Mortar

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Mortars for masonrv

Guidance on specification, types, production and use
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Report of a Concrete Society Materials Standing Committee
Acknowledgements
The assistance of the Concrete Society Materials Standing Committee, Neil Crook and Maldwyn Enoch is gratefully acknowledged. The cover photo shows St. Catherines Foyer and Sports Centre, Dublin. Architect: Brady Mallalieu Architects; Photo: Keith Collie. Title page photo shows Toxteth TV, Liverpool. Architect: Union North; Photo: Keith Collie.
Mortars for masonry

Concrete Society Good Concrete Guide 4 Order reference CS I59 ISBN 1 904482 22 8
0The Concrete Society 2005

Published by The Concrete Society, November 2005 Further copies and information about membership of The Concrete Society may be obtained from: The Concrete Society, Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park, Station Approach, Blackwater, Camberley, Surrey GU17 9AB, UK Tel: +44 (0)1276 607140 F a : +44 (0)1276 607141 E-mail: enquiries@oncrete,org.uk Website: www.concrete,org.uk
All rights reserved. Except as permitted under current legislation no part of this work may be photocopied, stored in a
retrieval system, published, performed in public, adapted, broadcast, transmitted, recorded or reproduced in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Enquiries should be addressed to The Concrete Society. The recommendations contained herein are intended only as a general guide and, before being used in connection with any report or specification, they should be reviewed with regard to the full circumstances of such use. Although every care has been taken in the preparation of this report, no liability for negligence or otherwise can be accepted by The Concrete Society, the members of its working parties, its servants or agents. Concrete Society publications are subject to revision from time to time and readers should ensure that they are in possession of the latest version. Printed by Image Xps, Brighton, United Kingdom
Mortars for masonrv

Guidance on specification, types, production and use
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Report of a Concrete Society Materials Standing Committee
Contents
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Standards referred to within the text

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iv 1 1 2 2 3
Introduction 1.1 Purpose and function of mortar Materials 2.1 Sand 2.2 Cement 2.2.1 Portland cement 2.2.2 Air-entrained Portland cement 2.2.3 White Portland cement 2.2.4 Masonry cement 2.2.5 Sulfate-resisting Portland cement (SRPC) 2.2.6 Portland slag cement 2.2.7 Portland fly ash cement 2.2.8 Portland limestone cement 2.3 Limes 2.3.1 Non-hydraulic lime 2.3.2 Hydraulic lime 2.4 Additions 2.4.1 Pulverised-fuel ash (fly ash) 2.4.2 Ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) 2.4.3 Silica fume 2.4.4 Metakaolin 2.4.5 Brick dust 2.5 Admixtures 2.5.1 Air-entraining admixtures 2.5.2 Accelerating admixtures 2.5.3 Water-retaining admixtures 2.5.4 Retarding admixtures 2.5.5 Water-resisting (waterproofing) admixtures 2.6 Pigments 2.7 Water Specification 3.1 Designation 3.2 General use mortar 3.3 High durability mortar 3.4 Low permeability mortar 3.5 Refurbishment mortar 3.6 Mortars for load-bearing masonry 3.7 Mortars for stone masonry 3.8 Mortars for historic buildings
Mortar types 4.1 Cement : sand 4.2 Cement : lime : sand 4.3 Cement : sand (air-entrained) 4.4 Masonry cement : sand 4.5 Hydraulic lime : sand 4.6 Pigmented mortars 4.7 Thin-joint or glue mortars 4.8 Injected mortar Mortar production 5.1 Site batching 5.2 Dry batch mortars 5.3 Ready-mixedready-to-use (retarded) mortars 5.4 Conditions of mortar use Workmanship 6.1 Site batching 6.2 Mixing 6.3 Protection of finished work 6.3.1 Protection against wind 6.3.2 Protection against rain 6.3.3 Protection against frost 6.4 Jointing and pointing Mortar testing 7.1 Quality 7.2 Fresh mortar composition 7.2.1 BRE mortar test 7.3 Set mortars 7.3.1 Calculation of mortar proportions Mortar properties 8.1 Durability 8.1.1 Sulfate attack 8.1.2 Freeze-thaw attack 8.2 Bond 8.3 Efflorescence 8.4 Lime bloom 8.5 Rain penetration References
5 5 5 15 15 15 16 16 17
18 18
18
19 19
21 21 22 23
24
26 26 26
27
8
8 9
28 28
10
10
11 12 12 12 13 13 13
29 29 30 30 31
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Mortars for masonry
List of figures and tables

l i s t of Tables
Table 1: Table 2: Table 3: Table 4: Table 5: Table 6: Table 7: Table 8: Comparison of the grading and fines content limits of aggregates for masonry mortar Types of cement for use in masonry mortars Equivalent mortar mixes Mortars for different applications Volume of mortar (m3)required for 100m2of wall Recommended minimum mortar strengths - BS 5628 Part 1 Temperature rise for cement : sand mortars - BREMORTEST Allowable water-soluble salts in bricks, BS EN 771-1
List of Figures
Mortar colour altering masonry appearance Figure 1: Pre-blended dry silo/dispenser Figure 2: Purpose-built mortar truck Figure 3: Ready-to-use mortars Figure 4: Inaccurate shovel site batching Figure 5 : Bottomless gauge box Figure 6: Removing entrapped air from cement in gauge bodbucket Figure 7: Figures 8- 15: Jointing and pointing profiles
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Mortars for masonry
Standards referred to within the text

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BS 12 BS 146 BS 1200 BS 3892-1 BS 4027 BS 4721 BS 5224 BS 5628-1
Portland cement (withdrawn) Portland slag cement (partially superseded) Building sands from natural sources Pulverised fuel ash for use with Portland cement Sulfate-resisting Portland cement Specification of ready-mixed building mortars (withdrawn) Specification for masonry cement (withdrawn) Code of Practice for use of masonry. Part 1: Structural use of unreinforced masonry Code of Practice for use of masonry. Part 3: Materials and BS 5628-3 components, design and workmanship Portland pulverised-fuel ash cement (withdrawn) BS 6588 Ground granulated blastfurnace slag for use with Portland cement BS 6699 Portland limestone cement (withdrawn) BS 7583 Specification for limestone fines for use with Portland cement BS 7979 Common cement BS EN 197-1 Masonry cement BS EN 413-1 Fly ash for concrete BS EN 450 BS EN 459-1 Building lime Specification for masonry units. Clay masonry units BS EN 771-1 Admixtures for concrete mortar and grout: Part 2 Concrete admixtures BS EN 934-2 Admixtures for concrete mortar and grout: Part 3 Admixtures for BS EN 934-3 masonry mortar Specification for mortar for masonry. Part 2: Masonry mortar BS EN 998-2 Mixing water for concrete - specifications and tests BS EN 1008 Methods for test for mortar for masonry (2 1 parts) BS EN 1015 Pigments for colouring building materials based on cement andor lime BS EN 12878 Lightweight aggregate for concrete, mortar and grout BS EN 13055-1 Aggregates for mortar BS EN 13139 Silica fume for concrete BS EN 13263-1 Aggregates - Part 3: Aggregates for mortar - Guidance on the use of PD 6682-3 BS EN 13139 DD ENV 1996-1-1:1996 Structural Eurocode for masonry
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Mortars for masonry
I Introduction
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Mortars have been used throughout history and have existed in various forms to joint and point masonry units together. Primitive mortars, such as the pozzolanic mortars used by the Romans, are still in good condition. Modern mortars, in addition to providing the traditional bedding surface, have helped speed up construction as well as providing more resistance to rain penetration and higher strength to resist lateral forces. The recommendations contained in this booklet are based on the experience of the staff of the Concrete Advisory Service and others who have been consulted in collating the information.
It is the primary function of mortar in a wall to: provide a pliable bed so that the mason can lay the units true to line, level and plumb take up the unit tolerance in order that the load on the wall is distributed evenly over the whole bearing area of the units bond the units together and help them to resist lateral forces fully fill and seal the joints against rain penetration and erosion. In its plastic state the mortar must be readily workable to allow the mason to work at a satisfactory and economic rate, and be compatible with the unit being laid. In its hardened state the mortar must be strong enough to perform the above but it should also be weak enough to allow minor movement to be accommodated in the joints rather than cracks developing in the masonry units. The mortar must also be durable in the environment into which it is to be built with particular care being taken in exposed and aggressive conditions.
1.1 Purpose and function of mortar

