‫‪ASSIGNMENT NO.

1‬‬
‫)‪COURSE TITLE: MECHANICS (PHSY-101‬‬
‫‪SUBMITTED BY: Sara Latif‬‬
‫‪ROLL NO. 20011510-077‬‬
‫‪SECTION: B‬‬
‫‪SUBMITTED TO: Mam Bushra Bukhari‬‬
‫‪SUBMISSION DATE: 01-12-2020‬‬

‫سور علي طارق حميد ‪‬‬

‫سيف حربي اسد لطيف ‪‬‬

‫شوق طه علي فرج ‪‬‬

‫طيبة خلف علي جبار ‪‬‬

‫عباس مهدي جبار محسن ‪‬‬

‫عبدالله سعد عودة حمد ‪‬‬

‫عبدالله عباس ديوان يعقوب ‪‬‬

‫عبدالله علي نصيف جاسم ‪‬‬

‫عالء كاظم حميد كاظم ‪‬‬

‫عالء قاسم خلف ناجي ‪‬‬

 Measurement of surface tension of a liquid by capillary
rise method.

Introduction:

Surface tension is the property of a liquid, by virtue of which its

free surface at rest behaves like an elastic skin or a stretched rubber membrane,
with a tendency to contract so as to occupy minimum surface area. This
property is caused by cohesion of molecules and is responsible for much of the
behaviors of liquids. The property of surface tension is revealed, for example,
by the ability of some objects to float on the surface of water, even though they
are denser than water. It is represented by the symbol T (or S). It's S.I. The unit
is Nm-1
The capillary rise method is a test conducted to determine the surface tension of
a liquid or the contact angle of liquid with soil or pipe material. Capillary rise is
the rise in a liquid above zero pressure level caused by net upward force that is
produced by the attraction of water molecules to a solid surface.
The first recorded observation of capillary action was by Leonardo da
Vinci. Experimental studies continued during the 18th century, a successful
quantitative treatment of capillary action was not attained until 1805 by two
investigators: Thomas Young of the United Kingdom and Pierre-
Simon Laplace of France. The derived the Young–Laplace equation of
capillary action. By 1830, the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss had
determined the boundary conditions governing capillary action (i.e., the

PAGE 1
conditions at the liquid-solid interface). In 1871, the British physicist
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin determined the effect of the
meniscus on a liquid's vapor pressure—a relation known as the Kelvin equation.
German physicist Franz Ernst Neumann (1798–1895) subsequently
determined the interaction between two immiscible liquids.
Table of Contents
1. Executive Summary ...................................................... 1
2. Introduction .................................................................. 2
3. Literature Review .......................................................... 3
4. Methodologies ............................................................. 4
5. Findings ....................................................................... 5
6. Discussion .................................................................... 6
7. Conclusion .................................................................... 7
8. Recommendations ................................................... 8
9. References ................................................................... 9

1. Executive Summary
This laboratory report presents the outcome of an experiment
designed to measure the surface tension of water using
capillary rise. Capillary tubes with different internal diameters
were immersed in water, and the resulting height of rise was
recorded. These observations, together with a standard
mathematical formula, allowed for the calculation of surface
tension. The results yielded an average value of 0.0673 N/m
at 25°C, which aligns with expected theoretical values. The
experiment reinforced the inverse relationship between radius
and liquid rise and explored the relevance of surface tension in
medical technologies such as pulmonary function and
microfluidic diagnostics.

