Gas Turbines

UNIT 9 GAS TURBINES

Structure
9.1 Introduction
Objectives

9.2 Elements of Simple Gas Turbine Power Plant

9.2.1 Gas Turbine
9.2.2 Compressor
9.2.3 Combustor
9.2.4 Generator
9.2.5 Auxillaries and Controls
9.2.6 Duct System

9.3 Types of Gas Turbine Power Plant

9.4 Open Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant and its Characteristics
9.5 Closed Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant and its Characteristics
9.6 Fuel for Gas Turbine Power Plants
9.7 Performance of Gas Turbine Power Plants
9.8 Summary
9.9 Key Words
9.10 Answers to SAQs

9.1 INTRODUCTION
The gas turbine prime movers was first used in 1919 for large central station service.
Since then several stations have been built with gas turbine to drive electric generators.
This is due to some inherent advantages of the gas turbine, such as, simplicity and
flexibility of design and installation, compactness, low first cost, small building space
requirement, little cooling water requirement, etc. The delivery and installation time for
these plans is much less than for steam plants. These prime movers can be started
quickly and can be put on load within a few minutes. Efficiency can be improved
considerably of employing heat reclaiming devices. However, fuel costs in these plants
are usually higher than those in other plants, though maintenance costs are lower than
these costs for diesel plants. Since the fuel costs are relatively higher and initial cost
lower, these plants are well suited for meeting peak load demands.
Applications of Gas Turbine Power Plants
Gas turbine power plants for the purpose of power plant engineering find the
following applications :
(a) to drive generators and supply peak loads in steam, diesel of hydro
plants,
(b) to work as combination plants with conventional steam boilers, and
(c) to supply mechanical drive for auxillaries.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• the fundamental of gas turbine power plant,
• working principles of different types of gas turbine plants,
• the functions of each component of the gas plant,
• the performance characteristics of the same. 145
Applied Thermal
Engineering 9.2 ELEMENTS OF SIMPLE GAS TURBINE POWER
PLANTS
The simple gas turbine power plant mainly consists of a gas turbine coupled to a rotary
type air compressor and a combustor or combustion chamber which is placed between
the compressor and turbine in the fuel circuit. Auxillaries, such as cooling fan, water
pumps, etc. and the generator itself, are also driven by the turbine. Other auxillaries are
starting device, lubrication system, duct system, etc. A modified plant may have in
addition to the above, an inter-cooler, a regenerator and a reheater. The arrangement of a
simple gas turbine power plant is shown in Figure 9.1.
Nozzle
Combuster