Masonry units vary greatly, from relatively lowstrength autoclaved aerated concrete blocks used internally, to durable natural stone units such as granite. Aerated and other low-strength blocks require a weaker mortar otherwise cracking will be induced by the mismatch between masonry units and jointing materials. Hard and rigid materials such as stone or engineering brick require either to be laid in a soft mortar matrix, preferably including lime and surface pointed with a strong mortar or by using a relatively strong mortar throughout. Guidance can be found in BS 5628-3: Section 3, Table 13.
Mortars for masonry
2 Materials
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Mortar primarily consists of sand together with a binder (cement, lime or hydraulic lime) and water. Additions, admixtures and pigments are added to enhance performance characteristics or appearance.
fines passing the 0.063mm sieve size for fine aggregates produced from crushed rock compared with the requirements of BS 1200 for crushed stone sand.
BS 5628 allows a range of sand contents for each mix designation (e.g. (iii) 1 : 1 : 5 to 6). This range is intended to provide an allowance to be made depending on the sand grading. As previously mentioned less binder is required with a well-graded sand (Type S or 012 category 2) and therefore the 1 : 1 : 6 mix can be used but where a poorly graded sand is contemplated (Type G or 012 category 3) the binder content should be increased by using the 1 : 1 : 5 mix proportions.
2.1 Sand
Sands for mortar should be clean, well graded and free fi-om impurities. They should conform to the requirements of BS 1200 or BS EN 13139. While BS EN 13139 has superseded BS 1200, it still remains current. Guidance on the use of BS EN 13139 is given in PD 6682-3. The standard grading requirements are as shown in Table 1. BS 5628-3, The Code of Practice for use of Masonry: Materials and components, design and workmanship, also includes provision for the use of lightweight aggregate that should comply with BS EN 13055-1: Lightweight aggregates for concrete, mortar and grout. The grading of the sand is very important to the properties of the mortar as well as the sand particle shape, i.e. rounded natural sand or crushed angular and possibly elongated particles. A compacted well-graded sand has about onethird of its volume as voids and therefore a volume ratio of binder to sand of approximately 1 : 3 is traditionally used. However, poorly graded single-sized excessively fine sands with unsuitable particle shape, may have void contents in excess of 40% and then more binder will be required to fill the voids and excess water to provide suitable workability. It is not usually possible to determine the void content of a sand by inspection of traditional grading curves and for quality work it is therefore often necessary to determine the mortar proportions by laboratory testing. However, uncertainty can be removed by using a proven sand source. Generally, suppliers will verify that the sand type is to the relevant British Standard. For a BS 1200, Type S sand, the recommended BS EN 13139 designation would be 012 MP or 012 FP, category 2 fines. Similarly, for a BS 1200 Type G sand, the recommended BS EN 13139 designation would be 012 M p or 012 FP, category 3 fines. It should be noted that a BS EN 13139 0/2 fine aggregate with fines category 4 allows a greater percentage of
There is, however, some evidence that sands outside the range specified in the standards can be satisfactory when properly batched with adequate cement content if acceptable evidence of performance in use with respect to strength and durability has been offered. Although insufficient information exists to provide generalised and authoritativeguidance on the use of such materials, local experience of their performance in use, or the results of specialised tests (e.g. BS 5628-1 : Appendix A) may help in evaluation of their suitability for particular applications. Where sands are to be used in mortars for special category masonry design in accordance with BS 5628-1 attention is drawn to the 28 day compressive strength requirements for mortar cubes given in Table 1 of that Code (see Table 3 of this publication). The fine frequently silty portion of the sand aids the cohesion and workability of the mortar but this will tend to be at the expense of strength as more water may be required to produce the desired workability. A deficiency of fine material can be responsible for water bleeding from the mortar during construction, particularly when transporting the material to the workplace. Organicimpurities, particularly in alluvial sands, may adversely influence the properties of the mortar and although no limit is imposed in the British Standard it would be advisable to test samples for workability and strength before using on site.
Mortars for masonry
Table 1: Comparison of t h e grading and fines content limits of aggregates for masonry mortar (from PD 6682-3 Table B.l)
Sieve aperture (mm) UK I Eurooean
~
1 BS 1200
Is
100
1 BS EN 13139 designation
IG
100
I or2
6.3
6.3
4.00
5.0
98 to 100 (96 to 100) (92 to 100) 90 to 100 (85 to 100) 70 to 100
98 to 100 (96 to 100) (92 to 100) 90 to 100 {85 to 100) 70 to 100
100
2.80 2.36
~
98 to 100 85 to 99 (*5)
(*20)
2.00
1.18
1.oo
0.6
40 to 100
40 to 100
0.5 0.3
-
(31 to 92) (31 to 92) 5 to 70
(35 to 97) (35 to 97) 20 to 90 0 to 25 0 to 8[12]
30 to 70 (MP) 55 to 100 (FP)
I 0.25
0 to 15
0 to 5 [IO] 0.063
0.15 0.075
{O to 5 [IO])
(0 to 8 [12])
0 to 5 (* 5) category 2 0 to 8 ( 5) category 3 i 0 to 30 ( 5) category 4 i (0 to 8 [12])
(0to 5 [IO])
Note 1 Note 2 Note 3 Note 4
M = medium grading, F = fine grading, P = % passing 0.5mm sieve ( } = Interpolation of equivalent grading limits from UK specification () = Required BS EN 13139 tolerances on producers declared typical gradings I1= Umer limit when using crushed stone to BS 1200
A preliminary indication of whether a sand is suitable can be obtained using a few simple tests: Examine a sample under a magnifying glass to determine the particle shape and to see whether there are any harmful particles present, such as coal or clay. Rub the sand between the thumb and fingers; if it balls easily or leaves a stain it may not be suitable. Carry out asimple settlement test to establish silt and clay content; if it exceeds 10% the sand is probably too dirty. However, it may still be suitable but workability and strength tests will need to be carried out. A simple sedimentation test can be carried out by filling a bottle three-quarters full with salted water, adding sand to half fill the bottle and then shaking vigorously. After allowing it to stand for a couple of hours the silt and clay will be clearly seen and can be compared with the depth of the sand (see Figure 1). The interface between silt/clay and sand layers are not always easily distinguishable and in these cases the test is not valid.
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2.2 Cement
In the UK, the most commonly used cements in mortars are Portland cement and masonry cement. Portland cements are generally used with lime andor admixtures such as airentrainers and plasticisers to modify fresh and hardened properties. Masonry cement contains mineraVinorganic additions and additives and is designed especially for use in mortars. Special cements such as sulfateresisting Portland cement and white Portland cement are used when special mortar properties are required, i.e. where there is a risk of sulfate attack or for architectural/ coloured mortar. See Table 2 for a summary of various types of cement for use in masonry mortars.
Health and safety note
Mortar and concrete, while it is still wet, is notorious for its harmful effects on the skin causing dermatitis where the skin becomes inflamed, red, itchy, scaly and cracked. There are two possible types of dermatitis;
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Mortars for masonry
Irritant dermatitis is the result of direct damage to the skin. It is caused by the combination ofwetness, chemical corrosiveness and abrasiveness ofcement in concrete and mortar; Allergic dermatitis occurs when a person becomes sensitised to chromium salts. These are present in the raw materials used to make cement. Sensitisation to additives such as pigments, epoxy resins and hardeners can also occur. The chromate level in cement-based materials is now controlled (the Chromium (VI) Directive). UK cement manufacturers ensure that their cements have levels of soluble chromium (VI), when water is added, that are no more than two parts per million by mass of the dry cement. Where it is necessary to control the quantity of soluble chromium, small amounts of a reducing agent are added to the cement. However, as the reducing agent is only active for a limited period, it is necessary to declare a shelf life (use by date) for cement during which the very low level of chromium (VI) is maintained.
be used as an alternative to Portland cement and eliminates or substantially reduces the amount of air-entraining plasticiser to be added on site. Improved fresh properties and hardened mortar durability may be obtained. It con-forms to BS EN 197-1 CEM I class 32,5 the presence of entrained air suppressing strength.
2.2.3 White Portland cement This special Portland cement is manufactured from raw materials containing very little iron oxide which determines the colour ofgrey cement. China clay instead of ordinary clay is used together in purpose-lined kilns. White cement is often used in architectural and coloured mortars and because it is a class 52,5 cement its high long-term strength should be taken into account. A concern that white cement concrete and mortar may be less durable than grey Portland cement is not borne out by experience.
2.2.4 Masonry cement
Protection against skin contact with wet cement is very important.

Portland cement In the BritishEuropean Standard BS EN 197-1, Portland cement CEM I is the main type of common cement and is standardised by strength classes which classify cement performance at 28 days using a standard mortar prism test procedure. The traditional ordinary Portland cement (formerly standardised in BS 12) is a Portland cement CEM I class 42,5 conforming to BS EN 197-1.
2.2.1
Portland cements (apart from sulfate-resisting Portland cement) may contain up to 5% minor additional constituent (mac) and up to 1% additives. Additional constituents, which can be inert or have slightly hydraulic, latent hydraulic or pozzolanic properties, can improve the physical properties of the cement by optimising cement particle size grading. Additives aid the cement manufacturing process by, for example, improving the efficiency of cement milling and can improve the properties of the cement such as flowability and workability. For masonry work, BS EN 197-1 CEM I class 32,5,42,5, or 52,5 can be used. The compressive strength values for masonry mortars in Table 3 are based on use of a CEM I class 42,5.
2.2.2 Air-entrained Portland cement
Masonry cement is designed especially for use inmasonrymortars andcontainsafinemineral constituent and an air-entraining additive. It is used with only the recommended quantity of sand. The addition of lime or mortar plasticiser is unnecessary and should not be used. Masonry cement has excellent freezethaw durability derived from the entrained air. Masonry cement manu-factured in the UK conforms to BS EN 413-1 type MC 12,5. It should never be used as a direct replacement for Portland cement in cement : lime : sand mixes.
2.2.5 Sulfate-resisting Portland cement (SRPC)
This Portland cement is made from a clinker of low tricalicium aluminate (C,A) content to reduce the risk of attack from soluble sulfates in groundwater or bricks. In all other properties it is similar to CEM I class 42,5. It conforms to BS 4027 class 42,5. SRPC may need to be used where there is a risk of attack from sulfates but it should not be considered to be the cure for all problems concerning sulfates as it is essential that correct mixes are used and that building details are of a high standard. The effects of sulfates in the ground can also be overcome by protecting the structure with tanking etc. More information on sulfate attack is given in section 8.1.1.
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Since the mid 1990s a Portland cement containing an air-entraining additive has been commercially available from UK cement manufacturers. It can
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Mortars for masonry
2.2.6 Portlandslag cement
Portland slag cement conforming to BS EN 197-1 CEM II/B-S class 32,5 or 42,5 containing up to 35% blastfurnace slag has been used in Scotland since the 1920s. This cement has similar properties to Portland cement CEM I except that setting time is longer; it gains strength a little more slowly at first but the 28 day mortar strength is similar. However, it is currently unavailable in the UK. CEM I Portland cement may be used in combination with blasfirnace slag to BS 6699 to produce a Portland slag cement by weigh batching and blending at a mixer.
2.2.7 Portlandfly ash cement
CEM I Portland cement may be used in combination with either pfa to BS 3892-1 or fly ash to BS EN 450 to produce a Portland fly ash cement by weigh batching and blending at a mixer.
2.2.8 Portland limestonecement
Portland fly ash cement with up to 35% pulverised-fuel ash (pfa) has been commercially available for the last 20 years but only limited quantities have been used in masonry mortars. It conforms to BS EN 197-1 CEM IIB-V class 32,5 or 42,5. A class 42,5 is slower setting and gains strength more slowly than the same Portland cement CEM I strength class but 28 day mortar strength is similar.
Portland limestone cement with 10-20% limestone constituent has been commercially available in the UK since the mid 1990s. It conforms to BS EN 197-1 CEM I1 A/L or A L L class 42,5 or 52,5. Setting and strength properties are similar to CEM I class 42.5. To date it has been used mainly for concrete work but also in screeding mortar. Its properties, particularly when used with an airentraining plasticiser, make it similar to a masonry cement and is a suitable cement for use in masonry mortars. CEM I Portland cement may be used in combination with limestone fines to BS 7979 to produce Portland limestone cement by weigh batching and blending at a mixer.
Table 2: Types of cement for use in masonry mortars

Current standard and designation Withdrawn standard and designation
Bulk density approx. (kg/m')
Portland cement Air-entrained Portland cement Sulfate-resisting Portland cement Masonry cement
BS EN 197-1 CEM I class 32.5 42.5 52.5 BS EN 197-1 CEM I class 32,5
BS 4027 class 42.5
1450 z 8 2 3 2 . 5 42.5 52.5 62.5 1450 class 32,5 1450
BS EN 413-1 type MC 12,5
BS 5224: 1995(") class MC 12,5
1375 (containing calcium carbonate) 1050 (containing hydrated lime) 1400
Portland limestone cement
BS EN 197-1 CEM I1 A/L or A L L class 32.5 42.5 52.5

