieter and may feel tired after being around people. They need some
alone time to feel refreshed.
People with High Extraversion:
• Enjoy socialising and is outgoing.
• Talkative and expressive in communication.
• Confident and assertive in social situations.
• Gains energy from being around people.
• Finds joy in the company of others.
People with Low Extraversion:
• Prefer more reserved and quieter settings.
• Tends to be less talkative and selective in speech.
• Often cautious and less assertive in social interactions.
• Feels drained after extensive socialising.
• Values solitude as a means to recharge.
4. Agreeableness
Agreeableness talks about how a person interacts with others. Those with high
agreeableness are usually friendly, helpful, and good at getting along with people. They
tend to trust others easily and are forgiving. Whereas, those with low agreeableness might
be more skeptical and can sometimes be demanding or critical. They might not be as
concerned about how others feel and may not offer help as readily. This trait is about
behaviours like trust, kindness, and helping others. It is not about actively seeking out
relationships like extraversion, but rather about how someone treats and relates to others.
People with High Agreeableness
• Trusting and forgiving
• Honest and Upfront
• Enjoys helping others and being kind
• Cooperative and easy to get along with
People with Low Agreeableness
• Skeptical and less likely to trust
• Demanding and may expect a lot
• May insult and belittle others
• Stubborn and less likely to compromise
5. Neuroticism
Neuroticism, also referred to as stability measures an individuals capacity to handle and
recover from challenges. Individuals, with levels of neuroticism may experience emotions
such as anxiety, irritability and mood swings more frequently. They may be more sensitive
to stressors and may worry frequently. Conversely, individuals low in neuroticism tend to
be emotionally stable, resilient, and less likely to experience extreme mood swings or
anxiety.
Factors Influencing Personality Traits
1. Genetics: Genetic factors play a significant role in shaping personality traits. Studies,
particularly twin studies, have shown that certain traits, such as extraversion and
neuroticism, have a hereditary component. Genes can influence the predisposition to
exhibit certain personality characteristics.
2. Early Childhood Experiences: The environment in which a person grows up, including
family dynamics, parenting styles, and early social interactions, can have a profound impact
on personality development. Traumatic or nurturing experiences during childhood can
shape how individuals respond to various situations and relationships later in life.
3. Culture and Society: Expectations of culture and society can influence the expression of
personality traits. Different cultures may value and encourage certain traits over others that
affects how individuals develop and express their personalities.
4. Peer Influence: Friends and peer groups can shape personality traits, particularly during
adolescence. Adolescents often seek validation and acceptance from their peers, which can
influence their behaviour and the traits they exhibit.
5. Life Events: Significant life events, like trauma, loss or major life changes can impact
our personality traits. These events have the potential to influence our stability
(neuroticism) shaping how we cope with stress and adversity.
6. Biological Factors: Brain structure and chemistry can also contribute to personality
traits. Variations in brain regions and neurotransmitter levels can affect emotional
regulation, which in turn influences traits like neuroticism.
7. Education and Learning: Education and exposure to new experiences can shape
personality traits, particularly openness to experience. Learning about different perspectives
and ideas can broaden an individual’s horizons and impact their personality.
8. Socialisation and Peer Pressure: Socialisation processes, including interactions with
family, friends, and society at large, can influence personality. Peer pressure and societal
norms can lead individuals to conform to certain behaviours and attitudes.
9. Personal Choices and Goals: Individuals can actively work on changing or developing
specific personality traits through self-awareness and personal growth efforts. For example,
someone may consciously strive to become more conscientious or open to new experiences.
10. Maturity and Aging: Personality traits can change over the course of a person’s life.
Some traits tend to stabilise in adulthood, while others may shift with age and life
experiences.

What is Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)?

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) can be defined as a tool to help individuals
understand and describe their personality preferences, as well as gain insights into how they
interact with others and make decisions. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a
widely recognised and used personality assessment tool that is based on a theory of
personality developed by Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers.