Hot gas

Generator
Coupling
Compressor Turbine Load

Air – inlet Exhaust

Figure 9.1 : Arrangement of a Simple Gas Turbine Plant

9.2.1 Gas Turbine

Construction
The basic construction of a gas turbine employs vanes or blades mounted on a
shaft and enclosed in a casing. The flow of fluid through turbine in most designs
in axial and tangential to the rotor at a nearly constant or increasing radius. There
are two types of blades used in all turbines : those that are fixed on the rotor and
move with the shaft and those that are fixed to the casing and help to guide and
accelerate or decelerate the flow of fluid, being called fixed blades or vanes. A
stage is formed by the combination of a row of fixed and a row of moving blades.
The power of the turbine depends upon the size, shape and the speed of the blades
used.
Multi-staging is employed to increase the power output of the turbine by placing
additional sets of fixed and moving blades in series. The moving blades may be
mounted on one or more wheel or on a drum, and the assembly is called a rotor.
For high speed rotors solid wheels are employed as a hollow construction weakens
the rotor against centrifugal stresses. The rotor may be mounted on a shaft or may
be an integral with it.
To prevent leakage of gas along the shaft gas seals or glands are provided where
the shaft emerges from the turbine casing. The extending lengths of the shaft on
the two sides of the turbine are supported on journal bearings which also maintain
it is proper alignment. Axial loads area taken by additional thrust collars and the
turbine shaft is connected to the load with couplings which may be rigid of
flexible. The advantage of using flexible couplings is that axial movement or
slight misalignments are accommodated within the coupling itself, and are not
transmitted to the driven shaft. The dynamic balancing of the turbine rotor is very
important for its satisfactory performance.
The turbine casing provides the connection between the gas ducts for inlet and
exhaust, and the turbine rotor. It also supports the fixed blades and provides the
146
 enclosure for containing the fluid under pressure during its passage through the Gas Turbines
row of blades. To allow easy access to the rotor, the turbine casings are made in
horizontal split design. It is necessary that the connection of the rotor with the
bearing is rigid enough to maintain correct alignment of the rotor during operation.
The size and shape of the casing necessarily depend upon the size and shape of the
rotor and it is important to maintain radial symmetry of the casing to conform to
the symmetry in the rotor.
The turbine blades are given a rake in the direction of motion with the result that
the centrifugal bending stress is opposed by the gas bending stress. The
construction of the blades for high speed rotors provides the tapered shape with
less metal at the tip where centrifugal force is maximum and more metal at the
base to resist bending and tensile stresses. The shrouding of blades reduces
vibrational effect. The use of heavier sections in rotor wheel reduces axial
vibrations to a great extent. However, the stress that can be allowed to the blades
greatly depend on the gas temperature. The metallurgical considerations prevail in
selection of blades to give light weight and long life. Special cooling arrangements
for the blades may sometimes be used in gas turbines. These include supply of
cooling air near the rim or use to different materials for rim and the hub sections.
The blade speed is selected on the strength consideration of the wheel.
Classification
The gas turbine can be classified into two categories, i.e. impulse gas turbine and
reaction gas turbine.
If the entire pressure drop of the turbine occurs across the fixed blades, the design
is impulse type, while if the drop is taken place in the moving blades, the fixed
blades serving only as deflectors, the design is called reaction type. The advantage
of the impulse design is that there is no pressure force tending to move the wheel
in the axial direction and no special thrust balancing arrangement is required.
There being no tendency for gas to leak over the tips of the moving blades. A
purely reaction turbine is not generally used. In a small multi-stage construction
the velocity change in the moving and fixed blades is about the same, the design
being 50% reaction types. Such a design has fixed and moving blades of the same
shape, but to the opposite hand constituting a symmetrical stage.
Accessories
There are several accessories fitted to the turbine. These are : a tachometer driven
through a gear box, an over speed governor, a lubricating oil pump and a fuel
regulator. The starting gear is mounted on the shaft at one end. The tachometer
shows the speed of the machine and also actuates the fuel regulator in case of
speed rises above or fall below the regulated speed, so that the fuel regulator
admits less fuel or more fuel into the combustor and varies the turbine power
according to demand of load. The governor back off fuel feed, if the exhaust
temperature from turbine exceeds the safe limit, thermal switches at the turbine
exhaust acting on fuel control to maintain present maximum temperature. The
lubricating pump supplies oil to bearing under pressure. Other auxillaries used on
the turbine plant include the starting motor or engine with starting gear, oil
coolers, filters and inlet and exhaust mufflers. The turbine (and with it the
compressors) is driven by the starting motor through a clutch and set-up gearing.
A standby motor driven pump is also provided for emergency service. A failure of
lubricating pump system results in stopping of the unit automatically.
9.2.2 Compressor
A compressor is a device that is used to supply compressed air to the combustion
chamber.
Compressors are broadly classified as positive displacement type and rotodynamic type
and may be of single stage or multi-stage design. 147
Applied Thermal In the positive displacement machine, successive volumes of air are pressurized within a
Engineering closed space. These may be of reciprocating type or rotary type. In reciprocating type
machines, air is compressed by a piston in a cylinder, while in the rotary type, this is
accomplished by positive action of rotating elements. The roto-dynamic compressors
may be of radial flow, axial flow or mixed flow type. In these machines, compression
takes place by dynamic action of rotating vanes or impellers which impart velocity and
pressure to the air as it flows through the compressor.