BS EN 197-1 CEM II/B-S class 32,5 42,5
BS EN 197-1 CEM 11/ B-V class 32,5 42,5
BS 7583 class 32,5 42,5

BS 146 class 32,5 42,5
Portland slag cement Max 35%slag (ggbs) Portland fly ash cement Max 35%A, ash @fa)
1425 1400
BS 6588 class 32,5 42,5
(a) BS 5224 coexisted with BS EN 413-1 until October 2005. Cements specified to BS 5224 met all the requirements of BS EN 413-1
Mortars for masonry
2.3 Limes
2.3.1 Non-hydraulic lime
Non-hydraulic hydrated lime is available in bagged or bulk form as a finely ground powder. It has no setting behaviour when mixed with water (hence non-hydraulic) but will harden with time due to carbonation, though this process is extremely slow. The addition of lime to a cement: sand mortar has several benefits including improved workability and cohesiveness of the mix thereby making it easier to use. It has good water retention and bonding properties. The lime used in a cement : lime : sand mortar can be either a hydrated lime or may be prepared from quicklime (non-hydraulic or semi-hydraulic) complying in either case with BS EN 459-1. Quoted mortar mix proportions are based on dry hydrated lime and damp sand. Lime, which is composed mainly of calcium hydroxide, is described as air lime in European (i.e. EN) Standards.
2.3.2 Hydraulic lime
form complex silicate hydrates over an extended period of time. It can be used as a partial substitution for Portland cement CEM I in general up to 35% by weight. Where used, pfa should comply with the requirements of BS 3892-1 and fly ash should comply with the requirements of BS EN 450.
2.4.2 Ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs)
This form of lime is produced when an argillaceous limestone is used as the raw material in the kiln. It will set when mixed with water, hence is hydraulic, although the rate of setting and ultimate strength is considerably lower than for Portland cement. If hydraulic lime is batched dry by volume, the volume of lime may need to be increased by up to 50% to obtain adequate workability. Where used, hydraulic lime should comply with the requirements of BS EN 459-1.
Blastfurnace slag is a by-product of the manufacture of iron. The temperature of fusion within the blastfurnace is approximately 1500Cand similar to the temperature required to make Portland cement clinker from its raw materials in a cement kiln. It results from the fusion of limestone flux with ash from coke as well as the siliceous and aluminous residue remaining after the reduction and separation of the iron from the ore. It is then quenched in water, granulated to optimise its cementing properties, and finally ground to a fine powder. The material is then identified as ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs), an exact description of the manufacturing processes and the raw material from which it is made. In itself, ggbs is cementitious, but for practical purposes needs to be used in combination with Portland cement CEM I or an alternative alkaline activator. Generally, up to 80% by weight of Portland cement is substituted by ggbs in a mix. Where used, blastfurnace slag should comply with the requirements of BS 6699.
2.4.3 Silica fume
2.4 Additions
These materials are not normally used in mortars that are batched on site. They may be part of factory-blended mortars supplied bagged or in bulk silos or as ready-mixed mortar where particular mortar properties can be produced by their inclusion.
2.4.1 Pulverised-fuelash (fly ash)
Pulverised-!%e1 ash (pfa) or fly ash, is a byproduct produced when hard or bituminous pulverised coal is burnt in a power station furnace at operating temperatures of typically 1450C. The ash is recovered from the gas stream by mechanical filters andor electrostatic precipitators. It consists mainly of the oxides of silica, alumina and iron in a glassy spherical form of similar fineness to cement. Pfa is a pozzolan, which means it reacts with lime in the presence of water (has some hardening characteristics) to
Silica fume, sometimes called microsilica, is the by-product from the reduction (at high temperature) of quartz into silicon or ferrosilicon alloys using electric arc furnaces. Production facilities demand considerable sources of energy and are mainly situated in Scandinavia (including Iceland), Europe, America and Canada. It is pozzolanic, i.e. it reacts with water in the presence of lime and has a particle size some 100 times smaller than that of cement. Portland cement has a mean size of approximately 15pm, whereas silica fume is about 0.15pm. The addition rate will be dependent on the mortar formulation but is generally at a Portland cement replacement of up to 10% by weight. If used, silica fume should comply with the requirements of BS EN 13263-1.
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Mortars for masonry
2.4.4 Metakaolin
Metakaolin is a calcined form of china clay, heated to between 750 and 950C when it forms an amorphous structure. It is supplied as a fine powder, 90% of which being finer than 10pm and 50% finer than 2pm. Metakaolin is also a pozzolan but has the distinct function of reducing or eliminating primary lime bloom provided the masonry is cured for 7 to 14 days, i.e. not allowed to dry out. If the masonry is suitably cured then any secondary lime bloom will be prevented following an acid wash of any primary lime deposition. The addition rate will be dependent on the mortar formulation but is generally at a Portland cement replacement rate of up to 25% by weight.
2.4.5 Brick dust
BS EN 998-2 requires the producer to declare the air content when relevant to the intended use, for example in exposed conditions, but without setting a minima or maxima. However, excessive quantities, exceeding about 18%, may give rise to reduced bond and strength. This is particularly relevant if an air-entraining agent is used in a mix where lime is already present.
It is important that a proprietary air-entraining agent is used and not household detergents. Proprietary products for site mixing are designed to give some tolerance in dosage and not only give the correct quantity of air but also the bubble size and stability to ensure that it is still present and effective after hardening. If lime is also being used, the quantity of lime should generally be reduced by 30-50%.
2.5.2 Accelerating admixtures
English Heritage has suggested that brick dust from bricks fired at or around 850C used in combination with lime mortars has been found to act as a highly reactive pozzolanic material, assisting initial set and increasing durability, especially ifthe dust forms a significant proportion of the mix. Larger particles of brick and tile in mortar seem to act as porous particulates, which assist durability. The pores capture air in the original mix and may therefore entrain carbon dioxide to assist early carbonation of the lime binder. The air gaps act as an insulant to the cold and the voids may permit both salt and ice crystals to grow in the wet and winter conditions without rupturing the body of the material.
These can be used with mortars to speed setting, especially in cold conditions. However, they have only a limited effect and should not be relied on as the sole means of providing frost protection. Chloride-based accelerators are the most effective but should never be used if there is any embedded metal such as wall ties and at high dose they can lead to dampness in the wall. Chloridefree accelerators are available but are less effective in mortar applications. Accelerators have been promoted as antifreeze agents but they have no significant effect on the freezing point and there are no admixtures that will act as anti-freeze agents in the commonly accepted sense. Car anti-freeze or similar should not be used as this will have an adverse effect on the hydration of the cement and hence the mortar strength.
2.5.3 Water-retaining admixtures
2.5 Admixtures
Admixtures can provide beneficial properties to the mortar in both the fresh and hardened states.
2.5.1 Air-entraining admixtures
Air-entraining admixtures, also called plasticisers should conform to the requirements of BS EN 934-3. They improve the cohesion of the mortar, reducing water demand and imparting soft handling properties which speed laying. The air also improves frost resistance before and after hardening.
Water-retaining admixtures should conform to the requirements of BS EN 934-2. They are often based on cellulose ethers and can be used in mortar for use with dry absorbent walling units to prevent rapid drying of the mortar and in reducing workability and improving the curing of the mortar in-situ.
Mortars for masonry
2.5.4 Retarding admixtures
Set-retarding admixtures for mortar should conform to the requirements of BS EN 934-3. They extend the period between mixing and setting of mortar. Most applications of retarders are in conjunction with proprietary mortars batched and supplied by ready-mixed mortar companies with the aim of providing mortar with a working consistency for a predetermined period. This set retardation is normally 36 hours but can be as much as 72 hours. Setting after use is initiated by the suction effect of the masonry. If the masonry unit is non-absorbent or saturated, setting may be significantly delayed. In these situations, and also for rendering, retardation should be restricted to 8 hours of working life. Particular care should be exercised when using retarded mortars during winter when they may be prone to extended setting and to frost attack prior to use. Retarding admixtures are not advised for site mixing due to the difficulty in controlling admixture dosage and also because special air-entraining admixtures are required to enhance stability.
2.5.5 Water-resisting (waterproofing) admixtures
Figure 1 illustrates the effect on masonry appearance of changes in mortar colour (same brick used throughout). The pigments in common use are inorganic iron oxides and ochres, giving browns, reds and yellow, chromium oxides and cobalt spinels giving stable greens and blues, and carbon black.
A mortar is considerably darker in colour when wet than when dry, so it is important to make up trial samples and wait until they have thoroughly dried out before deciding on the composition of any particular coloured mortar. The premixed mortar manufacturers will be able to show suitable samples of the coloured mortars they produce.
Water-resisting admixtures should conform to the requirements of BS EN 934-2. Most waterresisting admixtures for mortar are designed to be more water repellent than waterproof. They reduce the amount of capillary absorption into the mortar from rain but will not resist water under immersion conditions.
2.6 Pigments
It is essential that any pigment used in mortar should be stable, and not prone to fade on exposure to light. The pigment should also not have an adverse effect upon the hydration of cement and should comply with BS EN 12878. Both liquid and powder pigments are available but both require consistent addition rates and complete dispersion in the mortar to ensure uniform and consistent pigmentation. Such consistency cannot easily be achieved on site and for that reason premixed pigmented mortar produced under controlled conditions should be used. A great deal of experience has been gained by suppliers of pigments and premixed mortars in the use of coloured mortars. Their advice should be sought whenever coloured mortar is to be used.
Figure I : Mortar colour altering masonry appearance f Courtesy o the Brick Development Association
Mortars for masonry
The colour of pigmented mortar can be dramatically influenced by lime bloom after a few days or weeks following completion of a lift of masonry. The patchy lightening effect caused by deposition of lime on the surface is more noticeable the darker the pigmentation of the mortar and the darker the brickwork or masonry. Attempts to produce a black or dark grey mortar are therefore the most liable to suffer visually from lime bloom especially if the mortar has been gauged with excess water andor the masonry subjected to rain soon after completion.
2.7 Water
Water for mixing should be clean and fiee of any dissolved or suspended material that could have a deleterious effect on the mortar itself, embedded metal or on the overall durability of the building. If it is fit for drinking it will be suitable. In practice, potable water is satisfactory, but if there is any doubt about the quality of the mixing water, the test procedures described in BS EN 1008 should be followed. Care should be taken to ensure that containers used for sampling and storing mixing water are not contaminated by other trades using them for washing tools, particularly those employed in gypsum plastering.
Mortars for masonry
3 Specification
I
The selection of the correct mortar designation (see section 3.1) for any particular purpose is of great importance. It is closely allied to the choice of masonry unit and will depend largely on the durability requirements. A major factor influencing the durability of masonry (including the mortar) is the degree to which it becomes saturated with water. It may become saturated directly by rainfall, indirectly by water moving upwards from the ground or laterally from other material as in the case of a retaining wall. If good architectural details are adopted (e.g. generous roof and coping overhangs etc.) less saturation is likely but conventional weathering details may not be sufficient if there is severe exposure to driving rain. The durability of the masonry therefore depends on the following, but BS 5628-3 should be consulted for more detailed recommendations on these and other situations: exposure to the weather or other sources of water exposure to aggressive conditions from all sources including the ground adequacy of methods taken to minimise the risk ofthe masonry from becoming saturated, both in terms of design and workmanship the characteristics of the masonry units and mortar, particularly as regards resistance to freeze-thaw and chemical attack. Consideration of these factors will lead to a choice of one of the designations of mortar for a particularuseandwill relatetothetype ofmasonry unit chosen (i.e. fired-clay bricks, calcium silicate units or concrete bricks or blocks). However, each designation allows a choice between various types of mortar and further guidance on this choice is given in section 4.0 Mortar Types and section 3.7 Mortars for stone masonry. Table 4 gives guidance on suitable mortar designations according to masonry type for most common situations. The information has been extracted from BS 5628-3. At the design stage the weather conditions at the time of building will rarely be known and indeed building may continue through more than one winter period. The guidance given, therefore, relates to cold weather when night frost might be expected. However, it is essential to fully protect masonry units, mortar and masonry under construction from saturation and freezing.
10
r
Durability and loading requirements demand that mortar develops some strength as it hardens. Typically the compressive strength when fully cured is around 2 to 5N/mm2 for low-rise structures. Mortar within this range will accommodate small movements and any cracking in the masonry will tend to be distributed as hairline cracks and not prejudice stability or appearance. Weak mortars will not be durable in certain environments whereas unnecessarily strong mortars will tend to concentrate cracking in fewer wider cracks.
3.1 Designation
It has been the convention in the UK to classify mortars in terms of designation (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v) with prescriptive mixes for each mortar type (reference BS 5628). In BS EN 998-2 the mortar designation is performance related, with requirements for fresh and hardened properties. Mortars are classified on the basis of their compressive strength, based on publicly available relationships between strength and mix proportions, and are signified by Myfor mortar followed by a strength value in MPa (N/mm2). Composition of prescribed mortars relating to compressive strength is also required for the National Informative Annex to BS EN 998-2. For the purposes of this booklet the conventional designation system is used with minimum compressive strength values from BS 5628 relating to Portland cement CEM I class 42,5 and masonry cement class MC 12,5 with the equivalent BS EN 998-2 mortar class as shown in Table 3. In addition to Mortar class, BS EN 998-2 requires the producer to declare the following properties of the fresh and hardened mortar: Workable life - actual value to be no less than the declared value (by test) Chloride content - maximum of 0.1% by dry mass (by calculation) Air content - see section 2.5.1 above Bond strength - only when used in elements subjected to specific structural requirements (from tabulation or by test) Water absorption - only when used in external elements (by test)
Mortars for masonry
Water vapour permeability - only when used in external elements (from tabulation) Density (dry hardened mortar) - only when relevant (by test) Thermal conductivity - only when used in elements subject to thermal requirements (from tabulation or by test) Reaction to fire - mortar containing 5 1.O% by mass or volume, whichever is the most onerous, of homogenous distributed organic material are classified as reaction to fire Class A I without testing. In the case of thin-layer mortars, in addition to the above, the following additional requirements are also applicable: Aggregate - size to be not greater than 2mm Correction time - actual value to be no less than the declared value (by test).
BRE Digest 362 Bui1dingMortafi')describes mortar in terms of performance as follows:

General Use Mortar for most purposes High Durability Mortar for resistance to severe weather conditions Low Permeability Mortar to resist water penetration. BS EN 998-2 classifies the degree of exposure into either severe, moderate or passive environments depending on the degree of risk of having the masonry exposed to a high water content coincident with the risk of a high frequency of freeze-thaw cycles due to local climatic conditions andor to the design ofthe construction. These exposure conditions can be easily related directly to the conditions given in BS 5628-3, Table 13, which gives the quality of the masonry unit (concrete, clay or calcium silicate) and appropriate mortar designation for the particular application. These various classifications can be combined in order to relate the higher strength mortar designations to particular locations/ applications as shown in Table 4.
3.2 General use mortar

Designation (iii) mortars are identified in BS 5628 as suitable for most purposes, although richer or leaner mixes may be appropriate for particular situations.
Table 3: Equivalent mortar mixes
The proportion of sand depends on whether it is Type S (0/2 category 2) or Type G (0/2 category 3 ) . In thec&Ff the latter use the lower proportion of sand. Sulfate-resistingPortland cement may be used in designations (i), (ii) and (iii). Portland cement class 32,5 may be used providing minimum mortar compressive strength is achieved at the recommended mix proportions. Air entrainment to improve the properties and durability of the mortar is recommended. It may be achieved by the use of air-entrained cements, masonry cements or by the addition of a plasticiser.
11
Mortars for masonry
Table 4: Mortars for different applications (BRE Digest 362)(')

Application General purpose (general use)
BS 5628-3 designation
(iii)
BS EN 998-2 designation
M4
Comments Air-entrained Portland cement : lime : sand mixes o n l p )
I High durability I (ii)

Low permeability (i)
I M6
M12
I-
However, for internal blockwork a 1 : 2 : 8 to 9 mix, designation (iv), is more suitable. A designation (iv) can also be suitable for external masonry work in conjunction with low-strength concrete blocks or cast stone. Where a single mix designation for general use is desirable, then an air-entrained 1 : 1 : 5.5 mix (advocated by BRE 362(') and National House Building Council ("BC) should be considered. However, the use of an air-entraining agent with lime may introduce excessive air into the mortar, which could affect both strength and bond properties.
3.3 High durability mortar

In some situations mortar must be highly resistant to weathering. The main areas where precautions must be taken, irrespective of the type of masonry unit, are below or near ground level, free-standing boundary walls, earth-retaining walls, parapets and chimneys. Such situations usually warrant the use of an air-entrained 1 : 0.5 : 4.5 cement : lime : sand mortar. Additionally, sulfate-resisting cement is recommended in areas where sulfate attack may occur (see section 8.1.1). More specific applications can be found in BS 5628-3, Table 13.
between impervious ceramic tiles in drainage or sewerage system between units composed of capping or copings, cills or damp-proof course in a wall jointing in a water-retaining wall, especially where no waterproofing material is placed on the inner waterretaining face to construct basements, below ground level, or as part of a refurbishment scheme to extend or improve an existing basement below ground level and especially where water ingress is occurring or is likely to occur (where water ingress is to be accommodated by new-build or refurbishment of existing masonry, it is imperative to sample and determine the total sulfate content of the incoming water that is likely to saturate or dampen the masonry).
A designation (i) mortar with a Type S or 0/2 category 2 sand is recommended, with the face of the joint being tooled to provide a firm contact with the unit. Movement joints will need to be at close centres to avoid cracking or else this strength of material should only used over short distances.
3.4 Low permeability mortar

Such a mortar may be appropriate to resist water penetration, for example:
Calcium silicate andmost concrete bricks are not suitable for damp-proof courses. Where used as capping units, copings or cills, in drainage, sewerage or water-retaining walls, a designation (ii) 1 : 0.5 : 4.5 mortar is recommended.
12
Mortars for masonry
Mortar formulations with a polymer modifier (SBR, acrylic etc) can be used to reduce permeability although high clay content sands can be problematical because they produce a high water demand and some may influence the curing of the polymer.
3.6 Mortars for load-bearing masonry

The compressive strength values in Table 3 may be used as a guide only for load-bearing masonry. However, it is necessary to check that the mortar meets the requirements of the structural design strength. Stringent control of the air content (see section 2.5.1) is necessary to maintain con-sistency of both strength and workability for structural adequacy.
3.5 Refurbishment mortar

Before carrying out any mortar refurbishment, it is essential to determine the cause of the distress. If new mortar is found to be failing by rapid weathering evident by the joints eroding, it could be that the mortar has been incorrectly formulated, or inadequately mixed and possibly inadequately protected and cured at an early age. Any or all combinations of these preceding factors may generate premature failure of masonry mortar. A refurbishment mortar should be closely formulated to match the existing mortar in the case of re-pointing or partial rebuilding to an old building. New building refurbishment brought about by some defect in the mortar or masonry should closely replicate the intended mortar class unless the original mortar class was incorrect or the failure has been instigated by external factors such as sulfate attack emanating from the bricks or via external contamination. Once the cause of distress has been established, and the condition of the in-situ mortar classified, it will then be possible to define the extent of the remedial work and to decide upon a suitable refurbishment mortar. If re-pointing is considered a practical means of refurbishment once the joints have been cut out and prepared, consideration should be given to injection pointing. This is a means by which mortar is placed under pressure into the back of the joint and filling carried out to the front, which obviates the risk of incomplete or inconsistent filling. Narrow mortar joints can be effectively reinstated by this means, having the additional advantages of reduced wastage, speed of application and less risk of affecting the aesthetic appearance of the walling. Most mortar formulations can be injected including lime-based, cement/lime and pigmented mortars, as well as mortars modified with waterresisting admixtures etc.
3.7 Mortars for stone masonry

The selection of mortar for stone masonry will generally depend on durability requirements as well as the type of stone to be laid. A general guide for external walls above a damp course would be as follows: Stone, cast stone or flint - Designation (iv) (not in winter) Sandstone or granite - Designation (iii) - Designation (i) Very dense granite Stone materials can be relatively dense and rigid, and require movement joints to be closely spaced to reduce the risk of random cracking. Alternatively, they can be laid in very soft flexible mortar containing lime or limestone additions (see the following section).
3.8 Mortars for historic buildings