Origins of the MBTI

The MBTI was developed over several decades by Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter
Isabel Briggs Myers, who were inspired by the personality theories of Carl Jung. Carl Jung,
a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, proposed the idea that individuals have distinct
psychological preferences that influence how they perceive the world and make decisions.
Jung’s work on personality types laid the foundation for the MBTI. It’s important to note
that MBTI is based on the theories and ideas of Carl Jung but is not directly endorsed or
affiliated with Jungian psychology. While it has been widely used and has its proponents, it
has also faced criticism and debate in the field of psychology regarding its scientific
validity and reliability as a measure of personality.
Assumptions of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
1. Personality Types: MBTI assumes that people can be categorised into distinct
personality types based on their preferences in four dichotomous pairs, resulting in 16
possible personality types. These pairs are:
• Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I)
• Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N)
• Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F)
• Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P)
2. Inborn Preferences: MBTI suggests that people are born with innate preferences for
one side of each of the four dichotomies. For example, some individuals naturally lean
towards extraversion, while others tend to be introverted.
3. Psychological Types: It assumes that each of the 16 personality types represents a
unique combination of these preferences, leading to distinct ways of thinking, making
decisions, and interacting with the world.
4. Consistency: MBTI assumes that an individual’s personality type remains relatively
stable throughout their life. While people may develop their less preferred functions and
adapt to different situations, their core personality type remains consistent.
5. Non-judgmental: MBTI is designed to be non-judgmental, meaning that there are no
“good” or “bad” personality types. Each type has its own strengths and weaknesses, and no
type is inherently superior to others.
6. Self-awareness and Understanding: The primary goal of MBTI is to promote self-
awareness and mutual understanding among individuals. By identifying one’s own
personality type, people can gain insights into their strengths, weaknesses, and preferred
ways of functioning. This understanding can lead to better communication and
interpersonal relationships.
Four Dichotomies of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) uses four dichotomies, or pairs of opposite
personality preferences, to classify individuals into one of 16 possible personality types.
These dichotomies capture different aspects of how people perceive and interact with the
world. Here are the four dichotomies used in the MBTI:
1. Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I):
Extraverts are energised by external stimuli, such as social interactions and activities. They
tend to be outgoing, talkative, and assertive. They often seek social engagement and enjoy
being around people. Introverts are energised by their inner world of thoughts and ideas.
They tend to be reflective, reserved, and focused on their own thoughts. They often need
time alone to recharge and can find social interactions draining.
2. Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N):
Sensors prefer to gather information through their five senses and focus on concrete,
specific details. They are practical, realistic, and tend to rely on past experiences and facts.
Intuitive people prefer to gather information through patterns, possibilities, and future-
oriented thinking. They are imaginative, innovative, and tend to look for underlying
meanings and connections.
3. Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F):
Thinkers make decisions based on logic and objective analysis. They prioritise fairness and
impartiality when making choices and tend to focus on the facts and consequences. Feelers
make decisions based on their values, emotions, and empathy for others. They prioritise
harmony and consider the impact of their choices on people’s feelings and relationships.
4. Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P):
Judgers prefer a structured and organised approach to life. They like to plan, make
decisions, and stick to schedules. They are often seen as decisive and reliable. Perceivers
prefer a flexible and adaptable approach to life. They are open to new information,
spontaneous, and enjoy improvising. They may be seen as more spontaneous and less
structured.
16 Personality Types
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) classifies individuals into one of 16 personality
types based on their preferences across the four dichotomies: Extraversion (E) vs.
Introversion (I), Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N), Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F), and Judging (J)
vs. Perceiving (P). Here are the 16 MBTI personality types along with brief descriptions of
each:
1. ISTJ – The Inspector: Introverted, sensing, thinking, judging, practical, detail-oriented,
organised, and dependable.
2. ISFJ – The Protector: Introverted, sensing, feeling, judging, compassionate, caring,
responsible, and loyal.
3. INFJ – The Counselor: Introverted, intuitive, feeling, judging, insightful, empathetic,
creative, and idealistic.
4. INTJ – The Mastermind: Introverted, intuitive, thinking, judging, strategic, analytical,
independent, and visionary.
5. ISTP – The Craftsman: Introverted, sensing, thinking, perceiving, pragmatic,
adaptable, logical, and hands-on.
6. ISFP – The Composer: Introverted, sensing, feeling, perceiving, artistic, sensitive,
spontaneous, and empathetic.