The reciprocating compressors suffer from a number of disadvantages, such as, inertia of
moving parts, sliding friction of the piston inside the cylinder, limitation in speed, etc.
and are not considered suitable for use in gas turbine plants. However, a version of this
compressor is the free-piston design which eliminates use of crankshaft and connecting
rods and at present being developed for use in these plants.
Roto-dynamic type compressors include the centrifugal, axial and mixed flow
compressors which are all high speed machines running at as high as 3,000 to
4,000 RPM driven by turbines. These are designed to have high value of air discharge
capacity at moderate pressure. These types of compressors are usually employed for gas
turbine applications. These compressors can handle larger volume of air for same size
and weight.
The rotary displacement compressor with lobes and vanes on the rotor is sometimes used
for gas turbine applications, but majority of these plants employ the roto-dynamic
compressors. The industrial applications of roto-dynamic compressors include steel
plants, gas turbine plants, chemical plants, ventilating and air-conditioning, material
conveying, wind tunnels, etc. They may be made in single or multi-stage configuration.
The centrifugal compressor consists of a rotor called impeller, provided with vanes and
moving in a casing or scroll. The inlet section at the hub of the impeller on one side,
called the inducer, is curved to minimize entry losses and is provided with vanes to
direct the air to the eye. Air is given a whirling motion at high velocity by the impeller,
and is thrown out of it by centrifugal force. The static pressure of air increases as it
passes from the eye of the impeller to the tip. A stationary passage surrounding the
impeller diffuse helps to convert most of the velocity head into pressure head as the air
has a high velocity when it leaves the impeller. Further, pressure rise occurs in the volute
of the scroll, so that the static pressure of air as it is released from the scroll is increased
considerably.
The impeller blades are made of two types : the radial and the backward curved blades.
In the former, the blades extend straight radially, while in the latter, these are made at an
angle to the radius and curve away from the direction of rotation. The change in the
blade angle gives varying characteristics to the compressor.
In the centrifugal compressor, the capacity varies directly as the speed ratio, the total
pressure varies as the square of speed ratio, and the power input varies as cube of speed
ratio. Pressure is developed independently of the load, but the volume handled depends
on requirement of load. In a multi-stage centrifugal compressor, two or more impeller
operating in series on a single shaft are provided in a single casing. The effect of
multi-staging is to increase the delivery pressure of air as air compressed in one stage of
machine is fed into the next stage for further compression, and pressure is multiplied in
each stage. The overall efficiency of a multi-stage compression is lower than the
efficiency of individual stage.
The centrifugal compressor is superior to the axial flow machine in that a high pressure
ratio can be obtained in a short rugged single stage machine, though at the cost of lower
efficiency and increased frontal area.
Axial flow compressors are commonly used in gas turbine installations. The rotor of
these compressors resemble those a turbines and consists of blades which are usually
made of air foil section and set in such a way that on rotation air is moved towards
trailing edge of the blades. Here a diffusing section occurs as air centres the next set of
148
moving blades through a row of stationary blades or fixed elements. In each successive Gas Turbines
row of blades compression takes place and air is discharged at the delivery end.
An axial compressor is capable of delivering constant volumes of air over varying
discharge pressures. These machines are well suited for large capacities at moderate
pressures. If the impeller of a centrifugal compressor is designed to give an axial
component of velocity at the exit, the design becomes a mixed flow type.
Compressor used in large gas turbine plants are heavy machines. Good dynamic
balancing of heavy compressor rotors is essential for safety and long life of the plant.
9.2.3 Combustor
A combustor is a device inside which the combustion of fuel takes place. For an efficient
operation of gas turbine plant, it is necessary to ensure good combustor performance. A
good combustor should achieve completeness of fuel combustion and the lowest possible
pressure drop in the gas, besides being compact, reliable and easy to control.
Complete combustion of fuel depends upon three factors, viz. temperature, time and
turbulence. Temperature in the combustor directly affects combustion and high
temperature is conductive to rapid combustion. However, high temperatures cause early
destruction of the combustion chamber. Further, a limit on the temperature is also
imposed by turbine conditions. An excess of air is usually necessary to keep down the
temperature. This lowering down of temperature should not hamper completeness of
combustion. Adequate turbulence is necessary to ensure that the fuel particles come in
contact with air thoroughly. Here, again a compromise is necessary, as large amount of
turbulence results in a pressure drop. Such a pressure drop affects the turbine pressure
ratio and consequently the turbine work.
A typical combustor design as shown in Figure 9.2, employs an outer cylindrical shell
with a conical inner sleeve which is provided with ports of slots along its length. At the
cone apex is fitted a nozzle through which fuel is sprayed in a conical pattern into the
sleeve, with an ignition device or spark plug nearby. A fuel line conveys the fuel to the
nozzle. A few air ports provided close to the location of the nozzle supply the
combustion air directly to the fuel and are fitted with vanes to produce a whirling motion
of oil and thereby to create turbulence. The rest of the air admitted ahead of the
combustion zone serves to cool the combustor and the outlet gases. The combustor is
best located between compressor outlet and the turbine inlet, and generally takes the
shape of a cylinder. Alternatively, the ‘can’ arrangement may be used in which the flow
is divided to pass through a smaller cylindrical chambers. In this latter design the
adjacent chambers may be interconnected through small tubes so that a single igniting
device fitted in one of the chambers serves all the chambers.
Outer shell