It is essential when undertaking refurbishment of a historic building or monument or just a part refurbishment of an element of a historic building, to aim to replace or apply a mortar that is compatible with the original mortar. The worst scenario imaginable is the use of a dense cement-based mortar against a softer masonry, which will have the effect of generating deep impressions along the mortar joint line. Historic buildings, that is, those that were erected prior to the use of cement-based mortars, used a mortar that was rich in lime and inherently permeable allowing any moisture to be readily taken up and also evapo-
13
Mortars for masonry
rated with relative ease. In contrast, cement-based mortars are relatively dense and impermeable and tend to restrict the breathing qualities of historic masonry walls and renders. Lime-based (i.e. cement-free) mortars can be characterised by porosity and plasticity. They are plastic materials that are slow to harden and allow movement within the joints while maintaining structural integrity. These mortars can tolerate seasonal and minor structural movement without generating damage to the brickwork or stone elements of the structure. Instead, the relatively flexible mortar bed takes up the movement over many courses of the masonry. Any hairline cracks that may occur are subsequently healed by autogenous healing, which in the case of limebased mortars is promoted by carbonation or re-carbonation of the mortar, whereas in cementbased mortars the reinstatement is by hydration of the fractured cement grains across the crack. It is therefore of some importance to source materials to carry out the repair that are as near identical to the original as possible. English Heritage produced two documents that are of great value in locating a suitable supply of lime and sand. These are the Directory o Building f Limes() and Directory o Building San& and f Aggregated4).The former gives sources of lime that can be equated to the mortar in the building under consideration. The latter notes suitable sand and grading parameters. It is likely that the mortar in the building under consideration will be analysed to determine its composition and sand grading. Computer-assisted optical stereology will help to precisely match the sand by comparing the parent sand with possible sources to check the angularity. Colour matching is also considered in the English Heritage Directory o Building Sands f and aggregate^'^) as well as grading, durability and cleanliness. English Heritage is currently carrying out work to analyse and characterise various hydraulic limes, including the hybrid mixes that use a blend of
non-hydraulic and hydraulic lime binders, and non-hydraulic lime mortars modified with metakaolins. In the last few years, growing numbers of repair specifications have included the use of both non-hydraulic and hydraulic limes in the mortar mix. There is no historic precedent in England for these hybrid mixes, and they have been implicated recently in a number of failures, particularly of renders and plasters. English Heritage has issued the following recommendations: For the time being, hybrid mixes should not be used for conservation work. Pendingthe outcomeofscientific investigations, there will be a moratorium on the approval of any such mixes in any new grant-aided work in which English Heritage is involved. This moratorium commenced on 15 June 1997 and is still in place at the time of this report. The moratorium applies only to non-hydraulic lime : hydraulic lime mixes. It does not apply to mixes involving nonhydraulic limes and pozzolans, or to mixes based solely on hydraulic lime, or to nonhydraulic lime mixes gauged with Portland cement (in appropriate cases). This statement should not be taken to imply that the current commercially available hydraulic limes are inappropriate for use in conservation work. The failures associated with hybrid mixes seem related to problems with specifications, with workmanship and with materials. English Heritage has carried out investigations into the characteristics and performance of both hydrauliclime mortars (using currently available commercial products) and of hybrid mortars where nonhydraulic and hydraulic mortars are used in the same mix. For further information contact English Heritage.
14
Mortars for masonry
4 Mortartypes
I
Generally within each designation of mortar various types or combinations of the following are available: Cement : sand Cement : lime : sand Cement : sand (air entrained and plasticised) Masonry cement : sand Hydraulic lime : sand Pigmented mortar Thin-joint or glued mortar Injection mortar Within any one designation the different types of mortar are approximately equal in strength and do not generally differ greatly in their other properties, but some general differences do exist. Particular consideration must be given within each designation to formulations that use lime as while they will attain a similar strength, they will take some time to achieve sufficient strength to be freeze-thaw resistant. This needs to be considered when building during the winter months but the advantages that lime inclusions have on crack dispersal and compatibility with low-strength masonry must not be overlooked.
mixture of cement, lime and water in proportions, which fill the voids between the sand grains, and provides good working qualities, water retention, bonding properties and early strengths without the mature strength being too high. Experience has shown that mixes in the proportions 1 : 0.25 : 3, 1 : 0.5 : 4.5, 1 : 1 : 6 or 1 : 2 : 9 will meet most requirements subject to some adjustments depending on the grading of the sand. When the sand grading is uniformly coarse or fine, a decrease in sand content is generally recommended in order to obtain the required workability. Air-entraining agents can be included in cement : lime : sand mixes to improve resistance against freezethaw deterioration, but excessive air will affect bond and compressive strength.
4.3 Cement :sand (air-entrained)

Cement : sand mortars can be modified and made acceptable using admixtures. Mortar plasticisers, which entrain air, provide an alternative to lime for imparting good working qualities. In effect, the air bubbles serve to increase the volume of the binder paste filling the voids in the sand and improving the working properties. The range of entrained air for ready-to-use mortars is normally 7% to 18%.
4.1 Cement :sand

Adequate strength in fully hardened mortar combined with rapid development of strength in the early stages is most conveniently attained using CEM I cement. About one volume of cement is needed for three volumes of sand to give a workable mix but a mortar of these proportions is too strong for most uses. It is not practicable to reduce the strength simply by varying the ratio of cement to sand because lean mixes are harsh and unworkable and therefore leaner mixes have to be modified with admixtures (see cement : sand air-entrained (plasticised) mortar). Unmodified cement : sand mixes are only appropriate for work subjected to high stress made with units of high strength (i.e. reinforced masonry), or in work below the level of the damp-proof course where a dense impervious mortar is required to resist the action of sulfates under damp conditions.
4.4 Masonry cement :sand

Masonry cements usually consist of a mixture of Portland cement with a very fine mineral constituent and a plasticiser/air-entraining agent. The good working properties of mortar mixes made from these cements are derived from the plasticising effects of the fine material and the entrained air, thereby removing the need for lime.
4.5 Hydraulic lime :sand

The main use in recent decades for lime : sand mortar has been for restoration of masonry in historic buildings. It produces a mortar with highly elastic, vapour-permeable properties. The compressive strength of the mortar will be achieved gradually (depending on hydraulic lime classification). The generally
4.2 Cement : lime :sand

Cement : lime : sand mortar mixes are designed on the principle of one volume of binder paste to three volumes of sand. The binder paste is a
15
Mortars for masonry
lower strength of natural hydraulic lime mortars is compatible with natural stone or traditional renovation applications. Hydraulic limes are typically classified as feebly, moderately or eminently hydraulic. Its decline in use for general building work was due to the faster strength development of Portland cement-derived mortars and therefore speed of construction. Its use in general masonry is being revived, by some architects and builders, due to the lower impact that lime mortars have on the environment. Also, as lime mortars are softer it is possible to reduce the number of movement joints required.
4.7 Thin-joint or glue mortars

This type of mortar and laying technique is associated with rapid construction of masonry using mortar joints generally of 2-3mm. It is usually used with masonry units that have high dimensional tolerances, for example, aircrete blocks and units. However, DD ENV 1996- 1 - 1 :1996, the Structural Eurocode for masonry, does allow for the design of some bed joints up to 5mm. The use of thin-layer mortar has some significant advantages over traditional joint thicknesses, particularly when used with single-leaf masonry blocks. Speed of build is significantly increased and the effect of thermal loss through the joints is reduced. In external cavity wall construction, the inner masonry leaf, can be built independently of the outer brick or masonry element which allows the roof construction to go ahead and the internal finishes to be installed much sooner than with conventional masonry techniques. The external brickwork is tied to the inner leaf by screwed-in face-fixed helical wall ties, for example, fixed as the brickwork is laid. This form of construction is widely used in Germany, throughout mainland Europe and was introduced into the UK in 1991. It is claimed that the technique has several advantages: The laying technique is relatively simple and can be learnt in a few hours. The mortar remains workable for about 10 minutes and achieves a good bond within a few hours. There is no restriction on the height that can be laid in a single day. Usually, the first or base course is laid in a traditional mortar to accommodate discrepancies in the floor levels. The thinjoint layer mortar is applied rather like an adhesive and may incorporate anti-crack mesh, typically along every second or third bed joint. Internal partitions are fixed to the walling using galvanised steel frame ties and the outer masonry skin built as a separate operation and fixed with helical wall ties.
4.6 Pigmented mortars

Changing the colour of the mortar can produce variations in the appearance of a wall. The appearance of the wall can also be changed dramatically by changing the brick colour (Figure 1) or even the joint profile (Figures 8-1 5).
As previously mentioned insection 2.6, Pigments,
difficulty can be experienced in obtaining consistency of colour from batch to batch unless the quantities of materials, particularly the pigment, are accurately dispensed preferably by weight rather than by volume. Site-mixed mortar needs to be extremely well controlled to produce colour consistency and maximum chance of success will be obtained using a premixed material. Premixed mortars should comply with BS EN 998-2 when tested to the relevant part of BS EN 1015 to ensure that the colour and dosage are carefully controlled. This should be the choice wherever possible. Sand from the same pit can also change the colour and texture of the mortar, as can the clay bricks depending on where they were fired in the kiln. However, natural selection of bricks and therefore randomisation of colour does not now occur since bricks are delivered on pallets to the scaffolding. A range of over 100 shades in coloured mortar can be produced from 19 basic colours each available in six variations. White mortar can also be produced but will require the use of a white sand as well as white cement. Pigments must comply with BS EN 12878.
16
Mortars for masonry
This new technique is most compatible with aerated concrete blocks, especially the new large or outsize blocks that can quicken the construction. Rapid laying rates combined with the ease of cutting aerated blocks using a bandsaw on site reduce wastage to a minimum.
However, the overall rate of working and the final appearance of the job will depend on the preparation. If pointing is being carried out, the skill and care taken to remove the mortar to the required depth will be a significant factor in the exercise. Injection mortars are formulated to suit both the means of application and the job in hand. Typically, Portland cement complying with BS EN 197-1 CEM I together with silica sands and natural aggregates, lime etc, is used as well as additives to provide workability and thixotropy to assist the injection and compaction. Additives to resist water ingress and pigment to provide colour matching are also options that are used in the formulation of the mortars.
4.8 Injected mortar

This type ofmortar is characterised by the method of application that is via hand-operated injection guns similar to those used in the building trade to apply sealants and adhesives. The claimed advantages of injection mortar are: rate of application depth into the joint, which can be as much as 75mm filling from the back of the joint and proceeding to the front, which ensures no hidden air pockets for water and consequential fiost damage low wastage and a cleaner operation, which reduces disfigurement to the face of the masonry can be used with different mortar types and on a range of applications can be injected into joints as small as 5mm in width.
Mortars for masonry
17
5 Mortar production
For a given designation and type of mortar there will be a range of sand contents. This range is to allow for the effects ofdifferences in sand grading on the properties of the mortar. The lower value, intended for use with uniformly coarse or fine sands, gives a richer mix, improves workability and offsets the increased water demand of these sands. The higher value is intended for wellgraded sand.
A point to emphasise is that it is wrong simply to specify a mortar mix and merely indicate that the lower value should be used for poorly graded sands and the upper value for well-graded sands, since the contractor is invariably not given the information by which to decide what is fine and what is well graded. Consideration should be given to local practice and the grading of the sand (even if it does not conform to BS 1200 or BS EN 13139 grading limits) in deciding the actual mix proportions. Where doubt exists, the lower value should be used.
5.2 Dry batch mortars