7. INFP – The Healer: Introverted, intuitive, feeling, perceiving, idealistic, creative,
compassionate, and introspective.
8. INTP – The Architect: Introverted, intuitive, thinking, perceiving, analytical,
innovative, intellectual, and independent.
9. ESTP – The Dynamo: Extraverted, sensing, thinking, perceiving, energetic, action-
oriented, resourceful, and adventurous.
10. ESFP – The Performer: Extraverted, sensing, feeling, perceiving, outgoing,
spontaneous, fun-loving, and people-oriented.
11. ENFP – The Champion: Extraverted, intuitive, feeling, perceiving, enthusiastic,
creative, empathetic, and imaginative.
12. ENTP – The Visionary: Extraverted, intuitive, thinking, perceiving, inventive, curious,
analytical, and adaptable.
13. ESTJ – The Supervisor: Extraverted, sensing, thinking, judging, efficient, organised,
responsible, and practical.
14. ESFJ – The Provider: Extraverted, sensing, feeling, judging, sociable, nurturing,
dependable, and supportive.
15. ENFJ – The Teacher: Extraverted, intuitive, feeling, judging, charismatic,
compassionate, inspiring, and people-focused.
16. ENTJ – The Commander: Extraverted, intuitive, thinking, judging, decisive, strategic,
assertive, and goal-oriented.
Applications of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
1. Self-awareness: MBTI helps individuals gain insights into their own personality
preferences, strengths, and areas for growth. It encourages self-reflection and personal
growth by providing a framework for understanding one’s natural inclinations and
tendencies.
2. Career Guidance: MBTI is often used in career counselling to help individuals identify
suitable career paths that align with their personality types. Certain professions may be
more compatible with specific personality preferences.
3. Team Building: Understanding team members’ personality types can improve team
dynamics. Teams can be assembled with a mix of complementary types, leading to better
communication and problem-solving.
4. Education (Teaching and Learning Styles): In educational settings, MBTI can assist
teachers in understanding the diverse learning styles of their students. Tailoring teaching
methods to match students’ preferences can enhance the learning experience.
5. Communication and Relationships: MBTI can be beneficial in personal relationships,
helping individuals understand and appreciate their partner’s or loved one’s preferences and
communication styles.
6. Conflict Resolution: Understanding personality differences can facilitate more effective
conflict resolution by promoting empathy and reducing misunderstandings.
7. Leadership Styles: Leaders and managers can use MBTI to recognise their leadership
styles and adapt their approaches to better motivate and lead their teams.
8. Employee Development: In the workplace, MBTI can be used for employee
development, identifying areas for improvement, and providing tailored training and
coaching.
9. Stress Reduction: Knowing one’s personality type can help individuals identify stress
triggers and develop strategies to manage stress more effectively. It can also inform
decisions about work-life balance and self-care.
10. Conflict Management: In conflict resolution and negotiation, understanding the
personality types of all parties involved can help mediators and negotiators find common
ground and reach mutually beneficial agreements.
11. Team Productivity: MBTI is often used to enhance team performance by encouraging
members to recognize and leverage their strengths and work collaboratively.
12. Organisational Culture: Some organisations use MBTI to assess and shape their
corporate culture. It can help companies create an environment that supports employees’
diverse preferences and working styles.
Criticism of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) has been the subject of criticism and scepticism
from various quarters, including psychologists, researchers, and educators. Some of the key
criticisms of MBTI include:
1. Lack of Scientific Validity and Reliability: One of the most significant criticisms is
that the MBTI lacks the scientific validity and reliability necessary for a psychological
assessment tool. Many studies have questioned the consistency of MBTI results over time
and across different situations.
2. Forced Dichotomies: MBTI relies on forced-choice questions, which require individuals
to choose between two options. Critics argue that this binary approach oversimplifies the
complexity of personality, as most people exhibit traits along a continuum rather than in
strict dichotomies.
3. Ambiguity and Barnum Effect: Some critics argue that the descriptions of MBTI
personality types are often vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of
individuals, a phenomenon known as the “Barnum effect.” People tend to accept positive
descriptions of themselves as accurate, even when they are quite general.
4. Categorisation vs. Continuum: MBTI categorises individuals into one of 16 distinct
personality types. Critics argue that personality is more accurately viewed as a continuous
spectrum, making it challenging to fit everyone into specific categories.
5. Test-Retest Reliability: Research has shown that individuals may receive different
MBTI results when taking the test on multiple occasions. This inconsistency raises
questions about its reliability.
6. Limited Predictive Value: The MBTI has limited predictive value for performance in
specific job roles or life outcomes. Critics argue that it should not be used as the sole basis
for making important decisions, such as career choices or hiring decisions.
7. Influence of Context and Mood: External factors, such as the test-taking environment
and an individual’s mood at the time of taking the test, can influence MBTI results. This
suggests that the MBTI may not provide a stable measure of personality.