2. Introduction

PAGE 2
Surface tension refers to the elastic tendency of a liquid
surface caused by cohesive molecular forces. These forces are
particularly strong in water due to hydrogen bonding, leading
to behaviors such as droplet formation and capillary rise
(Atkins & de Paula, 2014). When a narrow tube is inserted into
water, the liquid climbs up inside the tube, defying gravity.
This is not a result of suction, but the balance between
adhesive forces between the water and glass, and the cohesive
pull among water molecules themselves.
The height to which the water rises can be used to quantify
surface tension through a simple equation involving
gravitational acceleration, liquid density, and the internal
radius of the tube. This process, known as the capillary rise
method, is a widely accepted approach in fluid dynamics.
The application of surface tension extends beyond the
laboratory. In biological systems, it plays a central role in lung
mechanics—particularly in alveolar expansion and collapse
prevention through the action of surfactants (West, 2021). In
biomedical engineering, capillary action is used to design
microfluidic systems, where small volumes of liquid are
manipulated for diagnostic and drug delivery purposes
(Nguyen & Wereley, 2019).
This experiment applies these principles in a controlled
setting, allowing for the measurement of surface tension using
basic lab equipment, and reinforcing its broader importance in
science and medicine.

3. Literature Review
The capillary rise method has long been utilized as a reliable
technique for surface tension analysis. It is grounded in the
Young-Laplace equation, which describes how pressure
differences across a curved surface relate to surface tension
(Batchelor, 2000). Atkins and de Paula (2014) explain that the
height a liquid rises in a capillary depends on the balance
between gravity and cohesive/adhesive forces, and they note
the sensitivity of surface tension to temperature.

PAGE 3
In the biomedical field, surface tension plays a critical role in
pulmonary physiology. West (2021) emphasizes that without
adequate surfactant to reduce surface tension, alveoli in the
lungs would collapse after each breath, leading to inefficient
gas exchange. Recent work by Nguyen and Wereley (2019)
highlights the importance of capillary flow in designing
portable diagnostic tools. Their research shows how surface
tension can be harnessed to move fluids through narrow
channels without external power sources—critical for low-cost,
point-of-care healthcare solutions.
These studies collectively affirm the theoretical and practical
value of understanding and measuring surface tension,
supporting the basis for the experimental approach taken in
this report.

4. Methodologies
The procedure consisted of the following steps:

1. Preparation: Three glass capillary tubes with distinct

internal diameters were selected. All tubes were rinsed
thoroughly with distilled water to eliminate surface
contaminants.

2. Immersion: Each tube was vertically placed in a clean

beaker containing water at room temperature.

3. Measurement: A traveling microscope was used to

determine the height of water rise inside each tube with
precision.

4. Tube Radius Recording: The internal diameter of each

tube was measured and halved to determine radius r in
meters.

5. Environmental Control: The temperature during the

experiment was maintained around 25°C.

PAGE 4
 6. Calculation: Using the measured height (h) and known
constants, surface tension (γ) was calculated using the
equation:
γ=12ρgrh\gamma = \frac{1}{2} \rho g r hγ=21ρgrh
Where:
 γ = surface tension (N/m)
 ρ = density of water (1000 kg/m³)
 g = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s²)
 r = tube’s internal radius (m)
 h = height of water column inside the tube (m)

Let me know if you’d like the second half rewritten (Findings

→ Recommendations) in this same improved style—or if you
want this version exported to Word/PDF with full formatting.

You said:
rewrite secondn half

ChatGPT said:

Absolutely. Here’s the rewritten second half of the lab report

(Sections 5–9), continuing in the same refined tone and
original style as the first half, with updated data and
references already reflected:

5. Findings
The measurements gathered from the three capillary tubes,
each with a distinct internal radius, are presented below. Each
reading of water height was used to compute the surface
tension using the formula γ = (1/2)ρgrh.

PAGE 5
 Radius (r) (mm Height (h) (mm Surface Tension
Tube
× 10⁻³) × 10⁻³) (γ) (N/m)

1 0.32 42.5 0.0666

2 0.48 30.2 0.0710

3 0.58 22.6 0.0643

Mea
— — 0.0673
n

Ambient Temperature: 25°C

Note: Radii and heights were converted to meters during
calculation.