Nozzle
Air in

Inner conical
Fuel line
sleeve Igniting
device
Figure 9.2 : Arrangement of a Combustor

The fuel equipment consists of a fuel line and a nozzle which sprays the fuel under
pressure in an atomized conical spray. The fuel is delivered to the nozzle through the
fuel line and flows out through tangential slots in the nozzle, thus being given a whirling
motion in an annular chamber from where it passes out through a small orifice in the
conical pattern of desired angle. To increase the fuel flow rates sometimes a number of
nozzles are arranged in parallel. The pressurization of fuel is done through plunger type
fuel pumps. 149
Applied Thermal 9.2.4 Generator
Engineering
It is a device that generates electricity. It is coupled to the same shaft of turbine and runs
at same speed to that of the turbine. The capacity of generators depends on installed
capacity of the plant. The types of generators to be used depend on the purpose for
which electrical energy is to be produced.

9.2.5 Auxillaries and Controls

The auxillaries and controls in the gas turbine power plant consist of the starting device,
auxilliary lubricating oil pump, fuel control system, oil coolers and filters, mufflers for
inlet and exhaust, air and gas ducts and plant control panel. Besides, there are automatic
devices for alarm and shut down.
The starting device may consists of an electric motor or of internal combustion engine,
and the step-up gear. Mention of these and other auxiliaries has already been made under
the heading of turbine. A reference may be made to the automatic safety devices and the
ducting employed in the plant. These automatic devices work during starting and normal
operation of the plant. In case of any failure of the fuel supply or fire in the combustor or
failure of the lubricating oil pressure, the safety alarm rings automatically and the unit
shut down. Similarly, if the exhaust temperature increases beyond a prescribed limit or
the main and thrust bearings become very hot, the safety alarm rings and the unit closes
down after a short interval, if the turbine is not removed within this interval. An excess
of vibrations in the plant also actuates the automatic alarm and shuts down the plants.

9.2.6 Duct System

The plant duct system includes the main connection between the compressor and
combustor, and between the combustor and the turbine in the simple gas cycle plant, and
in addition of other such connection when additional heat exchangers are used to modify
the simple cycle. The air from atmosphere, in an open cycle, enters the compressor
through an air filter and ducting. It is necessary to provide clean air to the compressor to
avoid early blade wear and the duct should be adequately sized to reduce pressure drop
to a minimum since any loss of pressure reduces the efficiency and capacity of the
compressor. The filters may be oil bath type of dry type. The duct connections should be
short and free from sharp bends, and should use turning vanes where change in direction
of flow occurs, so that the friction drops are minimum. The flow of air into compressor
may produce noise which should be minimized by use of acoustical insulation. Similarly,
the turbine exhaust duct should be designed to give the least possible pressure drop as
otherwise the turbine performance would suffer. The design of stack should also be
based on similar considerations.
Another important point regarding ducts is to support them when suitable dampers so
that vibrations are reduced to a minimum. The exhaust duct and connections between
combustor and turbine, in particular, should be capable of standing high temperatures.

9.3 TYPES OF GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS

The gas turbine power plants can be classified mainly into two categories. These are :
open cycle gas turbine power plant and closed cycle gas turbine power plant.
Open Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant
In this type of plant the atmospheric air is charged into the combustor through a
compressor and the exhaust of the turbine also discharge to the atmosphere.
Closed Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant
In this type of power plant, the mass of air is constant or another suitable gas used
as working medium, circulates through the cycle over and over again.
150
 Gas Turbines
9.4 OPEN CYCLE GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
The schematic arrangement of a simple open cycle gas turbine power plant and its
representation on p-v plane is shown in Figure 9.3.
Fuel
Combustor

3 4

4 3

Pressure
Generator

1
2
Turbine Pressure 2
1
Volume
Exhaust
Air

Figure 9.3 : Simple Open Gas Turbine Cycle

In the process shown the cycles are :

2-3 : Isentropic compression
3-4 : Heat addition at constant pressure
4-1 : Isentropic expansion
1-2 : Heat rejection at constant pressure