What is Attitude? Definition, Types, Components, Formation, Functions,

Characteristics

What is Attitude?
Attitude is defined as a more or less stable set of predispositions of opinion, interest or
purpose involving expectancy of a certain kind of experience and readiness with an
appropriate response.

Attitudes are also known as “frames of reference“. They provide the background against
which facts and events are viewed.

An attitude describes persons’ enduring favorable or unfavorable cognitive evaluations,

feelings, and action tendencies toward some object or idea. People have attitudes regarding
almost everything such as religion, politics, cloth, music, food.

A person’s attitudes settle into a coherent pattern and to change one may require difficult
adjustment in many others. Thus, a company would be well advised to fit its product into
existing attitudes rather than to try changing people’s attitude.

Attitude Definition
Attitudes are evaluation statements either favourable or unfavourable or unfavourable
concerning objects, people or events. They reflect how one feels about something.
Robbins
Attitude is a mental and neutral state of readiness organized through experience, exerting a
directive or dynamic influence upon individual’s response to all objects and situations with
which it is related.
G.W. Allport
ttitude as an enduring organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual and cognitive
processes with respect to some aspect of the individual’s world.

Krech and Crutchfield

Attitude is a tendency or predisposition to evaluate an object or symbol of that object in a
certain way.

Katz and Scotland

Attitude Meaning
In simple words, an “attitude” is an individual’s way of looking or an individual’s point of
view at something.

Components of Attitude
1. Cognitive component
2. Affective component
3. Behavioral component

Components of Attitude

Cognitive component
Beliefs are the cognitive components of consumer attitude. Cognitive component of attitude
is associated with the value statement. It consists of values, belief, ideas and other
information that a person may have faith in.
Positive brand associations enhance brand equity and are achieved through a number of
positioning strategies. Through brand associations, marketers establish and influence
favorable beliefs about a brand and unfavorable beliefs about competitors.
Affective component
Affective is the emotive component of consumer attitude. Affective component of attitude is
associated with individual feelings about another person, which may be positive, neutral or
negative.
Three research models describe the determinants of affective response.

• Functional theory of attitude explains that consumers buy as a result of one of four
psychological functions: adjustment, ego defense, value expression, and application of
prior knowledge.

• Fishbein model relates consumer beliefs and evaluations to affective response: if beliefs
are strong and desirable, affective responses are positive.

• Belief importance model analyses affective responses across competing brands.

Example: I don’t like Sam because he is not honest, or I like Sam because he is sincere. It is
an expression of feelings about a person, object or a situation.
Behavioral component
Intention is the behavioral component of consumer attitude. Behavioral component of attitude
is associated with the impact of various condition or situations that lead to person
behavior based on cognitive and affective components.
Two research models demonstrate the relationship between intention to purchase and actual
purchase and consumption.

• The theories of reasoned action explain purchasing behavior as a direct result of intention,
influenced by attitude toward purchase and by subjective norms.

• The theory of trying to consume explains actual consumption behavior of purchasers. It

provides insight into the establishment and maintenance of long-term relationship with
consumers.
Example: I don’t like Sam because he is not honest is an affective component, I, therefore,
would like to disassociate myself with him, is a behavioural component and therefore I would
avoid Sam.
Cognitive and affective components are bases for such behaviour. Former two components
cannot be seen, only the behaviour component can be seen. Former is important because it is
a base for the formation of attitude.

Characteristics of Attitude
Characteristics of attitude are discussed below:
1. Attitude are predispositions
2. Attitude are different from values
3. Attitude are evaluative statement
4. Attitude influence human behavior
5. Attitude have intensity
6. Attitude are learnt
 Characteristics of
Attitude

Attitude are predispositions

Attitude are predispositions of purpose, interest or opinion of the person to assess some
objects in a favourable or an unfavourable manner.
Attitude are different from values
Attitude are different from values: Values are the ideals, whereas attitudes are narrow, they
are our feelings.
Attitude are evaluative statement
Attitude are evaluative statements: either favourable or unfavourable concerning the objects,
people or events.
Attitude influence human behavior
A positive attitude towards a thing will influence human behavior towards the thing favorably
and vice-versa.

Attitude have intensity

It refers to the strength of the effective component. For example, we may dislike an
individual but the extent of our disliking would determine the intensity of our attitude
towards the person.
Attitude are learnt
Attitude is not inborn phenomenon. Attitude are learnt through social interaction and
experience.