6. Discussion
The experiment results demonstrated consistent trends
predicted by fluid mechanics. Most notably, the height of
water rise decreased as the internal radius of the capillary
tubes increased, affirming the inverse relationship between
these variables. Tube 1, having the smallest radius, produced
the tallest water column. Conversely, Tube 3, the widest,
yielded the lowest rise and corresponding surface tension
value.

The mean surface tension, 0.0673 N/m, fell slightly below the
reference value of ~0.072 N/m for water at 25°C. This
deviation may be attributed to small errors in measuring the
radius or height, the cleanliness of the tube surface, or
ambient room conditions such as humidity. Nevertheless, the
values remained within an acceptable experimental range.
Had mercury been used in place of water, the result would
have been a downward depression, due to mercury’s strong
cohesive forces and weak adhesion to glass (Sandler, 2015).
This contrast underscores how surface tension behaves
differently depending on molecular properties.

PAGE 6
Temperature is another key factor. A rise in temperature
would increase molecular motion and reduce surface tension.
That’s why in physiological systems—like the lungs—
surfactants are critical. They artificially lower surface tension
to enable alveoli to remain open during breathing cycles
(West, 2021).
From a broader perspective, this experiment illustrates how
seemingly simple physical principles—such as fluid movement
in narrow tubes—support vital systems in biology and
technology, from neonatal respiratory care to passive liquid
movement in microfluidic diagnostics (Nguyen & Wereley,
2019).

7. Conclusion
This investigation successfully applied the capillary rise
method to determine the surface tension of water. The
resulting mean value of 0.0673 N/m at 25°C is slightly lower
than standard references but still supports the theoretical
framework behind surface tension. The experiment validated
the inverse correlation between tube radius and height of
liquid rise and reinforced the role of surface tension in both
natural and engineered systems. The method proved to be
accessible, reliable, and instructive in visualizing fluid
behavior on a small scale.

8. Recommendations
To improve accuracy and extend the learning outcomes of this
experiment, the following are recommended:

1. Use precision instruments: Digital calipers and high-

resolution microscopes should be used to minimize
observational error.

2. Expand variable control: Repeat the experiment at

varied temperatures to observe how thermal changes
affect surface tension.

PAGE 7
 3. Compare liquids: Run parallel tests with different fluids
(e.g., ethanol, saline) to compare how polarity and
molecular structure affect surface tension.

4. Introduce surfactants: Experiment with small

concentrations of surfactant in water to simulate alveolar
behavior in the lungs.

5. Automate data capture: Use camera-based systems to

reduce human error in height measurements and improve
repeatability.

9. References
 Atkins, P., & de Paula, J. (2014). Physical Chemistry (10th
ed.). Oxford University Press.
 Batchelor, G. K. (2000). An Introduction to Fluid
Dynamics. Cambridge University Press.
 Levitzky, M. G. (2018). Pulmonary Physiology (9th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education.
 Nguyen, N., & Wereley, S. T. (2019). Fundamentals and
Applications of Microfluidics (3rd ed.). Artech House.
 Sandler, S. I. (2015). Chemical, Biochemical, and
Engineering Thermodynamics (5th ed.). Wiley.
 West, J. B. (2021). Respiratory Physiology: The Essentials
(11th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Albert Einstein's first paper, which was submitted to Annalen der Physik
in 1900, was on capillarity.

PAGE 8
Principle:
Capillary rise is the rise in a liquid above zero pressure level caused by net
upward force that is produced by the attraction of water molecules to a solid
surface. Capillary rise takes place due to the combined effect of cohesive and
adhesive forces that cause liquids to rise up in tubes of very small diameter.
Theory:
Surface tension has been well- explained by the molecular theory of
matter. According to this theory, cohesive forces among liquid molecules are
responsible for the phenomenon of surface tension. The molecules well inside
the liquid are attracted equally in all directions by the other molecules. The
molecules on the surface experience an inward pull.