The ideal thermal efficiency for the cycle, ηt, is given by,

Heat supplied - Heat rejected

ηt =
Heat supplied

1
=1− k −1
. . . (9.1)
r
V2
where, r is the compression ratio = and k is the ratio of specific heat of the gas.
V3

In actual operation the processes along 2-3 and 4-1 are never isentropic and the degree or
irreversibility of these processes and the mechanical efficiencies of the machine
components greatly reduce the ideal value of thermal efficiencies of the cycle.
If the air entering the combustor is preheated by the heat of exhaust gases escaping from
the turbine, some heat can be recovered resulting into an increase in the efficiency of the
cycle improved. Such heating of combustion air is known as regeneration and the heat
exchanger transferring heat from gas to air is called regenerator.
Since most of the output of turbine is consumed by the compressor, the actual efficiency
of the cycle greatly depends upon an efficient working of the compressor. To attain
higher compression ratios, it is necessary to use multi-stage compression with
inter-cooling.
In actual practice, all these modifications, viz. regeneration, reheating and inter-cooling
are combined in a simple modified cycle and a substantial gain in the overall plant
efficiency is attained.
151
Applied Thermal
Engineering 9.5 CLOSED CYCLE GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
In the closed cycle, quantity of air is constant, or another suitable gas used as working
medium, circulates through the cycle over and over again. Combustion products do not
come in contact with the working fluid and, thus, remain closed.
A development in the basic gas turbine cycle is the use of the closed cycle which permits
a great deal of flexibility in the use of fuels. Moreover, working medium of the plant
could by any suitable substance other than air which would give higher efficiency. An
arrangement of closed gas turbine cycle is shown in Figure 9.4. In this cycle, working
fluid is compressed through the requisite pressure ratio in the compressor, and fed into
the heater, where it is heater up to the temperature of turbine itself. The fluid is then
expanded in the turbine and the exhaust is cooled to the original temperature in the
pre-cooler. It then re-enter the compressor to begin the next cycle. Thus, the same
working fluid circulates through the working parts of the system. The heater burns any
suitable fuel and provides the heat for heating the working fluid. In fact, this combustor
is akin to an ordinary boiler furnace, working at the atmosphere pressure and discharging
the gaseous products to the atmosphere. There is, thus, a great deal of flexibility in
respect of furnace design and use of fuel, allowing low cost fuel to be used.
Exhaust (Gases of Combustion)

Slack

Air-heater

Combustor
Compressor
Generator Fuel Line
(Load)

Turbine

Pre-cooler
Cooling Medium

Figure 9.4 : Arrangement of Closed Cycle Gas Turbine Plant

Another advantages in use of closed cycle is the choice of selecting a convenient

pressure range, once the pressure ratio has been selected. The volume of the air or the
working fluid in the cycle depends upon the pressure range which, in turn, affects the
sizes of the air heater, compressor, turbine, etc. In a closed cycle, there is no restriction
to keep the pressure low and this could be kept at any suitable value say 7.03 kg/cm2
(68.9 N/cm2) abs. For the same pressure ratio of 8, the discharge pressure would be
56.24 kg/cm2 abs. These pressures would give much reduced volumes of working fluid
through the plant as compared to open cycle volumes, and so there could be economy in
plant size. Moreover, use of higher pressure in the heat exchanger results in better heat
transfer.
The pre-cooler in a closed cycle plant is an important equipment and corresponds to the
condenser of a steam plant. However, unlike the condenser, cooling water in the
152
pre-cooler could be heated to a fairly high temperature depending upon temperature of Gas Turbines
exit gas from the turbine, and then used elsewhere in the plant. The design of pre-cooler
is commonly of the shell and tube type, and water is the coolant commonly used.
The air heater of the closed cycle corresponds to the water heaters of the steam plant, but
with one important difference that it has very small heat storage capacity.