Dry-packed pre-blended mortar contains all the ingredients necessary to be mixed on site by adding water. This can be in bulk or in bags although the bagged material is mainly supplied to the do-it-yourself market, and is generally only available in one or two designations. Mortar obtained this way is termed a premrjced mortar and should be of uniform quality as the production is wholly factory controlled. Pre-blended mortar is increasingly being delivered to larger contracts in a bulk silo format (Figure 2). This sometimes includes a dispensing and mixing system. This eliminates the need for the labourer to measure and blend mortar materials and additives on site. The operator needs to concentrate only on introducing the water at the correct rate (can be pre-set) along with the pre-blended dry materials to produce a consistent mortar on demand. An alternative is a mixture of lime and sand that can be obtained pre-blended and bagged. Water and cement are added on site as required. This is called ready-mixed lime sand for mortar (LSM) or coarse stuff. Mortar made using LSM is partially premked and has some advantages in that the LSM is produced under quality control but as cement and water are then added on site great care must be exercised in obtaining the correct proportions.
5.1 Site batching

The traditional way is for all the materials to be delivered separately and mixed on site either through a purpose-built batching plant, or on an ad-hoc basis. Mortar produced by this method is entirely site made and open to all the possible vagaries and uncertainties of site batching and site mixing.
Figure 2: Pre-blended dty silddispenser Courtesy of CPI Euromix Ltd
Mortars for masonry
Figww 3: Purpose-built mortar truck Courtesy of Hanson plc
5.3 Ready-mixedheady-to-use (retarded) mortars
I
L
A mixture of all the necessary materials can be obtained ready-mixed, delivered to site and can be used straight away. There is no need to add water. The materials are mixed off-site in efficient mixers and delivered in either mixer trucks or purpose-built trucks (Figure 3). On site the mortar is stored in suitablecontainers(Figure4) and used within an agreed period. This retarded ready-mixed mortar sets and hardens normally once the masonry has been laid and water absorption takes place. Mortar obtained by this readymixed method is termed a premixed mortar and should be of uniform quality as the production is wholly factory controlled.
Consistent colour is a major benefit of production control.
5.4 Conditionsof mortar use

Cement : sand mortars leanerthan 1 : 8, made with a mortar plasticiser,air-entrained cement or masonry cement, are not recommended.
Figure 4: Ready-to-use mortars
Courteqv of Tarmac Ltd
19 Mortars for masonry
Wet-retarded ready-mixed mortars will require approval from the specifier before use on loadbearing masonry, as there may be issues with building onto masonry that has not fully stiffened and hardened. This can be of particular concern when retardation is for long periods, say up to 72 hours and when combined with working through the winter months. General differences between mortar properties can be overcome in some part by admixtures or special treatments. For example, the bond of airentrained mortars to dry absorbent units can be
considerably improved by incorporating water-resistant admixtures. Air entrainment of cement : lime : sand mortars may improve their resistance to frost damage at early ages. Admixtures based on calcium chloride have no significant advantage and may lead to subsequent dampness and corrosion of wall ties and therefore must not be used.
So called anti-freezes are not recommended as they are not effective and can lead to the introduction of other problems (see section 2.5.2).
20
Mortars for masonry
6 Workmanship
Workmanship is one of the most important factors in relation to finished product durability and visual appearance.
n
When poured into a bucket, cement has a propensity to entrap air. Much of the air can be dispelled by gently tapping the side of the bucket causing the cement to settle allowing more to be added (Figure7). Lime, being finer than cement, is even more prone to this apparent increase in volume. Cement and lime measured in this way can give rise to inaccurate proportioning and possible weaker mixes. A more accurate way would be to have a mixer capable of producing batchesusing whole bags ofeement and lime. This requires a mixer yielding between 0.15 and 0.20m3 of mortar. For smaller batches the cement and lime could be weighed using a spring balance or similar.
6.1 Site batching

Mix proportions for mortar are often given by volume, which infers that volume batching of the materials affords reasonable control over the quantities of the constituents. Unfortunately this is not the case and it is necessary to exercise considerable care when proportioning the materials ifasatisfactorymortaris tobe produced. Weigh batching is recommended wherever possible as this will reduce the inconsistencies experienced with volume batching. Site mortars are often batched by the shovelful, but this is notoriously inaccurate as shown in Figure 5. The quantity of material in a shovelful can vary considerably, especially with cement and clearly the volume of a shovelful of dry cement is not the same as that of damp sand. This method should not be encouraged.
-..
.
Figwe 5: inaccurate showl~sile batching
Volume batching can be used on site using a suitable standard container (bucket) or gauge box (Figure 6 ) but even then great care must be taken, especially when measuring the cement and lime.
The most convenientand acceptablyaccurate way of measuring sand on site is either by the bucketful or by using a bottomlessgauge box. A 14-litre bucket filled to the brim c ~ f l be lifted by one person and tipped directly into the mixer. A bottomless gauge box can also be employed to measure the required volume by filling it to the brim, removingthe box and shovelling the measured quantity into the mixer. Although the effects of bulking (increase in volume with moisture content) are not taken into account this is considered to be the most practical method and will tend to produce slightly richer mixes than if the proportions are adjusted to cater for the effects of bulking. However, over-rich mixes are to be avoided as these lead to crack damage of the masonry unit. It is noted that the quantities of sand given in Table 3 are for dry sand with no account being taken of bulking.
rrgure 0.- Dotromress gauge oox
MF -S
for masonry
21
Table 5: Volume of mortar (m3)required for 100mZof wall

Unit work size (mm)
440 x 215 440x215*'" 440 x 215**I"
Number of
units
Wall thickness (mm)

90
100
0.66
102.5
140
190
215
988
0.59
0.92
1.25
1.42
I 1975
2020 1250 2500 2500 5926
I0.67
I0.75
I1.77
I1.04
I1.41 2.34 2.33
I 2.82
2.39
390 x 190 390 x 190*w 390 x 190**" 215 x 65 215x65*lM 215 x65*1025 290 x 90 290 x 190 x 90 190 x 90+w 190 x 65 190 x 65**
1.72
I 11852 I 11852
3333 6667 5000 10000 6661 13333
II1.17
II-
II-
Il-
II-
I 4.94
14.54
3.34
I I
1.31
3.62
1.59
4.18
As an approximate calculation of the number
of bucketfuls of sand required per 25kg bag of cement multiply the volume of a bag of cement (-17 litres) by the sandcement ratio then divide by the volume of the bucket used. Thus a 1 : 1 : 6 mix using whole bags of cement and lime requires 7.5 bucketfuls (14-litre bucket) of sand, e.g. (17 x 6) + 14 = 7.5. The quantities of materials for a mortar mix depend on the mix required and the type of sand used. Irrespective of the type of mix, the yield will be about the same as the volume of the sand plus 5%. The nominal yields of mixes together with the number of units and the amount of mortar per loom2 of walling are given in Table 5. It should be noted that an increase of at least 15% above the figures given may be required to allow for wastage, tolerance and yield variations of the mortar. The same methods of batching can be employed when premixed lime sand for mortar (LSM) is used. The gauging of LSM is considered more advantageous than preparing a mixture of cement, dry hydrated lime and sand as the lime becomes more plastic if it is soaked in water before use. When dry hydrated lime is used the working properties of the mortar can be improved by increasing the volume of lime by up to 50%.
22
I
Control is needed to prevent excessive use of air-entraining agents or excessive mixing as this can reduce the bond and compressive strength of the hardened mortar.
6.2 Mixing
Mechanical mixers are desirable for all but the smallest jobs if much hard manual work is to be avoided. The most efficient mixers are the pan type, but tilting-drum mixers and fieefall mixers are more commonly used on site and are satisfactory when properly maintained. When mixing is done manually with shovels, a clean level platform or concrete apron is required. For mixing, the water should be firstly gauged in a quantity just below that ultimately required; half the sand should then be added slowly to ensure that it is all mixed with the water and does not ball. The cement should then be added in a similar fashion followed by the rest of the sand. Finally, a further small quantity of water should be added to give a workable consistency. Mixing should continue for about three minutes to ensure uniformity of the mix, and then the batch should be discharged from the mixer and
Mortarsfor masonry
set alongside where it will be used. Any addition ofan additive should be measured and distributed within the water. Variations in the mixing time can result in wide variations in the entrainment of air, particularly when admixtures are used and this will have the effect of producing unwanted changes in the workability and density of the mix. Other than in the coldest weather, all the mortar (except retarded mixes) should be used within two hours of mixing and ideally within an hour or so of being mixed. In warm dry weather the mortar will tend to stiffen owing to the loss of water through evaporation and while limited retempering, by turning the mortar with a shovel, is acceptable within the 2-hour period, any addition of water should be made with considerable caution. If, nevertheless, water has to be added, a watering can fitted with a rose is best for this purpose; a hose pipe should not be used. Better still, the need to add water may be avoided if the boards are kept wet or if the stockpile is shaded and covered with polythene sheeting as only water lost by evaporation and absorption should be replaced. Stiffening caused by hydration must not be overcome by the addition of water.
To achieve the standard of mortar that will comply with special category control used in BS 5628-1, greater care will need to be taken over batching and mixing. Batching in particular is crucial and either very careful volume batching or weigh batching should be employed, not shovel batching. Retarded ready-mixed mortars have obvious advantages in this context.
6.3.2 Protection against rain
Newly erected masonry should be protected to prevent the mortar being washed out of the joints by rain. Walls should be prevented from becoming saturated by covering the top of the wall with tarpaulins or other waterproof sheets - this is particularly important in order to minimise the incidence of efflorescence and lime bloom. With facing work it is advisable, when the working platforms are not in use, to turn the inner board away from the wall to prevent splashing of the wall face.
6.3.3 Protection against frost
Because of the possible damage that may occur to newly constructed masonry in cold weather, no brick or block laying should be carried out when the air temperature is at or below 3C and falling when the mortar is laid or may subsequently fall below fieezing before the mortar has sufficiently hardened (e.g. overnight). An on-site max/ min thermometer is needed to monitor temperature. Where the temperature is at least l0Cand rising, work may be allowed. Where masonry construction is to be carried out in frosty or freezing conditions, particular attention should be paid to the protection of materials and finished masonry since water in the mortar and units may cause considerable damage to the masonry if it is allowed to freeze. During cold weather the mortar will be slow to gain strength and precautions should be maintained until the mortar has gained sufficient strength to resist being damaged by freeze-thaw action. Generally, proper facilities should be made available for preparing the mortar, protecting the materials and protecting the fresh masonry work against frost or fieezing damage. An indication of the precautions to be taken is given below. The mixing plant may need to be protected by being placed under cover. Sand should not be used if frozen.
6.3 Protectionof finished work

