Bibliography:

L. Tetley & D. Calcutt – Electronic Navigation Systems

Norvald Kjerstad – Electronic and Acoustic Navigationsystems for Maritime Studies

Maciej Gucma, Jakub Montewka, Antoni Zieziula – Urządzenia nawigacji technicznej

Krajczyński Edward – Urządzenia elektronawigacyjne
Krajczyński Edward – Urządzenia nawigacji technicznej
Fransiszek Wróbel – Vademecum nawigatora
…
Introduction

Autopilot – device used for automatic steering of the vessel

Autopilot should be capable of:

• Keeping the desired heading/course/trajectory with little
deviation and with minimum use of the rudder
• Performing turns fast but without oversteering
Autopilot properties:

• Significant ship’s inertia, depending on the loading condition,

ship’s speed, draft, etc.
• Particularly slow rudder speed, complex dependence of the
rudder force and rudder angle, asymmetrical speed of rudder
movement during increasing and decreasing of ruder angle
• A variety of external impacts (environmental disturbances)
related to the influence of currents, waves, wind, etc.
• Complex operating conditions of automatic steering systems,
which should ensure efficient, trouble-free operation in a
variety of environmental conditions.
Benefits of using autopilots:
• Increase in average speed of the ship
• Savings in ship operation costs
• Reduced voyage time
• Reduced fuel consumption

Automatic steering allows - in comparison to manual steering - to

reduce the number and size of ruder angle changes. This results
in an increase of average speed of the ship, thus savings on its
operation.

Nowadays sea-going vessels are manually steered in principle

only during manoeuvrings in ports, canals and straits, and during
extremely heavy, stormy weather.
Manoeuvrability of the ship

A ship is said to be directionally stable if a deviation from a set

course increases only while an external force or moment is acting
to cause the deviation.

On the other hand, ship is said to be directionally unstable if a

course deviation begins or continues to increase even in the
absence of an external cause.

A directionally unstable ship is easy to manoeuvre, while a stable

ship requires less energy expenditure by its steering gear in
maintaining a set course. A compromise between extremes is
therefore desirable.
Manoeuvrability of the ship

Manoeuvring characteristics such as turning, yaw-checking,

course-keeping and stopping abilities of the ship can be predicted
at the design stage by scale model tests and/or computer
predictions using mathematical models. Full-scale manoeuvring
tests should be conducted to validate these results.

Manoeuvers required by IMO standards include turning circle,

zig-zag and full astern stopping tests. When trials are conducted
in condition other than full load, manoeuvring characteristics
should be predicted for trial and full load conditions using a
reliable method (i.e. model tests or reliable computer
simulation) that ensures satisfactory extrapolation of trial
results to the full load condition.
Causes of the ship's deviation from the course :

Continuous disturbances
• Static wind force
• List
• Influence of screw propeller

Dynamic disturbances
• Rudder angle
• Waves
Wind:
Waves:

The dynamic impact of the waves on the ship cause immediate

deviation of the ship heading in both directions, commonly called
yaw. At different angles of the hull of the ship in relation to the
wave direction, the amplitude and frequency of yawing are
different.
Heading based steering
Heading based steering
HDG vs. COG
Construction:

In its simplest form an autopilot compares the course-to-steer

data, as set by the helmsman, with the vessel’s actual heading
data derived from a gyro or magnetic repeating compass, and
applies ruder correction to compensate for any error detected
between the two input signals. Since the vessel’s steering
characteristics will vary under a variety of conditions, additional
facilities must be provided to alter the action of the autopilot
parameters in a similar way that a helmsman would alter his
actions under the same prevailing conditions.
Construction:

HDG =  = HDGA - HDGD

HDGA – actual heading

HDGD – desired heading
α – rudder angle
 Operation:

1. As a result of disturbance or hydrodynamic asymmetry deviation

from desired heading -  occurs.
2. Deviation is calculated in the summing point
3. Controller calculates the steering signal (desired rudder angle)
4. Steering gear changes the rudder angle
5. Vessel changes the heading
PID controller:

The acronym PID stands for Proportional, Integral and

Derivative, which are three different methods of control that
work together in a controller to regulate the rudder
movement in the most efficient way.

𝑡
𝑑𝜃
𝛼 = − 𝐴𝜃 + 𝐵 න 𝜃𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
0
P regulation (Proportional addend):

𝑡
𝑑𝜃
𝛼 = − 𝐴𝜃 + 𝐵 න 𝜃𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
0

This part of the regulator gives a steering signal (to the

rudder) that increases proportionally with the regulation
deviation. In other words it means that the regulator will
increase the rudder angle gradually as the deviation from
the desired heading increases.
P regulation (Proportional addend):

Graphically this can be shown as:

The rise in the curve characterises the amplification or

proportionality constant (A) in the regulator, and this can be
varied using variable resistance in the amplification circuit. On
the autopilot this will normally be called rudder.
P regulation (Proportional addend):

Small proportionality constant (A) will

lead to relatively little rudder
movement and therefore long time to
desired heading achievement.