9.6 FUEL FOR GAS TURBNE POWER PLANTS

Natural gas is the ideal fuel for gas turbines, but this is not available everywhere. Blast
furnace and producer gas may also be used for these plants. However, liquid fuels of
petroleum origin, such as, distillate oils or residual oils are most commonly used for gas
turbine power plants. The essential qualities of these fuels include proper volatility,
viscosity and calorific value. At the same time, the fuel should be free from any content
of moisture and suspended impurities that may clog the small passages of the nozzles
and damage valves and plungers of the fuel pump.
However, liquid fuels of petroleum origin, such distillate oils or residual oils are most
commonly used for gas turbine plants.
Residual oils burns with less ease than distillate oils and the heaters are often used to
start the unit from cold, after which the residual oils are red into the combustor.
Pre-heating of residual oils may be necessary in cold climates.
Use of solid fuel, such as coal in pulverized form in gas turbines presents several
difficulties, most of which have been only partially overcome. Some practical
applications of solid fuel burning in turbine combustors have been made commercially
available in recent years. In one of such design finely crushed coal is used instead of
pulverized while the gas is released centrally at the opposite end. In another design, a
regenerator is used to transfer the heat to air, the combustion chamber being located on
the outlet of the turbine, and the combustion is carried out in the turbine exhaust stream.
The advantage is that the turbine handles only clean air.

9.7 PERFORMANCE OF GAS TURBINE POWER

PLANTS
The ideal gas turbine cycles using isentropic compression and isentropic expansion has
been described in Section 9.4. Such a cycle (called constant pressure cycle or Brayton or
Joule cycle) is never possible in practice due to irreversibilities introduced on account of
leakages, turbulence, and internal friction. The actual processes of compression and
expansion are not isentropic, and temperature of air (or gas) at the end of compression
and at the end of expansion are higher than those in the case of an ideal cycle. The
representation of pressure volume and temperature entropy planes is shown in
Figure 9.5.
Isentropic path

2’ 2 3 3
P2
Temperature

2’ 2
Pressure

P1
4
4’

1 4’ 4

Volume Entropy

Figure 9.5 : Ideal and Actual Gas Turbine Cycle on P-V and T-S Planes
153
Applied Thermal The actual cycle is represented by points 1-2-3-4 and the ideal cycle by points 1-2′-3-4′.
Engineering
The efficiency of the compressor, ηc, is given by the expression
T2′ − T1
ηc = . . . (9.2)
T2 − T1

where T1, T2, and T2′ indicates gas absolute temperature at the state points 1, 2, and 2′
respectively.
Also, efficiency of the turbine, ηc, is given by the expression
T3 − T4
ηt = . . . (9.3)
T3 − T4′

where, T3, T4 and T4′ are gas absolute temperatures at the state points 3, 4 and 4′
respectively.
The net work output, Wn, may then by written as
Wn = Turbine Output – Compressor Work
= WT – WC . . . (9.4)
The compressor work, WC, may be expressed as
WC = m& a C pa (T2 − T1 ) . . . (9.5)

where, m& a = Mass of air flowing per second, and

C pa = Specific heat of air at constant pressure.

The turbine output, WT, may be expressed as

WT = m& t C pt (T3 − T4 ) . . . (9.6)

where, m& t = Mass of the combustion products through the turbine per second, and

C pt = Specific heat of combustion products at constant pressure.

Using Eqs. (9.5) and (9.6), Eq. (9.4) becomes

Wn = m& t C pt (T3 − T4 ) − m& a C pa (T2 − T1 ) . . . (9.7)

The mass of the air is usually large as compared to the mass of the fuel. If we can assume
m& t = m& a = m& and C pt = C pa = C p

Eq. (9.7) then becomes

Wn = m& C p [(T3 − T4 ) − (T2 − T1 )] . . . (9.8)

where, Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure.

Combining the Eqs. (9.2) (9.3) and (9.8), we get
m& a C p
Wn = m& C p ηt (T3 − T4 ) − (T2′ − T1 ) . . . (9.9)
ηc

 
 1  Cp  γ −1 
or, Wn = m& C p ηt T3 1 −  − T1
 ( r ) γ
− 1 . . . (9.10)

γ −1
 ηc  
(r ) γ   

where, r is called the compression ratio and γ is the ratio of specific heat at constant
154 pressure and constant volume.
 Cp Gas Turbines
i.e. γ=
Cv
In arriving at Eq. (9.10), the following relations have been used :
Ya − 1
P  Ya
T2′ = T1  2 
 P1 
Yt − 1
P  Yt
and, T4′ = T3  4 
 P3 
where, Ya is called the adiabatic index for air, and Yt the adiabatic index for the
combustion products through the turbine.
Eq. (9.10) can be differentiated w.r.t. compression ratio ‘r’ keeping T3 and T1 as
constants and equated to zero to find the value of r for maximum net work.
With ηt = ηc = 100% , the following relationship is obtained for ideal conditions :
Y
 T  2 (Y − 1)
r = 3 . . . (9.11)
 T1 
Y
 T Y −1
Since, r = 2
 T1 
Y
 T Y − 1
= 3 . . . (9.12)
 T4 
T3 T2 T3
= × , T2 = T4
T1 T1 T4
This shows that for maximum net work from the plant, theoretically, the temperature of
gas at the end of compression is same as the temperature at the end of expansion. The
optimum compression ratio for maximum thermal efficiency can be obtained from the
relation (under ideal condition, i.e. ηt = ηc = 100% ) as
Y
Y −1 T3
r = . . . (9.13)
T1
Heat supplied to the plant
= C p (T3 − T2 ) . . . (9.14(a))