In general, care should be taken to anticipate and prevent damage or disfigurement to the finished work due to weather, subsequent building or other operations.
6.3.1 Protection against wind
It may be necessary to provide temporary support to newly constructed walls, particularly gable walls, to prevent damage by wind. Walls should not be built up by more than 1.5m at a time.
23
Mortars for masonry
The water may need to be heated before use. When this is done the mortar should be used immediately after mixing, before it loses its heat. The water temperature should not normally exceed 60C. Stacks of masonry should be protected against frost by covers. The finished work may need to be protected by an insulated and waterproof covering. In some instances, a complete heated enclosure may be required to protect both work and operatives. Ideally, both the mixing plant and materials should be housed within the enclosure.
while the mortar is still fresh it is termed jointing; however, if the mortar is allowed to stiffen and some then removed and replaced with fkesh mortar the process is referred to as pointing. A selection of pointing and jointing profiles is shown in Figures 8 to 15. Jointing is preferable to pointing because it leaves the mortar undisturbed. With this latter method, pigmented coloured mortar can be used to point over a natural coloured joint. A minimum depth of between lOmm and 15mm must be applied. Ideally the pointing mortar should be of similar strength used in the jointing. When pointing is required the main mortar bed should be raked out when thumb print hard by means of one of the variety of raking tools available. The pointing mortar should
6.4 Jointingand pointing

Mortar joints may be finished in a number of ways and to a variety of profiles (see BS 5628-3 Annex C). When the finishing is carried out
I
Figure 8: Jointing andpointing profiLes -flush
I
Figure 12 Jointing andpointingprofiles - arrow head
. -
Figure 9: Jointing andpointingprofiles - bucket handle
Figure 13: Jointing and pointing profiles - inverted arrow head
Figure 10: Jointing andpointingprofiles - racked or recessed
Figure 14: Jointing andpointingprofiles - inverted bucket handle
Figure 11: Jointing and pointing profiles - weather struck
Figure 15: Jointing andpointingprofiles - inverted bucket handle withflush perpends

I
24
Mortars for masonry
then be firmly applied to the joint. Finally, when the pointing mortar is thumb print hard it should be worked to the desired profile. The profile of the joint can have a con-siderable effect on the appearance of the wall, as shown in Figures 8 to 15, where the bricks and mortar colours remain the same and only the joint profile varies. A variety of tools are available depending on the shape of the joint required but the concave or bucket handle joint, as it is commonly called, is the most common for facing work. The horizontal joints are tooled first, then the vertical joints. The profile should not be chosen just for appearance as it can affect the weather resistance considerably. The various joint profiles are obtained by tooling and this process also has the advantage of compacting the mortar to assist in providing weather-tight joints and improving durability. However, joint profiles which allow rain or snow to lodge on the horizontal faces of the bricks will be less resistant to the weather as water penetrating the masonry units causes discoloration, possible freeze-thaw damage and may affect any full-fill insulation. These profiles should therefore be used with caution and con-
fined to lightly loaded interior walls and sheltered external walls. Heavily perforated bricks should not be used with these types of joint profiles. Deeply raked joints (e.g. > 5mm) also reduce the load-bearing capacity of the wall. The following provides a useful guide to the choice of a suitable joint. Struck (or weathered) and bucket handle joints are preferable. Recessed joints should not be used where: bricks are perforated nearer than 15mm to the face bricks are not frost resistant (if clay MN or ML to BS EN 77 1- l), unless the brick manufacturer has agreed in writing for their use in a particular location there is no reasonable shelter fkom driving rain (reasonable shelter could be from buildings or groups of trees if these are within 50m and of similar height to the dwelling) the dwelling is built on steep sloping ground, facing open countryside or within 8km of a coast or large estuary. the cavity is to be fully filled with cavity insulation.
25
Mortars for masonry
7 Mortar testing
I
For aesthetics, handling and durability, mortar needs to be reproducible and consistent in composition and quality.
sampling and testing arrangements should be agreed with the supplier before placing an order.
71 Quality .
BS 5628-1 allows two standards of control of workmanship. When the work is supervised and mortar is subject to quality control at the factory andor on site, special category control of construction can be implemented, enhanced design loads can be allowed andmore economical designs are possible. Special category construction control requires preliminary tests to take place before the commencement of building. These tests should be carried out in the laboratory using materials proposed for the site and six specimens of one of the following dimensions: (a) 75mm cube (b) 100 mm cube (c) 100 x 25 x 25mm prism. The mortar needs to be reproducible and standard test methods for consistency are used in accordance with the relevant part of BS EN 1015. These consistency tests are only for laboratory purposes and may not be of practical site application. No attempt should be made to use them on site for control purposes as consistency can be varied to suit the masonry units and conditions of use. It is essential that site specimens are of the same dimensions as those used in the laboratory and interpretation of results should be based on the average compressive strengths of the various types of mortar (Table 6). Previously when supplying mortar to BS 4721 there was a requirement to sample the product before delivery or within the specified working life, either at the manufacturers works or the users site but increasingly it became common not to sample each delivery and possibly none of a particular batch of deliveries to one site. In contrast the majority of requirements in BS EN 998-2 are based on a system of declared values. If identity testing is required, the precise
7.2 Fresh mortar composition

Several test methods have been developed so as to provide estimates of the composition of fresh mortar and concrete. These have included buoyancy, physical separation, pressure filter etc. Perhaps wet sieving the various particle sizes in the mortar and weighing the dried fractions (Laing method) and separation by elutriation (Rapid Analysis Machine), followed by flocculation to collect the sand silt and cementitious fractions, are the most widely used. The disadvantages in all these methods are: the need for suitable accommodation, equipment and personnel on site the cost of performing the test samples have to be tested while fluid. Some successhl attempts have been made to freeze samples as well as to maintain fluidity by overdosing with a retarder so that samples can be transported off site to a central test facility for processing.
7.2.1 BRE mortar test(5)
A simple and easily performed test (known as the BREMORTEST) has now been developed that provides an estimate of the cement content of fresh mortar and can be carried out on site. The test uses the principle that if a sample of mortar is added to a quantity of acid the temperature rise generated will be proportional to the amount of cement in the mix. The test takes two minutes and requires only 6 grams of sample. Although it is intended for use on fresh mortar, set mortars can also be tested provided the mortar has not started to carbonate. Typically, mortar less than 7 days old can be tested if suitably processed and calibrated.
Table 6: Recommended minimum mortar strengths - BS 5628 Part 1

Mortar designation
(i)
Mean 28 day compressive strength (Nlmm) Preliminary laboratory tests

16.0
Site tests
11.0
Equivalent BS EN 998-2 mortar class

M12
I (iii) I (iv)
26
I
I 3.6 I 1.5
I 2.5 I 1.0
I I
I
Mortars for masonry
The typical temperature rise for a 1 : 4 cement : sand mortar (by volume) is 28C.
Factors affecting the test
7.3.1
Calculation of mortar proportions
Portland, sulfate-resisting, blastfumace slag and white cements produce accurate estimates of cement content once a standard calibration has been carried out. Limes contribute to the temperature rise, but are more variable in their heat evolution, and mortar tests containing lime will produce less accurate estimates of cement content. Admixtures in small quantities will not have a direct affect on the temperature other than that caused by a change in the water content. Limestone sands and shell inclusions will react with the acid to generate a temperature rise but a 10% inclusion of limestone in the sand only raises the temperature by 1 to 2C. Mortar with a high cement content and mortar with limestone sand or hydrated lime additions both generate a degree of effervescence, so the mortar has to be added slowly. There may also be insufficient acid to react with the cement and lime.
The sample of mortar (6 grams) is dispersed in a standard amount of acid solution. After 30 seconds, a stable maximum steady temperature is reached and the difference between the starting temperature of the mortar and the peak temperature is noted. The starting temperature of the mortar and acid should be within 3"C, or a correction factor applied. Sometimes it is more convenient on site to batch mortars by volume. However, it is more accurate to batch by weight and this is borne out by the more consistent results obtained from weigh batching as shown by this test. Table 7 gives the proportions and ranges as defined in British Standards for mortar. It is usual to prepare a calibration graph using the materials on site by plotting the increase in temperature rise against the cement content by weight for the range of mortar designations (i.e. either with or without lime additions). The relationship is generally linear when workability is consistent and the sand well graded. The workability of the calibration mixes should be equivalent to the site-mixed mortar. A separate calibration should be prepared for set mortars and ones with admixtures. The BREMORTEST test method has been packaged into a proprietary test kit with weighing facilities, electronic thermometers and measured quantities of the acid ready for use. It is suitable for fresh Portland cement and Portlandggbs blends. Separate calibrations are needed for set mortars up to 7 days old.
73 Set mortars .
A slightly lower temperature rise is generated by set mortar. Mortars up to 4 days old are likely to generate a temperature rise 1 to 2C lower than if sampled fresh. A preparation procedure is necessary to ensure dispersion in the acidrequiring the sample to be ground into a fine powder and then mixed with water into a stiff paste. Too much water affects the temperature rise requiring calibration and consistency in test procedure.
Table 7 Temperature rise for cement :sand mortars -BREMORTEST(5)

Mortar designation Proportions by volume Percentage weight of cement
Temperature rise ("C) range Target
Max.
Min.
I1:3to4 I1:5to6
I (ivl
(i)
(ii) (iii)
11:7to8 l:Oto0.25:3
1 : 0.5 : 4 to 4.5 1 : 1 : 5 to 6
I 16.0t025.0 I 11.5 to 16.5 I 8.5 to 12.5