Big proportionality constant (A) will

give a large rudder movement, which in
turn can lead to overswing of the
desired value after relatively short
time. This in its turn will lead to that
the regulator must give the steering
signal the opposite way.
P regulation (Proportional addend):

To reduce the number of rudder angle

changes caused by little heading
changes due to yawing - a range of
deviations for which the rudder will
not be moved can be adjusted,
normally this parameter is called yaw

The P controller alone will not be

sufficient for the autopilot to keep in
the desired course, since it will not be
able to have both good setting abilities
and dynamics. Therefore it sets with a
constant deviation from the desired
value.
I regulation (Integral addend):

𝑡
𝑑𝜃
𝛼 = − 𝐴𝜃 + 𝐵 න 𝜃𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
0

In this part of the regulator the output signal will be like the
integral of the deviation (total of the deviation over time).
The output signal in this controller can be described by the
area under the deviation curve in time function. The output
signal will change regularly as long as there is deviation.
Neither will a single I controller be able to work in autopilot
alone, but will contribute to that the rudder is given
increased movement as long as ship deviates continuously
from the course.
D regulation (Derivation addend):

𝑡
𝑑𝜃
𝛼 = − 𝐴𝜃 + 𝐵 න 𝜃𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
0

The output signal from the D controller will be given by the

derivation of the input signal (the deviation). The function of
this controller is such that the output signal id different from
zero when the input signal changes, hat is to say when the
derivate of the input signal is different from zero. In practice
this means that if the heading is changed, the D controller
will quickly make a rudder movement against the deviation
from the course. The quicker the deviation change, the
greater the output signal.
PID control:
The problems that are encountered when a vessel shall be
kept on a course by automation are of such composite
character that one must use the characteristics of all the
three types of controller. By using PID controller the required
characteristics can be achieved and a system will quickly
achieves a stable desired value (heading).

The conventional electronic PID controllers are now often

replaced by databased systems. These will be based on
digital data processing based on sampling of the input signal.
By using digital signal processing it will be possible to build in
more advanced functions and filtering. The control function
itself will not be different.
Adaptive autopilots / track steering:
In order to achieve optimum performance of the autopilot,
on more advanced designs there can be different
compensation for the ship’s movement characteristics. As an
example, the autopilot can receive information regarding
speed, and therefore adjust the settings according to varying
speed and steering characteristics. Such systems that adapt
to the steering characteristics are called adaptive autopilots.

If position data is supplied from a positioning system (GPS)

the autopilot can also be programmed to steer according to
a programmed route (track). Such function is usually called
track steering.
Autopilot settings:
Rudder – this control acts in the controller P part and
regulates how large a rudder angle the controller shall give a
signal for. At max. setting the rudder angle will be large in
relation to the deviation that is registered. The control can
advantageously be adjusted up at slow speeds, for example.
If the control is set too high, the ship will „overreact”, and
possibly swing hard in relation to the desired course. If the
control is set too low, it will take time to get on to the
desired course. In some cases, a low setting could also result
in that the ship cannot keep the constant rate of turn (ROT)
that is set in the system. At installation of the system there
can be a need to set a separate „trim rudder” control to
adapt the rudder control to the relevant ship
Autopilot settings:
Yawing / Weather – this control acts in both the P part and
the D part of the controller. In the P part it will work as if a
„dead band”, or a margin around the desired heading, is
entered, where the controller will not respond. In other
words, we allow the ship to yaw without the rudder
engaging. In this way use of, and wear on the rudder are
minimised in heavy seas. A low setting on the control will
mean least tolerance and a lot of rudder use. A high setting
will be relevant in heavy seas when we wish to reduce use of
the rudder. On some modern autopilots the system can learn
the movement and optimise controls based on that. On such
systems we can often find the control „steering strategy”,
where we can choose between „confined waters” and „open
sea”. At the installation of the system we my also have a
need to set a separate „trim/yaw” control.
Autopilot settings:
Counter rudder – this control acts in the D controller and
decides the amplitude of the steering signal. It also decides
how much the rudder shall turn momentarily in order to
counteract quick heading deviations. At low settings the ship
will have a tendency to turn away too much in relation to the
desired heading, and there could be a relatively large turn
away when the ship shall change course. Since larger ships
normally require more counter rudder, the setting must be
adjusted to the ship’s manoeuvring characteristics. On some
systems this time constant is set the first time the autopilot
is taken into use. The choice of time constant is made based
on the diagram that will accompany the steering system.
Instead of entering a fixed time constant, such diagrams can
also be entered into the system. In such cases it will be usual
that we enter the ship’s length, rudder factor or size.
Autopilot settings:
Rudder limit – on all autopilots there is a control where
maximum rudder angle is set. For the sake of safety this can
be set low i.e. 10 deg., in order to avoid unnecessarily tight
turns.

Off-course alarm – all autopilots will give an alarm when the

deviation from the desired heading exceeds a given limit.
This limit will be able to be set by going into a menu an the
autopilot. The alarm function will be disconnected during
changes of course and for a short period afterwards.
Autopilot settings:
Rate Of Turn (ROT) – when planning a voyage it can often be
advantageous to use the ROT technique in order to follow a
certain turn radius. On passenger ships, for example, it can
also be desirable to turn relatively slowly in order to prevent
discomfort for the passengers. Therefore, all modern
autopilots have a function where ROT can be decided. So
that this function can work the system must be connected to
a log, or the speed at the moment must be entered
manually. There can be two modes of entering in a rate of
turn:
• Constant radius
• Constant ROT