= m& C p (T3 − T2′ . . . (9.14(b))

Thermal efficiency, ηth,

Net work
ηth = . . . (9.15)
Heat supplied

 
  y −1 
1  C p T1  y 
C p ηt T3 1 − y −1 
− ( r ) − 1
  ηc  
 (r ) y   
= . . . (9.16)
 y −1
 T3
C p T1 − (r ) y 
 T1 
  155
Applied Thermal SAQ 1
Engineering
(a) What are the application of gas turbine plants?
(b) What are the major elements of the gas turbine power plants?
(c) What is the function of gas turbine?
(d) Classify the gas turbines and mention the principles on which they work.
(e) Briefly explain the working principles of various types of compressors.

SAQ 2
(a) What are the factors on which the complete combustion of fuel in
combustor depend?
(b) What are the advantages of closed cycle gas turbine power plant over open
cycle gas power plant?
(c) What are the fuels that can be used in gas turbine power plant?
(d) What do you mean by compression ratio?
(e) What are the factors on which the performance of a gas turbine power plant
depend?

9.8 SUMMARY
In a gas turbine power plant, a turbine, which is used as a prime mover, converts the
kinetic energy of the gases into mechanical energy to drive an electric generator (load)
that generates electrical power.
The major components of a gas turbine power plant are – compressor, gas turbine,
combustor and generator. The function of the compressor is to supply compressed air to
the combustor, the function of the combustor is to burn the fuel and thus converts its
chemical energy into heat energy.
The function of the gas turbine is to drive the electric generator which generates
electricity. Gas turbine power plants can be classified mainly into the following two
categories : open cycle and closed cycle gas turbine power plants.
If the atmospheric air is charged into a combustor through a compressor and the exhaust
of the turbine also is discharged to the atmosphere, the cycle is open. If the mass of gas
circulates through the compressor, turbine and heat exchanger, it is called a closed cycle.
The thermal efficiency of gas turbine power plant depends upon compression ratio,
efficiency of compressor, turbine inlet temperature and compressor inlet temperature.
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9.9 KEY WORDS
Gas Turbine : A device that converts kinetic energy of gases into
mechanical energy.
Compressor : A device that is used to supply compressed air.
Combustor : A device inside which combustion of fuel takes
place.
Compression Ratio : Ratio of the volumes of the gas before and after
entering the compressor.
Pressure Volume Diagram : Representation of pressure and volume of the
gases at different stages on p-v plane.
Re-cooler or Pre-cooler : It is used to cool the exhaust of the turbine to the
original temperature.
Re-heater or Pre-heater : It is used to pre-heat the compressed air before
using the combustor.
Open Cycle Gas Turbine Plant : Atmospheric air enters the combustor through
compressor and exhaust of turbine discharges to
the atmosphere.
Closed Cycle Gas Turbine Plant : Mass of air or suitable gas circulates through cycle
over and over again.