-
I33
I40 126
I26
I 23 I 17
40 32 30 25
119
114 33 25 23
19
120
46 39 37
1 I I
(iv)
1 : 2 : 8 to9
31
27
Mortars for masonry
8 Mortar properties
The selection of a mortar for use with a specific walling unit in a particular structure is the responsibility of the designer but advice and information may be obtained from the masonry unit manufacturer and ready-mixed mortar supplier. from groundwater, the ground (including made-up fill), fiom clay masonry units or from flue gases. The severity of attack will depend upon the quantity of water available and the permeability of the masonry. For this reason the provision of an effective damp-proof course (dpc) and the exclusion of water by design and detailing is essential. Where masonry stays wet for long periods sulfation of mortar can occur and where masonry units themselves contain sulfates consideration should be given to the use of strong mixes containing ordinary or sulfate-resisting Portland cements. It is not possible to lay down any hard and fast rules and each case should be dealt with on its merits. However, where any doubt exists, and particularly when dealing with concentrations of ammonia salts and solutions of mineral or organic acids, specialist advice should be sought. The factors affecting the choice of mortars in aggressive conditions are numerous and guidance is given in BS 5628-3. In general, in all but the mildest cases of sulfate concentration, sulfate-resisting Portland cement is recommended. Except for concentrated sulfate reactions where additional protection of the masonry will be needed, designations (i) and (ii) are usually suitable.
BS EN 771-1 classifies clay bricks according to their water-soluble salt content (Table 8) into N (normal) and L (low). Where masonry is subjected to repeat or extensive wetting, the mortar is liable to attack from sulfates released from the clay bricks.
The compressive strength of a mortar will generally increase with increasing cement content and decrease with increasing water content but the absorption properties of the walling unit can have an influence in this context. For instance a unit having high absorption may necessitate the use of a wetter mortar but as the unit absorbs some of the water the mortar will have the strength of a dryer material. The water content of a mortar will need to be adjusted depending on the absorption properties and weight of the walling units. Hence moderately weak and porous materials (e.g. autoclaved aerated concrete blocks) will need a wetter mortar and conversely dense, strong and smooth materials (e.g. engineering bricks) a drier mortar. The adjustments should be made to give a mortar which is dry enough to ensure adequate strength and prevent sinking of the units -yet wet enough to facilitate laying and give a good bond. Mortar must come into and remain in close contact with the walling unit for good adhesion and thus must have good workability. Mortar of low workability will not deform easily to the shape of the unit and thus air will be entrapped preventing good bond formation. Units with rough textures on the bed faces and medium values of absorption rate will have increased bond as there will be good mechanical and suction key. Smooth units with low absorption give poorer adhesion. Care is needed with units having a high absorption as the mortar may stiffen before the upper unit is laid resulting in a poor bond. Wherever possible and always in the case of concrete masonry units the adjustments should be made in the mortar. The addition of lime, water or cellulose ether or similar (e.g. an SBR polymer modifier latex) may be necessary with a unit having a high absorption in order to retain the required workability of the mortar.
In general Class N bricks can be used without any major modification to the mortar, except where the bricks and mortar are saturated for prolonged periods. In such cases, a mortar based on SRPC is recommended, similarly for bricks below a dpc or in highly exposed locations. Sulfate attack can be resisted from Class L clay bricks by the use of the stronger Portland cement mixes. SRPC is not normally used by house builders, but should be used for mortars laid with brickwork facing and close to the sea.
8.1 Durability
8.1.1
Sulfate attack
When masonry remains wet, sulfate attack can take place either as a result of sulfate derived
28
Mortars for masonry
Table 8: Allowable water-soluble salt in bricks, BS EN 771-1

Salt
Mannesium ME Potassium K Sodium Na Sulfate SO,
I class L I 0.03%
0.03%
I Class N I 0.25%
0.25%
0.25%
1.6%
0.03%
0.5%
8.1.2 Freeze-thaw attack
If newly laid mortar becomes frozen before it has set properly it will remain permanently friable and weak, and have a poor bond with the bricks. If this happens the work will have to be taken down and rebuilt. Newly built brickwork can be protected from freezing by covering with a polythene tent arrangement and spacing the polythene away from the face of the brickwork so as to allow drying and prevent disfigurement that can be induced by wrapping in plastic. Layers of insulation may also be needed during the winter, under the polythene.
An alternative is to incorporate a waterretaining admixture into the mortar andor use a mortar type that includes lime. The bond of suspect masonry can be assessed on site using the BRE BRENCH test as covered in BRE Digest 360". Individual masonry units are isolated leaving the bed and perpend joint intact so that the lever can be clamped over the unit and the load cell read as the arrangement is levered down and the element bond broken.
8.3 Efflorescence
Efflorescence is commonly confused withand, in practice, combined with lime bloom. The two are different phenomena. Efflorescence is the powdery deposit, often white, that appears on the face of new brickwork caused by dissolved salts present in most clay bricks that leach out if the bricks become saturated during or after construction. BS EN 771-1 classifies clay bricks as N or L where the level is limited to specific percentages by mass. Wherever possible, the more restrictive L should be chosen. Efflorescence is water soluble, unlike lime bloom. It is this that can be a means of differentiating the two effects as it can be removed by rubbing with a wet thumb. Efflorescence seldom persists unless water is permitted to percolate through the brickwork. The salts responsible for efflorescence depend on the materials used but contamination from other sources should not be overlooked. Some buff or cream bricks can exhibit a form of efflorescence that produces a green or yellow stain over the central portion ofthe face of bricks. These stains are derived from vanadium salts. If masonry exhibiting such efflorescence is washed with an inorganic acid solution, dark-coloured stains are fre-
8.2 Bond
Many factors can affect the bond of mortar to brickwork such as freeze-thaw attack mentioned above. In hot, sunny weather, especially with drying winds, water may evaporate from the mortar before the cement has set and adequate bond has been formed with the bricks. This is more likely to happen with bricks of high water absorbency. Bond is affected by both freeze-thaw and sulfate attack. The former is characterised by a general crumbling of the mortar whereas sulfate attack is denoted by a visible crack running through the centre of the horizontal bed joints. The final stage is a characteristic degradation accompanied by a white and powdery appearance to the mortar. Sometimes a surface which has carbonated may resist the sulfate degradation. This risk can be reduced by adopting a protection arrangement as detailed to prevent freeze-thaw attack, but with damp hessian in place of the waterproof sheeting. The hessian should be resprayed as necessary to keep it damp, but not over-wetted as it may then cause some staining due to excess water dripping on to the masonry.
29
Mortars for masonry
quently produced and hence these forms of efflorescence should be left to weather naturally. Iron staining from inclusions with clay bricks can leave a light to dark brown colour over the surface of the mortar joint. This can be removed with a solution of hydrochloric or oxalic acid.
8.5 Rain penetration

Rain will penetrate the outer leaf of a masonry wall in prolonged periods of driving rain. The following should be taken into account to minimise the risk: Determine the exposure rating for the location and elevation. Use a suitable wall construction and insulation method. Use an appropriate mortar to be compatible with the exposure and masonry. Design suitable detailing to account for the exposure. The following actions can reduce the risk of rain penetration: Provide cladding to the walls in severe locations. Increase the cavity width or the width of full-cavity insulation. Render the wall. Design protective features to keep the wall dry. Ensure that mortar joints are fully filled. Where full-cavity insulation is proposed, recessed joints should not be used. Where cavity insulation is used, only stainless steel or non-ferrous wall ties are acceptable. It should be appreciated that the greatest risk of rain penetration can be attributed to incompletely filled perpend joints. Solidly filled bedding and perpend joints are particularly important in exposed areas and where the cavity is to be filled with insulation. Recessedjoints should not be used where the cavity is to be filled with insulation. In very exposed locations facing masonry with fullcavity insulation is not permitted.
Manganese staining is similar to iron staining and can affect both the brick face and local mortar joints under the affected bricks. It is usually dark brown in colour or even black and treatment is similar to that used to remove iron staining. More specific advice on stain removal can be found in the BDA Maintenance & Repair 4.1, Cleaning of Clay Brickwork(7)and MIA Data Sheet 8@).
8.4 Lime bloom

Mortars can sometimes exhibit lime bloom - a thin surface layer of carbonated material derived from the free lime liberated during the hydration of the cement. This effect may occur when non-pigmented mortar is used but as the layer approximates closely to the joint colour it is not usually considered a problem and is seldom even noticed. When bloom occurs on coloured joints the change in appearance is more noticeable. The removal ofbloom can be effected to some degree by treatment with proprietary materials or diluted hydrochloric acid. Before attempting such remedial work, however, always experiment with a small trial area and consult both the masonry unit supplier and the manufacturer of any ready-mixed mortar used. Great care must be exercised particularly when using acid-based cleaners as they can affect the colours of cementitious products and, of course, they can be dangerous to site personnel unless suitable precautions are taken. The work should be wetted prior to such application in order to assist reaction at the surface rather than within the mortars.
30
Mortars for masonry
9 References
I
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Building Research Establishment, Digest 362, Building Mortar, Watford: CRC, 1991. Hobbs D.W., Adams M.A. and Sehmar M., BCA durability programme on building mortars, Masonry International 1994; Vol. 8, No. 2 , 4 7 4 4 . English Heritage, Directory of Building Limes, Edited by J-M. Teutonico, London: Donhead, 1997. English Heritage, Directory of Building Sands andAggregates, Edited by S . Chapman and J. Fidler, London: Donhead, 2000. Building Research Establishment, Information Paper IP8f89, BREMORTESF A rapid method of testingfresh mortars for cement content, Watford: CRC, 1989. Building Research Establishment, Digest 360, Testing Bond Strength of Masonry, Watford: CRC, 1991. Brick Development Association, Maintenance & Repair 4.1, Cleaning of Clay Brickwork, Windsor: BDA, 2001. Mortar Industry Association, Data Sheet 8, Eflorescence and Bloom on Brickwork, London: MIA, 2002.
31
Mortars for masonry
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Mortars for masonry

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Mortars for masonry

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Report of a Concrete Society Materials Standing Committee

Standards referred to within the text

Mortars for masonry

List of figures and tables

Mortars for masonry

Standards referred to within the text

BS 12 BS 146 BS 1200 BS 3892-1 BS 4027 BS 4721 BS 5224 BS 5628-1

Mortars for masonry

1.1 Purpose and function of mortar

Mortars for masonry

Mortars for masonry

98 to 100 (96 to 100) (92 to 100) 90 to 100 (85 to 100) 70 to 100

98 to 100 (96 to 100) (92 to 100) 90 to 100 {85 to 100) 70 to 100

(31 to 92) (31 to 92) 5 to 70

(35 to 97) (35 to 97) 20 to 90 0 to 25 0 to 8[12]

30 to 70 (MP) 55 to 100 (FP)

0 to 5 (* 5) category 2 0 to 8 ( 5) category 3 i 0 to 30 ( 5) category 4 i (0 to 8 [12])

Mortars for masonry

Protection against skin contact with wet cement is very important.

Mortars for masonry

2.2.6 Portlandslag cement

Table 2: Types of cement for use in masonry mortars

Bulk density approx. (kg/m')

1450 z 8 2 3 2 . 5 42.5 52.5 62.5 1450 class 32,5 1450

BS EN 413-1 type MC 12,5

BS 5224: 1995(") class MC 12,5

1375 (containing calcium carbonate) 1050 (containing hydrated lime) 1400

Portland limestone cement

BS EN 197-1 CEM I1 A/L or A L L class 32.5 42.5 52.5

BS 7583 class 32,5 42,5

BS 6588 class 32,5 42,5

Mortars for masonry

Mortars for masonry

Mortars for masonry

2.5.4 Retarding admixtures

Mortars for masonry

Mortars for masonry

Mortars for masonry

BRE Digest 362 Bui1dingMortafi')describes mortar in terms of performance as follows:

3.2 General use mortar

Table 3: Equivalent mortar mixes

Mortars for masonry

Table 4: Mortars for different applications (BRE Digest 362)(')

Comments Air-entrained Portland cement : lime : sand mixes o n l p )

I High durability I (ii)

3.3 High durability mortar

3.4 Low permeability mortar

Mortars for masonry

3.6 Mortars for load-bearing masonry

3.5 Refurbishment mortar

3.7 Mortars for stone masonry

3.8 Mortars for historic buildings