Functions of Attitude
Four important functions of attitude which are crucial in organizational behavior viewpoint
are:
1. Adjustment Function
2. Ego-Defensive Function
3. Value-Expressive Function
4. Knowledge Function

Functions of Attitude

Adjustment Function
Attitudes often help individuals to adjust to their work environment.

Consumers hold certain brand attitudes partly because of the brand utility. If a product has
helped us in the past even in a small way, our attitude towards it tends to be favorable. One
way of changing attitude in favor of a product is by showing people that it can solve
utilitarian goals. They may not have considered some advertisement which stresses the
utilitarian benefits of a product.
Ego-Defensive Function
Consumers want to protect their self concept from inner feelings of doubt. Cosmetic and
personal hygiene products, by acknowledging this need, increase their relevance to the
consumer and have the possibility of a favorable attitude by offering reassurance to the
consumers self concept.

Example: Older faculty might feel somewhat threatened by a young and new faculty member
who is full of fresh ideas and enthusiasm
Value-Expressive Function
Attitudes are one expression of general values, lifestyles, and outlook. If a consumer segment
generally holds a positive attitude towards being in a fashion segment, consumer may treat
high fashion clothing and accessories as symbols of that lifestyle.

Example, a manager who values honest and sincere work will be more vocal against an
employee who is having a very casual approach towards work.
Knowledge Function
Attitudes provide frames of reference or standard that allow individuals to understand and
perceive the world around him. Individuals have a strong need to know and understand the
people and things with whom they come in contact, especially if they think they might
influence their behavior.

Example, If a student has a strong negative attitude towards the college, whatever the college
does, the student will be perceived as something ‘bad’ and as actually against them.
Also Read: What is Motivation? | Types of Motivation

Types of Attitude
There are broadly three types of attitude in term of organisational behavior
1. Job satisfaction
2. Job involvement
3. Organizational commitment

Types of Attitude
Job satisfaction
A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds toward his or her
job.

A person will hold a positive attitude if had a high level of satisfaction, while dissatisfied
people will generally display a negative attitude towards life.

When we talk about attitude, we generally speak about job satisfaction because they are inter-
related in organizational behaviour.

Job involvement
Job involvement refers to the degree to which a person identifies himself (psychologically)
with his job, actively participates and considers his perceived performance level important to
self-worth. (Robbins)
Higher job satisfaction leads to low absenteeism & employee turnover and indicates that the
individual cares for his job.

Organizational commitment
Organizational commitment refers to a degree to which an employee identifies himself with
the organizational goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.

Resigning from the job or absenting versus job satisfaction is a predictor of organizational
commitment. Organizational commitment depends upon the degree of autonomy & freedom
job and job enrichment factor.

Attitude Formation
The question often arises, ‘how are the attitudes and subsequent behaviors formed?’
While attitudes are basically learned over the years, some inherited characteristics do affect
such attitudes
Some of the learned characteristics responsible for attitude formation are:
1. Experiences
2. Perceptual biases
3. Observation of other person attitude
4. Association
5. Personality
 Attitude Formation

Experiences
Our personal experiences with people and situations develop our attitude towards such
persons and situations.

Through job experience, people develop attitudes towards working conditions, salaries,
supervision, group dynamics and so on.

Perceptual biases
Perception is the result of a complex interaction of various senses such as feelings, seeing,
hearing and so on and plays an important part in our attitude and behavioural formation.

For example, if a manager perceives a subordinate’s ability as limited, he will give him
limited responsibility. Similarly, we lose many good friends due to our changed perception
about them.

Observation of other person attitude

When we like someone, we try to emulate that person’s attitude.

For example, when we are impressed by someone keeping calm under stressful circumstances
and we appreciate such calmness, we might try to do the same.

Association
Our association with the group we belong to strongly influences our attitude. Our close
association with a group would encourage us to be consistent with the attitude of the group.
Personality
Personality is a set of traits and characteristics, habit patterns and conditioned responses to
certain stimuli that formulate the impression that a person makes upon others and this
impression is a function of a person’s attitude.

Consumer Attitude Formation

Attitudes are learned though there are different approaches on how learning works as is
acquired by individuals. Following factors lead to consumer attitude formation:

1. Economic Factors
2. Family Factors
3. Social Factors
4. Political Factors
5. Psychological Factors
6. Personality Factors
7. Reference Group Factors