9.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a) (i) To drive generatos and supply peak loads in steam, diesel or hydro
plants,
(ii) To work as combination plants with conventional steam boilers, and
(iii) To supply mechanical drives for auxillaries.
(b) The major elements of the gas turbine power plants are gas turbine,
compressor, combustor and generator.
(c) The function of gas turbine is to convert the kinetic energy of gases into
mechanical energy to drive loads.
(d) Gas turbine can be classified mainly into two categories, i.e. Impulse gas
turbine and Reaction gas turbine.
(e) The various types of compressors are :
Reciprocating Compressor
Air is compressed in a cylinder by a piston.
Rotary Compressor
Air is compressed in a chamber by the positive action of rotary
elements.
Centrifugal Compressor
Air is compressed by an impeller by whirling motion at high velocity
in a casing or scroll.
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Applied Thermal Axial Flow Compressor
Engineering
Air is compressed in the rows of moving blades and stationary blades
of a turbine like chamber.
SAQ 2
(a) (i) Time
(ii) Temperature, and
(iii) Turbulence.
(b) (i) The working medium can be cooled to any convenient temperature in
the pre-cooler and high density resulting from this pre-cooling
enables use of smaller machines.
(ii) Since clean fluid circulates in the cycle, much of the damage to the
turbine blades caused by passage of combustion gases is prevented.
(iii) Since clean fluid circulates in the cycle, much of the damage to the
turbine blades caused by passage combustion gases is prevented.
(iv) It is possible to use gases other than air, with better thermodynamic
properties.
(c) (i) Natural gas,
(ii) Blast furnace gas,
(iii) Product gas,
(iv) Distillate oils, and
(v) Residual oils.
(d) Compression ratio is the ratio of the volumes of working fluid before and
after entering the compressor.
(e) (i) Efficiency of the compressor,
(ii) Efficiency of the compression,
(iii) Compression ratio,
(iv) Turbine inlet temperature, and
(v) Compressor inlet temperature.

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FURTHER READING
David A. Mooney (1953), Mechanical Engineering Thermodynamics, Inc., Chapter 21,
Prentice-Hall.
J. B. Jones and G. A. Hawkins (1986), Engineering Thermodynamics, Second Edition,
Inc., Chapter 15, John Wiley and Sons.
Kenneth Wark, Jr. (1989), Thermodynamics, 5th Edition, Chatper 16, McGraw Hill Book
Company.
M. Verma (1976), Power Plant Engineering, Metropolitan Book Company, Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi.
F. T. Morse (1978), Power Plant Engineering, McGraw Hill Book Co., New Delhi.
Salisbury (1978), Steam Turbine and their Cycles, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York.
Bartlett (1976), Steam Turbine Performance and Economics, McGraw Hill Book Co.,
New York.
A. Croft (1976), Power Plant Auxillaries and Accessories, McGraw Hill Book Co.,
New York.
J. P. Hamilton (1982), Heat Transfer, Tata McGraw Hill Co. Ltd., New Delhi. Indian
Standard Institution.
J. P. Holman (1978), Engineering Thermodynamics, Tata McGraw Hill Co. New York.
A. Dusinberre (1982), Gas Turbine Power, International Text Book Co., Penn, USA.
P. K. Nag (1999), Power Plant Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill.
G. R. Nagpal (2000), Power Plant Engineering, Khanna Publishers.
D. Ravi (2000), An Introduction to Power Plant Technology, Khanna Publishers.
R. K. Rajput (2005), Internal Combustion Engines, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.

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Applied Thermal
Engineering

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APPLIED THERMAL ENGINEERING
This course Applied Thermal Engineering comprises of nine units.
Unit 1 Air Cycle deals with Carnot cycle, Otto cycle, Diesel cycle and Duel combustion
cycle.
A device which derives heat energy from the combustion of fuels and converts a part of
this energy into mechanical work is called a heat engine. An IC engine is a reciprocating
heat engine in which fuel is mixed with correct amount of air and is burnt inside a
cylinder. The gaseous products of combustion form the working substance, which moves
the piston and produces mechanical work at the engine crankshaft. You will be
introduced IC Engines in Unit 2.
Unit 3 deals with Fuels and Combustion. This unit describe the properties of the fuels
and the requirements for complete combustion of fuel.
Unit 4 elaborates Ignition System of IC Engines. The ignition system produces a spark
(electrical discharge) at the end of the compression stroke. You will be introduced to the
methods of spark ignition in this unit.
Unit 5 explains the importance of the cooling system and describes the cooling systems
of IC engines.
The necessity of lubrication of IC engine and different methods of lubricating the IC
engines are discussed in detail in Unit 6.
Unit 7 deals with IC Engine Testing. The efficiency of various types of internal
combustion engines vary. At present, the mechanical efficiency of advanced IC engines
is about 30% and most of the heat energy produced from the combustion of fuel is lost in
engine cooling, exhaust gases and frictional losses. This unit provides the details of
engine lasting and determination of various parameters such as IHP, BHP, FHP and SFC,
etc.
Unit 8 describes the Air Compressors. In this unit, you will be introduced to the concepts
of reciprocating air compressor and their working.
In Unit 9 you will be introduced to the Gas Turbine. In this unit, working principles of
constant volume and constant pressure type gas turbine have been discussed.

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