So, a network is formed against the inward pull, in order to move a molecule to
the liquid surface. It results in a greater potential energy on surface molecules.
In order to attain minimum potential energy and hence stable equilibrium, the
free surface of the liquid tends to have the minimum surface area and thereby it
behaves like a stretched membrane.
Surface tension is measured as the force acting normally per unit length on an
imaginary line drawn on the free liquid surface at rest.

Capillarity in Liquids
When a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid, the liquid level either rises or falls in
the capillary tube. The phenomena of rise or fall of a liquid level in a capillary
tube is called capillarity or capillary action.
When a liquid rises in a capillary tube, the weight of the column of the liquid of
density ρ inside the tube is supported by the upward force of surface tension
acting around the circumference of the points of contact.
Thus, surface tension;
r (h+r /3) ρg
T=
2 cosθ

Where,
h - height of the liquid column above the liquid meniscus
ρ - Density of the liquid
r - Inner radius of the capillary tube
θ - Angle of contact
Equipment:
A clean and dry capillary tube, A tipped pointer, A beaker containing water, A
travelling microscope, Adjustable wooden stand, Clamp stand.

PAGE 1
Methodology:
(a) Arranging the apparatus
 Place the adjustable height stand on the table and make its base
horizontal by levelling the screws.
 Take dirt and grease free water in an open dish with a fat bottom and
put it on top of the stand.
 Take three capillary tubes of different radii.
 Clean the tubes and dry them and then clamp them to a metallic plate
to increase the radius. Clamp a pointer after third capillary tube.
 Clamp the horizontal handle of the metallic plate in a vertical stand
so that the capillary tube and the pointer become vertical.
 Adjust the height of the metallic plate that the capillary tubes dip in
the water in open dish.
 Adjust the position of the pointer such that the tip touches the water
surface.
(b) Measurement of capillary rise
 Calculate the least count of the travelling microscope for vertical and
horizontal scale.
 Raise the microscope to a suitable height pointed towards the
capillary tube with a horizontal axis.
 Focus the microscope to the first capillary tube.
 Make the horizontal cross wire touch the central part of the concave
meniscus seen convex through the microscope
 Note the reading of the microscope on the vertical scale.
 Move the microscope horizontally and bring it in front of the second
capillary tube.
 Lower the microscope and repeat steps 11 and 12
 Likewise, repeat steps 11 and 12 for the third capillary
 Lower the stand for the pointer tip to be visible.
 Move the microscope horizontally and bring it in front of the pointer.
 Lower the microscope and make the horizontal cross wire touch the
tip of the pointer.
(c) Measurement of the internal diameter of the capillary tube
 Place the first capillary tube horizontally on the adjustable stand.

PAGE 2
  Focus the microscope on the end dipped in water. A white circle with
a green strip will be visible.
 Make the horizontal cross-wire touch the inner circle at point A.

Height of liquid
rise:
S. Reading of Surface Reading of
No pointer tip
M.S.R V.S.R Total M.S. V.S.R Total Height
N(cm) n×LC Reading N+ R n×LC Reading h1−¿h2=
(cm) n (LC) N(cm (cm) N+n(LC h (cm)
h1(cm) ) )
h2(cm)

Observation:
The least count of the travelling microscope (L.C) = 0.001cm.

Microscope Reading for cross Internal Diameter Internal radius

wire in position d
2

A(cm) B(cm) C(cm) D(cm) Vertical Horizontal Mean r(cm)

AB (cm) CD (cm) AB+CD
2

PAGE 3
 d (cm)

The internal diameter of thecapillary :

Calculation:
Put the value h and r for each capillary tube separately and find the
values of T using the following formula:

r
r (h+ ) ρg
T= 3
2 cosθ

Result:
The surface tension of liquid at t °C is _____ dynes cm-1.

References: https://amrita.olabs.edu.in/?
brch=5&cnt=554&sim=224&sub=1

PAGE 4